Nigeria Chapter 12. 12| 2 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. SECTION 1 THE MAKING...

NigeriaNigeria

Chapter 12

12| 2Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

SECTION 1SECTION 1

THE MAKING OF THE MODERN NIGERIAN THE MAKING OF THE MODERN NIGERIAN STATESTATE



Politics in ActionPolitics in Action• Government in Crisis November 2009: President Umaru Musa Yar’Adua collapsed for third time

since coming to office in 2008 from mystery ailment. No direct evidence of president for three months At first, all attempts to declare Acting President in his absence were

blocked.o Under international pressure and threat of military coup, National

Assembly declared Vice President Goodluck Jonathan as Acting President.

o May 2010, Yar’Adua passed away.

• Important signs of democracy – Opposition insisted on constitutional means to resolve crisis.– Politicians clearly sensed that they could not neglect public

opinion forever.



Politics in Action (ContPolitics in Action (Cont’’d)d)– Challenge to manage contentious ethnic and religious diversity

in condition of scarcity and weak institutionso Inability to meet the most basic needs of its peopleo Struggle between authoritarian and democratic governance

AuthoritarianAuthoritarian—power depends on coercive force of the political authorities.

o Struggle to create nation-state out of social incoherenceo Low levels of popular legitimacy and accountability

LegitimacyLegitimacy —A belief by powerful groups and the broad citizenry that a state exercises rightful authority.

AccountabilityAccountability —Major actions taken by government must be known and understood by the citizenry.

• Nigeria is unfinished state—unstable and uncertain.– Unfinished stateUnfinished state—Characterized by instabilities and uncertainties that

may render it susceptible to collapse as a coherent entity.



Geographic SettingGeographic Setting• Most populous nation in Africa• British colony from 1914 to 1960

– Boundaries reflect extent of British influence rather than borders of precolonial societies.

• Ethnic map has six inexact “zones”– Northwest: Hausa-Fulani, largest ethnic group (“core North”)– Northeast: minority groups, predominately (Kanuri) Muslim– Middle Belt: both Muslim and Christian minorities– Southwest: second largest ethnic group, (Yoruba) Muslim,

Christian (Protestants) – Southeast: third largest ethnic group, (Igbo) primarily Christian– South: minority region



Critical JuncturesCritical Junctures• Nigeria’s recent history influenced by:

– Precolonial period– British colonial changes– Postcolonial alternation of military and civilian rule– Economic collapse from 1980–2000 caused by political corruption

and overreliance on oil industry– Post-2003 oil boom



The Precolonial Period (800–1900)The Precolonial Period (800–1900)• Open terrain and need for irrigation in north encouraged growth

of centralized states.– Trade across Sahara Desert brought material benefits,

education, and Islam.

• Sokoto Caliphate– Islamic empire established through jihad.jihad.o Jihad Jihad —Literally “struggle.” Although often used to mean armed

struggle against unbelievers, it can also mean spiritual struggle for more self-improvement.

– Unified groups with Islam and common language, Hausa



The Precolonial Period (800–1900) (ContThe Precolonial Period (800–1900) (Cont’’d)d)• Southern savanna politics followed along kinship lines.

– Westerners saw as “stateless” or acephalous societies.acephalous societies.

– Acephalous societiesAcephalous societies—Literally “headless” societies; lacking executive rulership. Instead, the villages and clans were governed by committee or consensus.

• Several precolonial societies may have led to participatory politics if not interrupted by colonialism.

– Governance involved principles of accountability and representation.

– Islamic communities had highly structured political society.o Islamic Fulani Empire was a confederation in which emirs owed

allegiance to the sultan.



Colonial Rule and Its Impact (1860–1945)Colonial Rule and Its Impact (1860–1945)• British colonization for trade deepened the extraction of natural

resources and exploitation of Nigerian labor.• Colonialism left political and economic systems that impacted

development and governance.– British policy of indirect rule indirect rule was used to govern centralized

monarchies. o Indirect rule Indirect rule —A term used to describe the British style of

colonialism in Nigeria and India in which local traditional rulers and political structures were used to help support the colonial governing structure.o Allowed traditional structures to remain



Colonial Rule and Its Impact (1860–1945) (ContColonial Rule and Its Impact (1860–1945) (Cont’’d)d)– In other areas either the authority of the traditional chief was

strengthened or a warrant chiefwarrant chief was appointed.o Warrant chiefsWarrant chiefs —A system in which “chiefs” were selected by the British to

oversee certain legal matters and assist the colonial enterprise in governance and law enforcement in local areas.

o Weakened existing accountability and participation

– Played off ethnic and social divisions to prevent resistanceo If resistance developed, employed repressive tactics.

