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![Page 1: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system
(a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and are not accelerated)
objectanonactingForcesdt
dVm i
Fma
In the case of more than one force:
![Page 2: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
y
y
y
x
x
xz
(toward you)
z(toward you)
z(toward you)
Earth notrotating
objectanonactingForcesdt
Vdm i
An inertial coordinate system and the meaning of the vector and dt
Vd i
iV
Inertial coordinate system:
iV
is with respect to a distant star
dt
Vd i
is with respect to a distant star
Let’s first take a look at the term in the yellow box…
![Page 3: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Earth-based (non-inertial) “spherical” coordinate system(favored by meteorologists)
x = positive toward easty = positive toward northz = positive toward zenith
udt
dx wind component toward east
vdt
dy wind component toward north
wdt
dz wind component toward zenith
= longitude
= latitude
dadx cos
addy
![Page 4: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Earth-based (non-inertial) “spherical” coordinate system(favored by meteorologists)
x = positive toward easty = positive toward northz = positive toward zenith
wdt
dz
dt
da
dt
dx cos
dt
da
dt
dy
kwjviuV
Where unit vectors are a function of position on the earth (not Cartesian)
![Page 5: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
kwjviuVi
dt
kdw
dt
jdv
dt
idu
dt
dwk
dt
dvj
dt
dui
dt
Vd i
We need to determine what these are
Since the unit vectors are not constant…
Let’s start withdt
id
z
iw
y
iv
x
iu
t
i
dt
id
What is the relationship between and dt
Vd i
dt
Vd
![Page 6: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
z
iw
y
iv
x
iu
t
i
dt
id
0t
i
At a point (constant x,y,z) none of the unit vectors change with time so
As one moves north or south the i direction experiences no change so
0y
i
As one moves up or down the i direction experiences no change so 0
z
i
x
iu
dt
id
So:
![Page 7: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
x
iu
dt
id
From figure on right looking down at north pole at latitude :
ii
cosax
cos
1
ax
i
This gives us the magnitude, but not the direction. Note thatis pointed toward the center of the earth at the original point
i
![Page 8: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Looking at the figure at the right:
We see that has components in the and directions
j
k
i
The unit vector describing the direction of has two components:i
cossin kji
So:a
uk
a
uj
a
ukuj
x
iu
dt
idu
tan
cos
cossin
![Page 9: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
kwjviuVi
dt
kdw
dt
jdv
a
uk
a
uju
dt
dwk
dt
dvj
dt
dui
dt
Vd i
tan
We still need to determine what these are
Since the unit vectors are not constant…
Let’s do nextdt
jd
z
jw
y
jv
x
ju
t
j
dt
jd
REMEMBER THIS SLIDE?
![Page 10: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
z
jw
y
jv
x
ju
t
j
dt
jd
does not change with time or elevation, but does change in the x and y directions
j
y
jv
x
ju
dt
jd
![Page 11: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Lets first figure out x
j
Look at light gray triangle in (a):
sincos a
Dark gray triangle is shown in a different view in (b)
tan
aor
tan
ax
jj
So:
ax
j tan
Direction ofis the -x direction
j
![Page 12: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Now lets figure out y
j
ay jj
Direction of is the directionj k
kay
j 1
a
vk
a
ui
dt
jd
tan
So:
aay
j 1
![Page 13: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
kwjviuVi
dt
kdw
a
vk
a
uiv
a
uk
a
uju
dt
dwk
dt
dvj
dt
dui
dt
Vd i
tantan
We still need to determine what this is
Since the unit vectors are not constant…
Let’s do nextdt
kd
z
kw
y
kv
x
ku
t
k
dt
kd
REMEMBER THIS SLIDE?
![Page 14: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
z
kw
y
kv
x
ku
t
k
dt
kd
does not change with time or elevation, but does change in the x and y directions
k
y
kv
x
ku
dt
kd
![Page 15: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
y
kv
x
ku
dt
kd
x
k
Let’s do first
ax
kk
Direction of is the positive directionk i
iax
k
1
![Page 16: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
y
kv
x
ku
dt
kd
y
k
Let’s do next
ay
kk
Direction of is the positive directionk i
jay
k
1
k
k
ja
vi
a
u
dt
kd
![Page 17: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
kwjviuVi
j
a
vi
a
uw
a
vk
a
uiv
a
uk
a
uju
dt
dwk
dt
dvj
dt
dui
dt
Vd i
tantan
Since the unit vectors are not constant…
REMEMBER THIS SLIDE?
a
vu
dt
dwk
a
vw
a
u
dt
dvj
a
uw
a
uv
dt
dui
dt
Vd 222 tantan
or
a
vuk
a
vw
a
uj
a
uw
a
uvi
dt
dV
dt
Vd 222 tantan
![Page 18: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
What are the correction terms and what do they mean?
