18 /EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

NEW PERSPECTIVES FOR BILINGUAL TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAMS

Stretching Facilities and Experiences at Wayne State University

Rodolfo Martinez and Anga A. Youssef

Effectual learning and competent teaching should be the ultimate goals of all institutions of higher education. These are particularly important with new disciplines and programs, such as bilingual education, in which quality learning and effective teaching are considered of paramount importance in the implementation of teacher training programs. To ensure that trainees at Wayne State University's Bilingual Education Teacher Training Program are afforded the opportunity to optimally develop their teaching skills, innovative learning experiences have been provided that give them opportunities to partake in unique experiments that help develop a broader understanding of the global nature of bilingual education today.

Innovation is frequently hastened by new sets of demands or needs. Currently, economic circumstances and declining resources have necessitated innovative approaches to education. In addition, we find ourselves in paradoxical times which are difficult to comprehend, i.e., amid generally shrinking school enrollments which have created a surplus of teachers, we encounter a growing demand for bilingual education teachers.

Cuban,1 in describing various aspects of the socioeconomic and political impact of a shrinking enrollment of English-dominant children on a suburban school district, notes a 100 percent increase in the linguistic minority population. This decrease in school population has not been limited to the suburbs. Large cities also face a drastically shrinking school enrollment. Colton and Frelich2 report a drop of nearly 42 percent in the elementary school population of a large city in a mere decade, resulting in the closing of school buildings and consolidation of educational programs. While school districts resorted to school closings or the development of "magnet" schools as a way of coping with declining school enrollments, colleges and universities faced similar challenges.

The upshot of this issue is that shrinking enrollments ultimately means diminishing resources. When resources are scarce, a competitive struggle usually ensues for the tax dollar by demands to increase public spending in areas other than education-such as health, law enforcement, transportation, welfare and other social services.J By the end

of the Seventies, the American people showed signs of a tax revolt by their reluctance to give increased economic support to schools.

Faced with shrinking resources, teacher trainers have had to make adaptive changes in order to continue to provide quality learning and effective teaching. One such change is reported by Henderson~ in his study of the credentially process. The faculties of education and professional education organizations now have a jointly-shared responsibility in determining the requirements for the teacher certificates. Roth5 not only agrees with this, but maintains that in Michigan professional education interest groups and teacher organizations are already gaining control of the certification process. Branch6 also reports an innovative change in the process of adopting the Standards for Colleges and Universities Preparing Teachers by the Ohio State Board of Education in 1975. It represented the culmination of a massive process in which an excess of 100,000 persons had input. While readjustments are clearly taking place in the teacher certification process, they also reflect a change which appears to be occuring in the preparation of teachers. Teacher training programs

are beginning to examine their preservice and inservice teacher preparation approaches.

Bilingual education has been one of those programs which has had to move toward the use of non­traditional methods in order to meet the growing demand for bilingual teachers.

Bilingual Teacher Training Models

It can be seen from the above that the paucity of resources has dictated that new teacher training methods be developed which represent a departure from the traditional approach. The impact of this scarcity on bilingual education programs has been somewhat significant because the literature reveals attempts to develop new and innovative training approaches. Teacher training programs have been established which not only relate practice to theory, but attempt to use outside resources. They are as follows:

Field-Experience Model. Field experience is considered an important component of all bilingual education programs. Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, ESEA. regulations underscored this aspect of teacher training programs1 when funding was increased for training. It was felt by the Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Affairs, OBEMLA, US Department of Education, that most teacher training programs were "campus-based" and institutions which were undertaking bilingual programs needed to ensure that their students have contact with operating bilingual education programs in the field. This aspect was particularly important because student teachers needed to strengthen their usage of the non-English language in an actual teaching setting.

The recent evaluation report on teacher-training programs in bilingual education by the RMC

Research Corporation indicates that all of the programs studied had at least half of their course units in an area consisting of fieldwork. This field experience was made up of classroom observation and bilingual education student teaching-as well as work with the community. It is now evident that OBEMLA's emphasis on a field-experience component has become universally accepted.

Integrative Model. This model has its foundations on a competency­based teacher training approach.a The rationale for using this method is that it enables supervisors. peers and community persons to participate in the process of monitoring student attainment of the competencies. This model suggests certain areas or categories of competencies: Language proficiency, sociocultural knowledge and understanding, psychopersonal knowledge and understanding, curriculum. teaching methodologies, classroom management, and linguistic knowledge and understanding .

To attain the competencies, the students must take regular coursework. This is augmented by readings, research, project planning, classroom demonstrations, field­based experiences (in school and community), workshop participation, student teaching, multimedia participation, and conference participation. This model clearly shows an attempt to give the students an amplified experience beyond the traditional classroom.