– British established democratic foundation.o Formal institution but authoritarian culture

o Strengthened collective identity by fostering political competition, primarily among Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo.



Divisive Identities: Ethnic Politics Under Colonialism Divisive Identities: Ethnic Politics Under Colonialism (1945–1960)(1945–1960)

• Leaders of the anticolonial movement learned from their experience under British rule.

– State control was opportunity to pursue personal and group interests.

• As British began to negotiate exit from Nigeria, unity among leaders evaporated and intergroup political competition increased.

– Ethnicity used to mobilize support and pursue competitiono With encouragement of ambitious leaders, elites took on more

political agenda.

• British divided Nigeria into federation of three regions with elected governments in 1954.

– One major ethnic group dominated each region.



The First Republic (1960–1966)The First Republic (1960–1966)• Nigeria granted independence in1960.

– Adopted British Westminster model at federal and regional levelso Prime minister chosen by majority party or coalition

– Northerners dominated federal government as a result of population.o Policy of “northernization” set out to redistribute resources to

their benefit caused conflict.

• Prime minister and president (symbolic position) from different parties

– As rivalries intensified, each asked military for support if conflict should arise.



Civil War and Military Rule (1966–1979)Civil War and Military Rule (1966–1979)• Igbo officers seized power in1966.

– Highest ranking officer and coup leader became head of state, and then killed.

– Yakubu Gowon, a Middle Belt Christian became consensus head of state among non-Igbo coup plotters.

– Consequences of ethnic violence of northern officialso Igbo east attempted to secede to form Biafra.

Remaining Nigeria, under military-led government, defeated Biafra after three-year war.



Civil War and Military Rule (1966–1979) Civil War and Military Rule (1966–1979) • After war, Gowon’s policy of national reconciliation was

supported by increasing oil revenues.– Postponed return to civilian life because military elite

unwilling to relinquish power and spoils (1973-1974)

– Overthrown in 1975 by Murtala Muhammad, who was assassinated shortly thereafter.

– General Olusegun Obasanjo, second-in-command and successor ceded to elected civilian government in 1979.o Government became known as Second Republic.

o Obasanjo reemerged as civilian president in 1999.



The Second and Third Republics, and Predatory The Second and Third Republics, and Predatory Military Rule (1979–1999)Military Rule (1979–1999)

• Second Republic government drawn largely from First Republic.

– Did little to build trust or stop corruption– National Party of Nigeria (NPN) won electoral majority

through fraud and violence.• 1983: Major General Muhammadu Buhari seized power.

– Lost support due to economic downturn and refusal to return to democracy

• 1985: General Ibrahim Babangida seized power.– Announced transition to democracy, then stalled annulled

elections of 1993.– Pressured to resign, but picked civilian successor, Ernest

Shonekan



The Second and Third Republics, and Predatory The Second and Third Republics, and Predatory Military Rule (1979–1999) (ContMilitary Rule (1979–1999) (Cont’’d)d)

• Defense minister General Sani Abacha seized power.– Combined promise to restore democracy with repression– Announced transition to civilian rule but stalled– Died in June, 1998

• Successor, General Abdulsalami Abubakar, established new transition program

– Handed power to elected civilian government

• Olusegun Obasanjo: President, May 1999o People’s Democratic Party (PDP)



The Fourth Republic (1999 to Present)The Fourth Republic (1999 to Present)• Obasanjo claimed broad mandate to arrest nation’s decline.

– Acted to reform state and economyo Retired all military officers who had held positions of political

power under previous military governments Reduce threat of coupo Targeted oil sector for new managemento Lobbied foreign governments to forgive Nigeria’s massive

debtso Raised minimum wageo Set up “truth and reconciliation” commission to address

past abuseso Formed commissions to fight corruption and channel oil

revenues back to impoverished and environmentally ravaged Niger Delta region



The Fourth Republic (1999 to Present) (ContThe Fourth Republic (1999 to Present) (Cont’’d)d)• Political survival required anticorruption campaign leave

corrupt politicians in place. Nearly impeached three times Widespread malpractice saved second term.

• Election fraud to spark “state of emergency” and extend Obasanjo’s term planned.