Consider third equation: forcesa
vu
dt
dw
22
Air moving in a straightline at a constant speedinitially southward.u = 0, v = -10 m/s, w = 0
Air will accelerate upward!
The earth curves away from the pathof the air parcel.
![Page 19: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
objectanonactingForcesdt
Vdm i
Forces
a
vuk
a
vw
a
uj
a
uw
a
uvi
dt
Vdm
222 tantan
Newton’s second law in an inertial coordinate system
Newton’s second law in a spherical coordinate system
Now let’s look at the right side of the equation!
![Page 20: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Forces and the governing equations
Three Fundamental Forces in the lower atmosphere
Pressure Gradient ForceGravityFriction
Two Apparent Forces in the lower atmosphere due to the rotation of the earth
Centrifugal ForceCoriolis Force
![Page 21: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
1. Pressure gradient force: Directed from high pressure toward low pressure.
A wall with higher pressure on its left side (indicated by greater molecular density on the left side)
Simple illustration of a pressure gradient acting on a wall (left) and a molecule (right)
An air molecule with higher air pressure on its left (indicated by greater molecular density on the left side)
![Page 22: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Volume of the fluid element
zyxV Mass of the fluid element
zyxm = density (g m-3)
Pressure at centerof the fluid element
0000 ,, zyxpp
Definition of pressure: Pressure is equal to the force applied per unit area
![Page 23: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
termsorderhigherx
x
pppA
20
Find Pressure at A and B
Use Taylor expansion:
termsorderhigherx
x
pppB
20
![Page 24: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
zyx
x
ppAreapF AAA
20
Find Force at B and A
zyx
x
ppAreapF BBB
20
Force = Pressure Area
![Page 25: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Find net x-direction force per unit mass
zyx
x
ppzy
x
x
ppFFF BAx
22 00
zyxx
pFx
x
p
m
Fx
1
![Page 26: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
x
p
m
Fx
1
In a similar way:
y
p
m
Fy
1
z
p
m
Fz
1
The vector form of the Pressure Gradient Force can therefore be expressed as
z
pk
y
pj
x
pi
m
F
111
pm
F
1
![Page 27: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
2. Gravity: Directed toward center of earth
r
r
r
GMmFg
2
Newton’s law of universal gravitation G = 6.67310-11 N m2 kg-2
M = mass of Earthm = mass of fluid elementr = vector from Earth centerr = magnitude of r vector
![Page 28: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
r
r
r
GMmFg
2
r
r
r
GM
m
Fg
2
Newton’s law of universal gravitation…
…expressed as a force per unit mass
Over the depth of the tropospherethe change in the force of gravity is insignificant
and we can approximate r as the earth radius, a
r
r
a
GM
m
Fg
2
![Page 29: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
3. Friction: Directed opposite the flow
Friction is manifested as:
A drag force in a very thin layer (a few mm) near the surface
Turbulent mixing of blobs of faster and slower air at altitudes above the surface.