– Picked successor, Musa Yar’Adua – Elections condemned but no violence and Obasanjo forced to

turn over power to Yar’Adua

• Yar’Adua asserted independence.– Reversed controversial Obasanjo decisions– Focused on solidifying control of People’s Democratic Party

rather than campaign policy promises– Passed away, May 2010



The Fourth Republic (1999 to Present) (ContThe Fourth Republic (1999 to Present) (Cont’’d)d)

• President Jonathan runs for election April, 2011

– Elected to office, but tarnished by the persistence of rigging and widespread deaths.

– Promises reforms.



Themes and ImplicationsThemes and Implications Historical Junctures and Political ThemesHistorical Junctures and Political Themes• Federalism and democracy are important strategies to achieve

goal of unity– Legacy resulted in unitary system with powerful central

government and weak, economically insolvent states.

• Military rule left overdeveloped executive, weak legislature and judiciary.

– Unchecked executive weakens economy, prevents accountability, and undermines rule of law.

• National Assembly, judiciary, state governments are now reducing powers of national executive.

– President remains dominant figure.



Nigeria in the World of StatesNigeria in the World of States• Potential political and economic giant Peacekeeping efforts through United Nations, the African Union.

Governing NigeriaGoverning Nigeria’’s Economys Economy• Depends on oil revenues, sparse external loans, and aid.

– Agricultural neglect in 1960s led to heavy dependence on imports.

• Deteriorating political institutions– Made country a way station for international drug

trafficking and international commercial fraud.



Democratic Ideas Amid Colonialism and Military Democratic Ideas Amid Colonialism and Military RuleRule

• Nigerian colonial state was conceived and fashioned as interventionistinterventionist—state that acts vigorously to shape the performance of major sectors of the economy.

• Colonialism introduced cultural dualism.– Tradition of social accountability – Emerging Western ideas of individualism

• Dualism promoted two public realms.– Communal: people identified by ethic or subethnic

groups– Civic: universal citizenship



Democratic Ideas Amid Colonialism and Military Democratic Ideas Amid Colonialism and Military Rule (ContRule (Cont’’d)d)

• Democratic idea filtered through regional divisions– Indirect rule impacted north and south differently.

o South: burden and benefit of colonial occupationo North: few infrastructural benefits; traditional administration

preserved

• Democratic idea strong – Diversity demands democracy’s negotiations and

protection of interests.



NigeriaNigeria’’s Fragile Collective Identitys Fragile Collective Identity• Divisions between north and south, ethnic groups

– Manipulated by military governments and citizens

– Exacerbated by clientelismclientelism, corruption, unstable authoritarian governmentso ClientelismClientelism: powerful patron offers resources in return for

support and services.

Patrons linked by ethnic, religious, or other cultural ties, which only benefit elite

Undermines social trust, political stability

– Ethnicity is primary form of political identity.o Personal and business connections exist across divisions.



Implications for Comparative PoliticsImplications for Comparative Politics• Nigeria has human and material resources to overcome cycle

of poverty and autocracyautocracy.– AutocracyAutocracy —A government in which one or a few rulers has absolute power,

thus, a dictatorship. Similar to authoritarianism.


SECTION 2SECTION 2

POLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENTPOLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT

IntroductionIntroduction• Colonialism left interventionist state, which continued

postindependence– Stunted private sector– Encumbered industry and commerce



State and EconomyState and Economy• Nigerian state plays central role in economic decision making.

– Direct ownership, regulation, administrative control– Most revenues, known as rentsrents, are channeled through

government.o RentsRents—Above-market returns to a factor of production. Pursuit of

economic rents (or “rent-seeking”) is profit seeking that takes the form of nonproductive economic activity.

o Those who control government are gatekeepers of rents.

• Those not getting rents (so-called informal sector) must survive on petty trade and subsistence agriculture.

– Accounts for one-fifth of the entire Nigerian GDP, much of it earned through cross-border trade



Origins of Economic DeclineOrigins of Economic Decline• Nigerian economy was centered on agricultural production for

domestic consumption as well as for export.– Nigeria self-sufficient in food production at independence

• Late 1960s emphasis shifted to nonfood export crops through large-scale enterprises

– Small farms received little government support.– Food production declined, food imports increased to meet

population needs.

• Three factors undermined Nigerian agricultural: Biafran War (1967–1970) Severe drought and subsequent famine Development of petroleum industry



Origins of Economic Decline (ContOrigins of Economic Decline (Cont’’d)d)• 1970s oil boom allowed Nigeria to increase education,

defense, infrastructure expenditures.– Imports of capital and consumer goods increased seven-fold.– Budget deficit by 1978 caused borrowing and increased debt.

• Increased oil wealth increased corruption.– Nigeria forced to import refined petroleum. – 2002 internet scams had become one of Nigeria’s top five

industries, earning more than $100 million annually.

• Oil boom: double edged sword – Generated large amounts of income– Source of external dependence



From 1985 to the Present: Deepening Economic From 1985 to the Present: Deepening Economic Crisis and the Search for SolutionsCrisis and the Search for Solutions• Structural Adjustment: Babangida regime developed an

economic structural adjustment program (SAP)structural adjustment program (SAP) with support of international financial institutions (IFIs)international financial institutions (IFIs)

Structural adjustment program (SAP)Structural adjustment program (SAP)—Medium-term (generally three to five years) programs (which include both action plans and disbursement of funds) established by the World Bank intended to alter and reform the economic structures of highly indebted Third World countries as a condition for receiving international loans.

International financial institutions (IFIs) International financial institutions (IFIs) —Generally refers to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), but can also include other international lending institutions.



From 1985 to the Present: Deepening Economic From 1985 to the Present: Deepening Economic Crisis and the Search for Solutions (ContCrisis and the Search for Solutions (Cont’’d)d)

• Reasoning behind decision of adopting SAPs:– increasing economic constraints – growing debt – balance of payment balance of payment difficulties

o Balance of paymentsBalance of payments—An indicator of international flow of funds that shows the excess or deficit in total payments of all kinds between or among countries. Included in the calculation are exports and imports, grants, and international debt payments.

– lack of fiscal discipline• PrivatizationPrivatization is central to Nigeria’s adjustment program.

PrivatizationPrivatization —State-owned businesses would be sold to private (nonstate) investors, domestic or foreign, to generate revenue and improve efficiency.



Economic PlanningEconomic Planning• National plans prepared by ministries of finance, economic

development, planning– Not effective tool due to absence of effective database

for planning and lack of discipline in implementation

• Nigerian Economic Summit Group (NESG)1994– Revived dialogue between business and government on

economic direction– Coequal participation between government and private

sector

• Vision 2010 advocated reduction of government role in economy

– Accepted by Obasanjo– Advice continues to influence economic policy.



Economic Planning (ContEconomic Planning (Cont’’d)d)• Obasanjo paid off most of heavy foreign debt.

– Accomplished through persistent lobbying for debt relief and economic reforms

• Yar’Adua pledged to continue reforms, reduce corruption.– Neither of these goals were achieved.

• President Jonathan did some cleaning up upon taking office; however, others remain in his administration as well.



Social WelfareSocial Welfare• Social welfare has suffered with economic decline.

– Deterioration in quality and quantity of social services since 1986

– Reform programs emphasizing reduction of state expenditures forced cutbacks.

• Nigeria poorly meets basic needs, failed to develop national social security system.

– Gaps filled by family-based networks of mutual aid– Few Nigerians have access to formal sector jobs.

• Health care and social services (water, education, food, and shelter) remain woefully inadequate.

– Nigeria stands on verge of AIDS epidemic.o Efforts to combat left to nongovernmental organizations.



Society and EconomySociety and Economy• Central government controls access to most resources and

economic opportunities.– State has become major focus for competition among ethnic,

regional, religious, and class groups.



Ethnic and Religious CleavagesEthnic and Religious Cleavages• Ethnic relations and conflicts among political elites have

generated tensions that distort economic affairs.• Conflicts heightened by government ineptitude and growing

religious assertion– Christians have perceived past governments as pro-Muslim

in management and distribution of scarce resources, jeopardizing secular nature of state.o Fears increased in 1999 with expansion of shari’a.

– Muslims feared born-again Christian Obasanjo would tilt balance of power and economics.

– Decline of economy precipitated rise of Christian and Muslim fundamentalisms.



Ethnic and Religious Cleavages (ContEthnic and Religious Cleavages (Cont’’d)d)• Ethnic and religious movements have used renewed political

freedoms to mobilize around interests and grievances.– Many armed groups have formed, particularly in oil-producing

regions.– Militias live off the pay they receive in providing security for

oil “bunkering”—illegal criminal networks (often including the individuals in the oil industry, political leaders, and the military) that tap into pipelines, siphon oil, and resell it on the black market.