![Page 30: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Although largely irrelevant to the atmosphere, we will consider the drag force first and then make a simple
analogy to formulate friction for the rest of the atmosphere
Not moving
moving
![Page 31: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Expect that drag force on upper plate will be proportional to:
Speed of the plate (u0)Area of the plate (A)
And inversely proportional to the depth of the fluid (l)
l
AuF 0
Where is the proportionality constant called the dynamic viscosity coefficient
![Page 32: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Next let’s define a “Shearing Stress” , as the Force/Unit Area on the plate
l
AuF 0
Let’s also assume the lower plate is moving at an arbitrary speed so that the speed difference is u
Let’s also assume that the distance between the plates is arbitrary and that that difference is z
Then:z
uzx
andz
uzx
as 0z
![Page 33: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
z
uzx
Force per unit area acting in x direction due to shear in z direction
Now let’s consider how that force acts on a fluid element of volume xyz
Illustration of x component of shearing stress (F/A) on a fluid element
![Page 34: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Stress acting across the upper boundary on the fluid below it
2
z
zzx
zx
Use Taylor expansion
Stress acting across the lower boundary on the fluid below it
2
z
zzx
zx
Using Newton’s third law: Stress across the lower boundary on the fluid above it must be:
2
z
zzx
zx
To find the net stress, we want to sum the forces that act on fluid within the fluid element
![Page 35: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
zyxz
yxz
zyx
z
zzxzx
zxzx
zx
22
Dividing by the mass of the fluid element we have the viscous force per unit mass arising from the vertical shear in the x direction on the fluid element
z
u
zzm
F zxzx
11
![Page 36: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
z
u
zm
Fzx 1
Assuming is constant, this can be written
2
2
2
2
z
u
z
u
m
Fzx
where is called the kinematic viscosity coefficient
![Page 37: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
We have figured out one component of the frictional force per unit mass: m
Fzx
Considering how shear can act in each direction to create a frictional force in each direction, there are nine components
m
F
m
F
m
F
m
F
m
F
m
F
m
F
m
F
m
F zzzyzxyzyyyxxzxyxx ,,,,,,,,
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
u
y
u
x
u
m
Frx
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
v
y
v
x
v
m
Fry
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
w
y
w
x
w
m
Frz
![Page 38: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Unfortunately, all of the preceding theory applies to the air in a layer a few mm thick above the earth’s surface
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
u
y
u
x
uK
m
Frx
For blobs of air mixing, an analogous “eddy viscosity coefficient”, K, is defined that is calculated based on the average length that an eddy can travel before mixing out its momentum.
In general, vertical wind shear is much stronger than horizontal shear for synoptic scale flows so this reduces to:
2
2
z
uK
m
Frx
2
2
z
vK
m
Fry
0m
Frz
![Page 39: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
2
2
2
222 1tantan
z
VK
r
r
a
GMp
m
F
a
vuk
a
vw
a
uj
a
uw
a
uvi
dt
Vd
Acceleration
pressure gradientforce
gravity
friction
Force balance in the atmosphere for a non-rotating earth expressed in spherical coordinates
Correction for sphericalCoordinate system
![Page 40: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Same statement expressed as 3 orthogonal scalar equations
2
21tan
z
uK
x
p
a
uw
a
uv
dt
du
2
22 1tan
z
vK
y
p
a
vw
a
u
dt
dv
AccelerationCorrection terms for earthbased coordinate system
Pressure gradientForce
Friction
(East-West equation)
(North-South equation)
(Up-Down equation) 2
22 1
a
GM
z
p
a
vu
dt
dw
Gravity
![Page 41: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Apparent forces on a rotating earth – the Centrifugal Force
We will derive the force terms twice
First from a more conceptual approach
The second time from a more formal vector approach
![Page 42: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Apparent forces on a rotating earth – the Centrifugal Force
Consider an object at rest on the rotating earth
Equator Speed = 465 m/s
40 N: Speed = 356 m/s
60 N: Speed = 232 m/s
Actual speed due to rotation of earth:
![Page 43: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
A ball whirling on a string experiences a CENTRIPETAL acceleration toward the axis of rotation
The acceleration is equal to where is the angular rotation rate r2
![Page 44: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
A person on the ball whirling on a string experiences a CENTRIFUGAL acceleration toward the axis of rotation
The acceleration is equal to where is the angular rotation rate r2
![Page 45: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Standing still on the rotating earth
Outward acceleration away from Earth’s axis is where is the Earth’s angular rotation rate
r2
s09.86156
2
Where 86156.09 s is the time it takes for the Earth to rotate once with respect to a fixed star (a sidereal day)
281.9 msg
22
12 034.0637810009.86156
2
msmsR
Vectors not to true size!
![Page 46: Newton’s second law for a parcel of air in an inertial coordinate system (a coordinate system in which the coordinate axes do not change direction and.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022070406/56649e035503460f94aee29c/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Earth has distorted its shape into an oblate spheroid in response to this force. The distortion is such that the combined gravitational force and centrifugal force (g*) act exactly perpendicular to the Earth’s (flat) surface.