• Minority groups clash over land and rents.– Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND)

has repeatedly threatened to drive out foreign oil interests if their demands for a greater share of oil revenues are not met.



Gender DifferencesGender Differences• Land Use Act of 1978—all land owned by government

– Land tenure governed by patriarchal traditional practice– Women dominate agricultural production but are prevented

from owning land.

Nigeria in the Global EconomyNigeria in the Global Economy• Nigeria weak and dependent at international level

– Reliant on developed industrial economies – Mismanagement, endemic corruption, and vagaries of

international commodity markets have squandered economic potential.



Nigeria and the Regional Political EconomyNigeria and the Regional Political Economy• Nigeria aspires to be regional leader.

– Major actor in formation of Economic Community of West Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)African States (ECOWAS) 1975

o Economic Community of West African Studies (ECOWAS)Economic Community of West African Studies (ECOWAS)—Established in 1975,its goals are to strengthen and broaden the economies in the region through the removal of trade barriers among its members, freedom of movement for citizens, and monetary cooperation.o Carried administrative and financial burden to keep it afloato Efforts to move to European Union style integration

Not boding well

– Key issue in US-Nigerian relations has been oil.o U.S. buys roughly 8 percent of its oil from Nigeria.



Nigeria and the Political Economy of the WestNigeria and the Political Economy of the West• Nigerian wealth was perceived by elite as source of strength.

– When the oil market fell, oil dependence was seen as a source of weakness.

• Nigeria was forced to seek support from international financial institutions.

• Nigeria remains dependent on Western technology and expertise for oil exploration and extraction.

• Formation of African Union, based on European-style integration

Governments commit to good governance and economic reforms in exchange for access to Western markets and financial assistance.


SECTION 3SECTION 3

GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKINGGOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING

IntroductionIntroduction• Obasanjo inherited government close to collapse and corrupt yet

facing demands for rapid progress– Delivered economic reforms but became increasingly corrupt and

ambitiouso Ambitions rejected by publico Forced to leave in May 2007

• Presidents Yar’Adua and Jonathan both came to power without client network.



Organization of the StateOrganization of the State The National Question and Constitutional GovernanceThe National Question and Constitutional Governance• Nigeria has no clear answers to fundamental governance issues;

i.e., the “national question.”– Who will rule? Should country remain united? How is the country to be governed given its great diversity? What should be the institutional form of the government?

• Fluctuated between democracy and military domination• Nine constitutions drafted since 1914

– Five under colonial rule and four since– Military and civilian leaders often unwilling to observe legal

and constitutional constraintso Fragile institutions with personal and partisan considerations



Federalism and State StructureFederalism and State Structure• First Republic tried British parliamentary model.

– Decentralized with power in three regions

• Second Republic used United States presidential model.– Went into effect in 1979

• Fourth Republic continues with presidential model.– Strong executive constrained by checks and balances,

bicameral legislature, independent judicial

• Federal structure with states able to enact laws– In reality states are dependent on federal.

• Allows customary law courts to function alongside secular system



Federalism and State Structure (ContFederalism and State Structure (Cont’’d)d)• Military rule left authoritarian political culture.

– Oil wealth centralizes economic and political control.– Elite accommodation to moderate cultural pluralism– Demands for ethnic rotation of president built on “federal

character”o Supports ethnic representation and conflicts



The ExecutiveThe Executive Evolution of the Executive FunctionEvolution of the Executive Function• Second Republic replaced parliamentary with presidential system.

– Belief popularly elected president would serve as symbol of national unity

– Mitigate lack of party discipline in selection of executive– System entrenched in Nigerian politics

o Experiment with presidentialism lasted for four years before it was ended by the 1983 coup.



The Executive Under Military Rule (ContThe Executive Under Military Rule (Cont’’d)d)• The President, or head of state, under military administrations,

appointed most senior government positions.– Legislature disbanded, thus decisions subject to council of

military officerso Council had become rubber stamp for ruler.

– Patron-client relationships flourished.o Weakened structure of military into predatory apparatus

• Nigerians believe political and economic development hampered by military domination and misrule.

• Obasanjo retired military who had held political offices. – Redirected toward regional peacekeeping

• Military remains a threat.



The Fourth Republic: The Obasanjo YarThe Fourth Republic: The Obasanjo Yar’’Adua, and Adua, and Jonathan AdministrationsJonathan Administrations

• Initiatives in first six months:– to reform armed services

– revitalize economy

– improve governance

• Clientelism and financial kickbacks for oil licenses resurfaced.

– First anticorruption committee had little impact but second (Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) founded in 2003 had impressive indictments.



The Fourth Republic: The Obasanjo YarThe Fourth Republic: The Obasanjo Yar’’Adua, and Adua, and Jonathan Administrations (ContJonathan Administrations (Cont’’d)d)

• Impediment to reform was ruling party.– People’s Democratic Party (PDP), run by elites, who

delivered victory through fraud in 2003– Obasanjo tried to control party.

o When third amendment was quashed by National Assembly, had himself named “Chairman for Life” with ejection power

• Yar’Adua spent first year trying to regain control of party and build alliances.

• Yar’Adua was succeeded by President Jonathan.– With Obananjo’s support, along with PDP

• Jonathan appointed Attahiru Jega as Chairman of nation’s electoral commission.



The BureaucracyThe Bureaucracy• Colonial system relied on bureaucracy to govern.• After independence bureaucracy became rewards in

patrimonial system.– Growth not based on function and need– Appointments based on patronage, ethnic group, and religion

• Bureaucratic salaries represent roughly half government expenditures.

• Some ministries have had successful reforms.



Semipublic InstitutionsSemipublic Institutions• ParastatalsParastatals—State-owned, or at least state-controlled,

corporations, created to undertake a broad range of activities. – Established to:

o Furnish public facilities at lower costo Accelerate economic development by controlling economyo Sovereignty over sectors perceived sensitive for national security

PrebendalismPrebendalism• PrebendalismPrebendalism—Disbursing of public offices and state —Disbursing of public offices and state

rents to onerents to one’’s ethnic clients.s ethnic clients. Pattern of political behavior justifies the pursuit and use of

public office for personal benefit of officeholder and his clients.

• As long as prebendalism remains the norm, a stable democracy will be elusive.



Other State InstitutionsOther State Institutions• Judiciary and subnational governments operate under strong

central government with strong executive.

The JudiciaryThe Judiciary• Originally, judiciary was independent from the executive arm.

– Buhari, Babangida, Abacha regimes issued repressive decrees disallowing judicial review.

– Politicization demonstrated through 1993 case where the Supreme Court put actions of military executive beyond judicial review.

o Undermined autonomy and integrity of the judiciary

• Courts restoring independence and credibility since return of civilian rule



State and Local JudiciariesState and Local Judiciaries• State courts subordinate to Federal Court of Appeal and

Supreme Court• Parallel court system is based on shari’a (religious) and

customary laws.– Application of sharishari’’aa source of debateo ShariShari’’aa—Islamic law derived mostly from the Qur’an and the

examples set by the Prophet Muhammad.o Created new avenues for patronage as well as public

actiono On the other hand, opened up new avenues for public

action to press government for accountability and reform.

• Courts of record are based on common law and bound by decisions of Supreme Court.



State and Local GovernmentState and Local Government• Most states would be insolvent without substantial support from

the central government.– Oil revenues fostered competition for access to national

patronage.o States receive lump sum based on oil revenues and percentage

of oil income is based on population.

– Government is sapped of resources and legitimacy.o Communities are compelled to resort to self-help measures. o Few individuals and organizations pay taxes.o Basic functions are starved of resources.

• The return of democracy has meant the return of conflict between state and national governments.

– Many governors use militia and vigilante groups to provide security.



The Policy-Making ProcessThe Policy-Making Process• Military rule created policy process based more in top-down

directives than consultation, political debate, legislation.– Senior officers developed networks of supporters creating “loyalty

pyramid.”o Once in power they gained access to oil wealth, which they passed

down to reward support. Prebendalism

o Often reflect ethnic, religious affiliations

– Civilian politics reflects loyalty pyramids.o Civilian politicians belonged to loyalty pyramid of military.



ProfileProfile

President Goodluck JonathanPresident Goodluck Jonathan

• President Goodluck Jonathan, casting his vote in his Bayelsa state village and wearing a traditional hat common to many Niger Delta communities. He was elected vice president in 2007, named Acting President by the National Assembly on the incapacitation of President Yar’Adua in 2010, and elected president in 2011.