Rr
rgR
r
r
a
GMkg
2*2
2
We combine the centrifugal force with gravity and forget about it!!
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Apparent forces on a rotating earth – the Coriolis Force
In the absence of a twisting force called a torque, air in motion across the earth mustconserve its angular momentum (MVR)where M is the parcel mass, V is velocity aboutthe axis of rotation and R is the distance fromthe axis of rotation.
A simple interpretation of the Coriolis effect:
Air moving across the earth’s surface willtry to come to equilibrium at a latitude/altitudewhere its angular momentum equals that of the earth so that the parcel has no relative motion.
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Motion on a rotating earth – the Coriolis Force
Consider air moving:
Eastward: The air has greater angular momentumthan the earth beneath it. It will experience an“outward” centrifugal acceleration equatorward
Westward: The air has less angular momentumThan the earth beneath it. It will experience an“inward” centripetal acceleration poleward.
Poleward: The air will progressively move overpoints on the earth with less angular momentum. Air will accelerate eastward relative to the earthbelow it.
Equatorward: The air will progressively move overpoints on the earth with greater angular momentum. Air will accelerate westward relative to the earthbelow it.
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Suppose an object is moving eastward on the rotating earth at speed u
The total centrifugal force it will experience will be its angular velocity squared distance to axis of rotation
2
22
2
2R
Ru
R
RuRR
R
uCEN
Centrifugal force(combined with
gravity)
231 101086156
22 msms
s
25222
106378100
10 msm
sm
Magnitude of 2nd term on RHS Magnitude of 3rd term on RHS
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Suppose an object is moving eastward on the rotating earth at speed u
The total centrifugal force it will experience will be its angular velocity squared distance to axis of rotation
2
22
2
2R
Ru
R
RuRR
R
uCEN
Centrifugal force(combined with
gravity)
ignore
Coriolis Force
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R
RuCOR
2
cos2sin2 ukujcirclelatitudetoparallelmotiononacceleratiCoriolis
sin2 udt
dv
cos2 udt
dw
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22 RRRR
uR
Suppose an object is moving equatorward on the rotating earth at speed -v
Apply principle of conservation of momentum
Expand this expression
222 2 RRRRRR
uR
Since and are small, neglect terms with their productu R Ru
RR
uRRRRR
2
22 2
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RR
uRRRRR
2
22 2
(From previous slide)
RR
uRRR
2
2
If we assume that << this expression can be approximated as:
uRRR 2
R R
or
Ru 2
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Ru 2
For a displacement in the –y direction, from Figure:
sin2sin2 yyu
sin2sin2 vdt
dy
dt
du
Dividing by and taking the limit ast 0t
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Ru 2
For a displacement in the z direction, from Figure:
cos2cos2 zzu
cos2cos2 wdt
dz
dt
du
Dividing by and taking the limit ast 0t
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Combining the results for east-west and north-south movement of air
fuudt
dv sin2
cos2 udt
dw
cos2cos2sin2 wfvwvdt
du
Where: f sin2
and f is the Coriolis parameter
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In a reference frame on the earththe Coriolis effect appears as a force acting on an air parcel.
Motion on a rotating earth – the Coriolis Force
The Coriolis Force
Causes air to deviate to the right of its direction of motion in the Northern Hemisphere (and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere);
Affects the direction an object will move across the earth’s surface, but has no effect on its speed;
Is strongest for fast-moving objects and zero for Stationary objects; and
Has no horizontal component at the equator and has a maximum horizontalcomponent at the poles
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In our previous discussion of spherical coordinates, the coordinates were fixed in position.
AAt Point A, for example, the x, y, and z axes always point toward distant stars. At point B, the axes point at different stars, but always in the same direction.