SECTION 4SECTION 4

REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATIONREPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION

IntroductionIntroduction• Nigerian legislatures have commonly been sidelined or subservient

to executive.• Fraud, manipulation, military interference marked party and

electoral systems.• Participation outside official structures

– Unofficial methods of representation and participation through institutions of civil societycivil society

o Civil societyCivil society—Refers to the space occupied by voluntary associations outside the state; e.g., professional associations (lawyers, doctors, teachers), trade unions, student and women’s groups, religious bodies, and other voluntary association groups.

– Formal representation does not necessarily enhance participation.



The LegislatureThe Legislature• Legislative structures and processes suffered abuse, neglect, or

peremptory suspension by the executive.• Until first coup in 1966, government operated according to British

Westminster model.– Elected lower house– Smaller upper house selected by executive

• Supreme Military Council initiated and passed decrees at will. • Bicameral legislature introduced in 1979; together called National

Assembly– Senate: three senators from each of the thirty-six states, plus one

from federal capital territory– House elected on weighted state representation



The Legislature (ContThe Legislature (Cont’’d)d)• Since independence same party won executive and majority in

National and state assemblies.• Only control legislature has over funds is right to pass budget.

– Constitution gives legislature right to control funds but in practice president controls the purse strings.

• National Assembly beginning to gain relevance– August, 2002: Began impeachment when president refused to

follow budget– May, 2006: Rejected Obasanjo’s constitutional amendments

o President retaliated by removing and replacing majority of Assembly.



The Party System and ElectionsThe Party System and Elections• Political parties were associated with ethnic groups.

– One party per dominant ethnic group– Fostered perception that politics was ethnically zero-sum (or

winner-takes-all), encouraging fragmentation– First-past-post produced legislative majorities – Parties more attentive to their ethnic groups than development of

Nigeria

• 1989: Babangida issued decree establishing only two political parties by decree.

– Social Democratic Party (SDP) and National Republican Convention (NRC)

• Northern-based parties dominated first and second civilian rule.



Old Roots and New Alignments: The PDP and the Old Roots and New Alignments: The PDP and the Other Parties of the Fourth RepublicOther Parties of the Fourth Republic

• To prevent ethnic-based parties of First and Second Republics, a threshold requirement was established.

– Reduced number of parties and forced existing parties to broaden their appeal

• Parties of Fourth Republic are primarily alliances of convenience among Big Men.

– Sole purpose is to gain power– No ideological differences or policy platforms – Multiethnic

o Strong incentive to bridge differences within partyo Foster a climate of compromise

• Political opposition cannot counter elite corruption.



Political Culture, Citizenship, and IdentityPolitical Culture, Citizenship, and Identity• Military rule left strong authoritarian influences in the political

culture.– Most of the younger politicians grew up during military rule.– Democratic traditions in conflict with experiences of military

governance



Modernity versus TraditionalismModernity versus Traditionalism• Interaction of Western (colonial) elements with traditional

(precolonial, African) practices created tension.– Strong elements in communal societies that promoted

accountability have been weakened by Western orientation toward individuality and urbanization.

– Modern state has been unable to free itself fully from rival ethnic claims organized around narrow, exclusivist constituencies.

– Exclusivist identities continue to dominate Nigerian political culture and define citizenship.

– Individuals tend to identify with immediate ethnic, regional, religious group or subgroup especially during crisis.

• No belief that a common interest binds state and citizen



ReligionReligion• Nigeria is evenly divided between Muslims and Christians.

– Consistently clashed over political issues– Application of shari’a a focal point for tensions

o Part of Muslim way of lifeo Christians see it as threat to secular society and their

place in it.

• Pull of religious versus national identity becomes even stronger during economic hardship.



The PressThe Press• Nigerian press lively and irreverent

– Efforts have been made to stifle its independence.– Members of media sometimes seen as captives by ethnic

and regional constituencies.o Weakened their ability to resist attacks on rights and privileges

• Press concentrated in South but independent radio and television appearing around country

• Investigative journalists use Internet to avoid censoring.



Interests, Social Movements, and ProtestInterests, Social Movements, and Protest• Labor, student groups, and women’s organizations have played a

major role in Nigerian politics.– Also radical and populist organizations

• Business groups colluded with corrupt civilian and military regimes.– Efforts to end this relationship

• Civil society groups flourishing with end of military rule



LaborLabor• Organized labor has challenged government.

– Military pressure limited independence and strength during 1980s and 1990s.

– State corporatismState corporatism used to control and co-opt social forces.o State corporatismState corporatism—Political system in which state requires all

members of a particular economic sector to join officially designated interest group to attain public status, and participate in national policymaking.