B
A formal way of deriving the Coriolis and Centrifugal Forces
When the earth rotates, the axes at point A find themselves at a later time at point B. The direction the axes at a specific location point is a function of time
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To account for the local movement of the coordinate system mathematically, we must consider the behavior of a vector in a rotating coordinate system
Consider a vector in a stationary coordinate system
kAjAiAA zyx
The components of the vector in the rotating coordinate system are:
kAjAiAA zyx
where , , and are fixed at local pointsi
j
k
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The time derivative of the vector kAjAiAA zyx
The time derivative of the vector kAjAiAA zyx
in a stationary coordinate system would be:
kdt
dAj
dt
dAi
dt
dA
dt
Ad zyx
in the rotating coordinate system are:
dt
kdA
dt
jdA
dt
idAk
dt
Adj
dt
Adi
dt
Ad
dt
Adzyx
zyx
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dt
kdA
dt
jdA
dt
idAk
dt
Adj
dt
Adi
dt
Ad
dt
Adzyx
zyx
kdt
dAj
dt
dAi
dt
dA
dt
Ad zyx
Stationary
Rotating
We can write the equation for the rotating frame of reference as:
dt
kdA
dt
jdA
dt
idA
dt
Ad
dt
Adzyx
The derivatives , , and , represent the rate of
change of the unit vectors , , and , that arise because the coordinate system is rotating
dt
id
dt
jd
dt
kd
i
j
k
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Let’s determine and expression for
dt
id
Rotation vector, , points upward from north pole
iiBy similar triangles
idt
di
dt
id
t
i
t
0
lim
The magnitude of is given by: dt
id
The direction of is given by: dt
id
idt
id
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jj
By similar triangles
jdt
dj
dt
jd
t
j
t
0
lim
The magnitude of is given by: dt
jd
The direction of is given by:
jdt
jd
dt
jd
Let’s determine and expression for
dt
jd
Rotation vector, , points upward from north pole
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kk By similar triangles
kdt
dk
dt
kd
t
k
t
0
lim
The magnitude of is given by: dt
kd
The direction of is given by: dt
kd
kdt
kd
Let’s determine and expression for
dt
kd
Rotation vector, , points upward from north pole
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dt
kdA
dt
jdA
dt
idA
dt
Ad
dt
Adzyx
Our previous equation was:
dt
kdA
dt
jdA
dt
idA
dt
Ad
dt
Adzyx
and we can write
jAjAdt
jdA yyy
iAiA
dt
idA xxx
kAkAdt
kdA zzz
then
kAjAiAdt
Ad
dt
Adzyx
Adt
Ad
dt
Ad
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Adt
Ad
dt
Ad
For a vector A, the coordinate transformation from a non-rotating to a rotating system is given by:
Let’s apply this to two vectors:
Let be a position vector, perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the earth with magnitude equal to the distance from the surface of the Earth to the axis of rotation
rdt
rd
dt
rda
By definition: rVVa
The absolute velocity of an object on a rotating earth is equal to its velocity relative to the rotating earth + the velocity of the Earth’s rotation
Also apply vector transform to aV
r
aaaa V
dt
Vd
dt
Vd
The absolute acceleration of an object on a rotating earth is equal to its acceleration relative to the rotating earth + acceleration due to the Earth’s rotation
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aaaa V
dt
Vd
dt
Vd
rVVa(1) (2)
Put (2) into (1)
rVrVdt
d
dt
Vd aa
rVdt
rd
dt
dV
dt
Vd aa
rVVdt
dV
dt
Vd aa
rVdt
dV
dt
Vd aa
22
CoriolisForce
CentrifugalForce
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rVdt
dV
dt
Vd aa
22
w
k
vu
ji
V sin2cos202
sin2 udt
dv
dt
vd aa
cos2 udt
dw
dt
wd aa
cos2sin2 wvdt
du
dt
ud aa
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Equations of motion on non-rotating earth
2
21tan
z
uK
x
p
a
uw
a
uv
dt
du
2
22 1tan
z
vK
y
p
a
vw
a
u
dt
dv
AccelerationCorrection terms for earthbased coordinate system
Pressure gradientForce
Friction
(East-West equation)
(North-South equation)
(Up-Down equation) 2
22 1
a
GM
z
p
a
vu
dt
dw
Gravity
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Equations of motion on rotating earth
AnswerWe must add terms to account for the accelerationrequired for air to conserve its angular momentum.
In scalar form the equations of motion for each direction become:
cos2sin2
1tan2
2
wvz
uK
x
p
a
uw
a
uv
dt
du
sin2
1tan2
22
uz
vK
y
p
a
vw
a
u
dt
dv
cos2122
ugz
p
a
vu
dt
dw
(East-West equation)
(North-South equation)
(Up-Down equation)
Acceleration
Correction terms for spherical coordinate system
Pressure gradientForce
Friction
EffectiveGravity
Coriolis Force
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The complete momentum equations on a spherical rotating earth
FOR SYNOPTIC SCALE MOTIONS…..
WHICH TERMS ARE LARGE AND IMPORTANT?WHICH TERMS ARE SMALL AND INSIGNIFICANT?
See Scale Analyses: Table 3.1 P. 60, Table 3.2 P. 64
cos2sin2
1tan2
2
wvz
uK
x
p
a
uw
a
uv
dt
du
sin2
1tan2
22
uz
vK
y
p
a
vw
a
u
dt
dv
cos2122
ugz
p
a
vu
dt
dw
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Scale Analysis of the horizontal momentum equations
WfUfH
U
L
p
a
UW
a
U
L
U002
22
cos2sin2
1tan2
2
wvz
uK
x
p
a
uw
a
uv
dt
du
sin2
1tan2
22
uz
vK
y
p
a
vw
a
u
dt
dv
6373854 10101010101010
110 msU 101.0 msW mL 610 mH 410
2233
101
101000 sm
mkg
mbPap
121 smK
*numbers in yellow boxes apply to free atmosphere above boundary layer
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Scale Analysis of the vertical momentum equations
110 msU 101.0 msW mL 610 mH 410
2253
5
101
100010 sm
mkg
mbPap
201 msg
cos2122
ugz
p
a
vu
dt
dw
ufgH
p
a
U
L
UW0
2
31157 1010101010
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cos2sin2
1tan2
2
wvz
uK
x
P
a
uw
a
uv
dt
du
sin2
1tan2
22
uz
vK
y
P
a
vw
a
u
dt
dv
cos20122
ugz
P
a
vu
dt
dw
ABOVE THE BOUNDARY LAYER
cos2sin21tan
2
2
wvz
uK
x
P
a
uw
a
uv
dt
du
sin2
1tan2
22
uz
vK
y
P
a
vw
a
u
dt
dv
cos20122
ugz
P
a
vu
dt
dw
WITHIN THE BOUNDARY LAYER
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fvz
uK
x
P
dt
du
2
21
fuz
vK
y
P
dt
dv
2
21
gz
P
1
0
fvx
P
dt
du
1
fuy
P
dt
dv
1
ABOVE THE BOUNDARY LAYER, ALL HORIZONTAL PARCEL ACCELERATIONS CAN BE UNDERSTOOD BY COMPARING THE MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION OF THE PRESSURE GRADIENT AND CORIOLIS FORCES
WITHIN THE BOUNDARY LAYER, ALL HORIZONTAL PARCEL ACCELERATIONS CAN BE UNDERSTOOD BY COMPARING THE MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION OF THE PRESSURE GRADIENT, CORIOLIS AND FRICTIONAL FORCES
The Hidden Simplicity of Atmospheric Dynamics:
THE ATMOSPHERE IS IN HYDROSTATICBALANCE – VERTICAL PGF BALANCESGRAVITY – ON SYNOPTIC SCALES
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Note the Total Derivative:
zyxtyxtzxtzy tdt
dt
zdt
dz
ydt
dy
xdt
dx
dt
d
,,,,,,,,
zyxtyxtzxtzy tzw
yv
xu
dt
d
,,,,,,,,
dt
dzw
dt
dyv
dt
dxu ,,Note that:
tyxtzxtzyzyx zw
yv
xu
dt
d
t ,,,,,,,,
The rate of changeof a property (temp)at a fixed point(x,y,z)
The rate of changeof the propertyFollowing a parcel asit moves tothe point (x,y,z)
The advection of the propertyfrom upstream to the point(x, y, z)
=
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fvx
P
t
u
z
uw
y
uv
x
uu
zyxtyxtzxtzy
1
,,,,,,,,
fvx
P
dt
du
1
z
uw
y
uv
x
uufv
x
P
t
u
1
Simplified u Momentum Equation expressed in terms of local time derivatives
The rate of changeof west-east windat a fixed point(x,y,z)
PGF COR The advection of the west-east windComponent from upstream to the point(x, y, z)
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fuy
P
t
v
z
vw
y
vv
x
vu
zyxtyxtzxtzy
1
,,,,,,,,
fuy
P
dt
dv
1
z
vw
y
vv
x
vufu
y
P
t
v
1
Simplified v Momentum Equation expressed in terms of local time derivatives
The rate of changeof south-north windat a fixed point(x,y,z)
PGF COR The advection of the south-north windComponent from upstream to the point(x, y, z)
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Pressure as a vertical coordinate
Pressure decreases monotonically with altitude, and therefore can be used as a vertical coordinate instead of altitude
We will find this coordinate system more convenient mathematically and so our task will be to recast the momentum equations in pressure coordinates
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fvx
P
dt
du
1
fuy
P
dt
dv
1
The simplified horizontal momentum equations in height coordinates are given by:
or more succinctly:
Vkfpdt
Vd
1
In order to cast these equations in pressure coordinates, we need to convert the PGF term into an equivalent expression in isobaric coordinates……..