• Government is largest employer and arbiter of industrial relations between employer and employees.

• Consolidation of constitutional rule in Fourth Republic provides unions protections to organize and act freely on behalf of their members.



The Business CommunityThe Business Community• Nigeria has long history of entrepreneurialism and business

development.– Compromised by rent-seeking and appropriation of state

resources

• Members of business class seen as “pirate capitalists” due to high-level of corruption and collusion.

• Organized groups have emerged to represent business class and promote economic development



Other Social GroupsOther Social Groups• Student activism

– Rise of “cults” since 1990so Members eventually join militias or become political thugso Elites employ for power plays

– Religious movements offer alternative.o Also vehicle for recruiting fundamentalists

• Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and human rights groups

– Generally focus on issues such as gender law or health care; and are urban based.

• Civil society groups helping to consolidate democracy– Relationship with National Assembly and state legislature– Need to improve relationship with political parties


SECTION 5SECTION 5

NIGERIAN POLITICS IN TRANSITIONNIGERIAN POLITICS IN TRANSITION

IntroductionIntroduction• Nigerians prefer democracy to military rule.

– Frustration with pace of reform and corruption

• Nigerian politics must change in fundamental ways for democracy to become more stable and legitimate.

– Must change from domination by “Big Men” to representative politics that addresses fundamental interests of public

– Must commit to political arrangements that accommodate diversity

– Must develop political process that crosses ethnic, regional, religious lines and addresses poverty and underdevelopment



Political Challenges and Changing Agendas Political Challenges and Changing Agendas • Transition to democratic rule between 1985 and 1999 inconclusive

– Military rulers promised democratic transition to stabilize and legitimize their governments.

• General Abubakar returned to civilian rule only after ensuring military interests would be protected.

– Created overly powerful executive that reinforces prebendalism and its patronage system.

• Parasitic nature of economy is further source of instability. Rent-seeking and other unproductive, often corrupt, business

activities remain accepted norms of wealth accumulation. Niger Delta has grown particularly violent, with increasingly well-

armed militias that have shown dependence from political patrons.



Political Challenges and Changing Agendas (ContPolitical Challenges and Changing Agendas (Cont’’d)d)• Nigeria must create viable, multiethnic opposition party willing to

play by rules.– Would help to reduce corruption and engage public– Basis of social contract: elites gain the privilege of power so long

as they use it to promote the public interest.

• Building of a coherent nation-state out of competing nationalities remains unfinished.

– Ethnic associations and militias now articulate ethnic-based grievances and open potential for instability.

– Ethnicity cannot be the basis for political competition.

• Power structures must further decentralize.– Solve problems at local levels– Enhance accountability of leaders



Nigerian Politics in Comparative PerspectiveNigerian Politics in Comparative Perspective• Identify institutional mechanisms that may be effective in reducing

ethnic conflict. Also learn about the necessary and sufficient conditions for economic

development and the particular liabilities of oil-dependent states.



A World of StatesA World of States• Nigeria exists in two worlds of states:

– Global political economyo Entered in position of weakness and grown weakero Economically vulnerable and corrupt

– Africao Nigerian events will influence democracy, political stability, and

economic renewal in other parts of Africa.o International political and business has shifted elsewhere in

Africa. Portends a danger of greater marginalization, reflecting

areas of stability and growth contrasted with areas of turmoil and decay.



Governing the EconomyGoverning the Economy• Insights into political economy of underdevelopment:

– Nigeria failed to capitalize on its development potential.o Natural resources not enough to ensure economic development

and may actually encourage rent-seeking behavior that undermines more productive activities.

o Political and institutional development must come first.

– Sustainable economic development requires sound economic policy.

The Democratic IdeaThe Democratic Idea• Authoritarian, single-party, and military rule in Africa resulted in

political repression, human rights abuses, inequality, deteriorating governance, and failed economies.

– Nigeria exemplifies the harsh reality of authoritarian and unaccountable governance.



Collective IdentitiesCollective Identities• Presents case study for dangers of communal competition in

society with deep cultural division– Institutional reforms discussed within this chapter:

o multiethnic political partieso decentralizationo strengthened federal system that can contribute to reducing

tensions and minimizing conflict.

• Understanding the politics of cultural pluralism and difficulties of accommodating sectional interests under political and economic insecurity

– Nigeria’s federal character supports ethnic and regional favoritism and patronage.

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