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Consider the differential on a constant pressure surfacedp
Expanding…
pyx
p
zx
pzy
p dzz
pdy
y
pdx
x
pdp
,,,
(Subscripts indicate differentiation carried out holding subscripted variable constant)
pyx
p
zx
pzy
dzz
pdy
y
pdx
x
p
,,,
0
Now expand as a function of x and ydz
p
px
ppyyx
p
zx
pzy
dyy
zdx
x
z
z
pdy
y
pdx
x
p
,,,,,
0
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p
px
ppyyx
p
zx
pzy
dyy
zdx
x
z
z
pdy
y
pdx
x
p
,,,,,
0
Rearrange:
p
pxyxzx
ppyyxzy
dyy
z
z
p
y
pdx
x
z
z
p
x
p
,,,,,,
0
For this statement to be true for all and , the statements in each square bracket must equal zero
pdx pdy
pyyxzy x
z
z
p
x
p
,,,
pxyxzxy
z
z
p
y
p
,,,
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pyyxzy x
z
z
p
x
p
,,,
pxyxzxy
z
z
p
y
p
,,,
Use hydrostatic equation gz
P
pyzy x
zg
x
p
,,
pxzx
y
zg
y
p
,,
Divide both sides by
pyzy x
zg
x
p
,,
1
pxzx
y
zg
y
p
,,
1
or
pyzy xx
p
,,
1
pxzxyy
p
,,
1
where is called the geopotential heightgz
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pyzy xx
p
,,
1
pxzxyy
p
,,
1
pyzyp ,,
1
We will now drop the use of subscripts and write the momentum equations in p coordinates
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In pressure coordinates, the horizontal momentum equations (above the boundary layer) become:
Pressure coordinates
fvxdt
du
fuydt
dv
where , the geopotential height, is given by = gzand f = 2sin
p
TR
pd
and the vertical momentum equation becomes
Vkfdt
Vdp
(using the ideal gas law)
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The Total Derivative in pressure coordinates
zpxtyxtpxtpy tdt
dt
pdt
dp
ydt
dy
xdt
dx
dt
d
,,,,,,,,
dt
dyv
dt
dxu ,Note that:
Note that the vertical velocity in pressure coordinates has a different form:
dt
dp
The term, , represents the rate of change of pressure following parcel motion as a parcel rises or descends in the atmosphere
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Note the Total Derivative:
zpxtyxtpxtpy tdt
dt
pdt
dp
ydt
dy
xdt
dx
dt
d
,,,,,,,,
pyxtyxtpxtpy tpyv
xu
dt
d
,,,,,,,,
dt
dyv
dt
dxu ,Note that:
tyxtpxtpypyx pyv
xu
dt
d
t,,,,,,,,
The rate of changeof a property (temp)at a fixed point(x,y,z)
The rate of changeof the propertyFollowing a parcel asit moves tothe point (x,y,z)
The advection of the propertyfrom upstream to the point(x, y, z)
=
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p
u
y
uv
x
uufv
xt
u
Simplified u Momentum Equation in pressure coordinatesexpressed in terms of local time derivatives
The rate of changeof west-east windat a fixed point(x,y,z)
PGF COR The advection of the west-east windComponent from upstream to the point(x, y, z)
fvxdt
du
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p
v
y
vv
x
vufu
yt
v
Simplified v Momentum Equation expressed in terms of local time derivatives
The rate of changeof south-north windat a fixed point(x,y,z)
PGF COR The advection of the south-north windComponent from upstream to the point(x, y, z)
fuydt
dv