Collaboration Model. Blanco9

proposes a collaborative teacher­training approach with other disciplines such as anthropology, linguistics, social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Thus, this collaboration would help the bilingual education teacher become well-versed in these areas. The teacher would become, in the classical sense, more of a generalist than a specialist. Blanco also calls for

EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVES/ 19

teacher training in the tradition of the "Age of Renaissance" when educators were learned in multi­disciplines. This model proposes use of facilities outside professional schools of education, but within the university confines.

Systems Approach Model. Golub,10

while employing a field-based training model. utilizes a management system which uses the resources of the higher education institution, the local school district, the community clientele, and the state educational agency in its monitoring process. The specific components of the training program include bilingual education theory and practice; effective utilization of school personnel. community, and parents; and non-campus-oriented courses which are offered in the field. The significant aspect of this model is the systems management approach which allows the faculty to monitor and evaluate student progress on an on-going basis. The model emphasizes many innovative aspects of teacher training, but its significance lies more in the process as a tool of measuring progress.

Institute Model. Cordasco and BucchioniI 1 suggest the utilization of staff development institutes in the field for the training of teachers for Puerto Rican students. The participants would take a series of seminars which would lead to the knowledge of Puerto Rican culture as well as the Spanish language. They would also study various facets of the mainland Puerto Rican experience. The students would also establish extensive contact with the community, to be augmented by field trips, lectures, films, readings, and discussions.

This inservice training model represents a radical departure from traditional teacher training programs because it employs resources that lie outside the campus. It suggests that programs which are exclusively

20 I EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

campus-oriented do not meet the needs of bilingual children.

The Wayne State University Teacher Training Model. It has been established that the education . community has come to realize that training programs must be developed which represent a departure from the past. Scarcity of resources, for one, has dictated change. Other factors include the rise of teachers' unions and professional education organizations which have assumed a greater role in the training process. Most bilingual education training programs have made attempts to establish programs which reflect a more effective responsiveness. However, these efforts have fallen short of maximizing the use of external resources and facilities.

The bilingual education teacher training program at Wayne State University has made an attempt to optimally use those facilities and resources which will assist it in the implementation of its philosophy and concept of bilingual/bicultural education.

The goal of the program is to train leaders in the field of bilingual education who will be able to energize change and establish an environment conducive to program implementation designed to meet the needs of children of limited English proficiency. It is a multidisciplinary approach which is based on concepts derived from cultural anthropology, linguistics, and bilingual classroom teaching methodology.

The Bilingual Education Program Area faculty has established several categories of competencies which determine the progress of the trainees in the program. The training program is not only competency­based, but also performance-based in which student outcomes and advancement can be more easily determined.

To accomplish its goals, the program uses external facilities to give students optimal learning experiences. These outbound resources are rapidly becoming a part of Wayne State's existing programs. Because they are part of the institution, the teacher-training program has been able to effectively implement bilingual student participation. All bilingual education trainees are given the opportunity to partake of these experiences by enrolling in classes which enable them to participate and earn credit as well.

These outbound learning experiences are as follows: (1) the Bilingual Education Montreal Seminar at McGill University, (2) the Wayne State University London Seminar, and (3) the Wayne State University Washington Seminar. In order to fully explore their effectiveness, it is necessary to describe each one.

The Montreal Seminar. This seminar was started as a result of a trip to that city to explore possible ways in which Wayne State students could benefit from the research and other resources available at McGill. An agreement was made with McGill's psychology department to establish a seminar which would include on-site visits to French­immersion schools. They would take place in the mornings. The participants were divided into teams of six and each team saw at least three different immersion programs. The students would meet at McGill in the afternoons to hear lectures from noted researchers. The Wayne State students would also have the opportunity of sharing their own research ideas and projects with McGill's professors and graduate students. Topics discussed in these meetings included: (1) the psychology of bilingualism, (2) bilingualism and the brain, (3) research on cultural diversity, (4) research on immersion schools, (5) activity-centered approaches to language learning, and

(6) classroom methodology in bilingual education. At the end of the seminar a debriefing session was held in which each of the participants reported on their on-site visitations.

This seminar is focused exclusively on bilingualism and the Canadian experience with immersion programs. The other seminars were already in existence and the bilingual students and faculty were able to participate in them and to influence the creation of an awareness for bilingual education among non· bilingual education students and faculty.

The London Seminar. Wayne State University's London Seminar is called "American Ambassadors in Education: A United Kingdom/North American Comparative Socio· Cultural lnservice Education Exchange Program." Its purpose is to provide participants with professional growth opportunities by living and teaching in another culture.

The concept is based on an exchange which involves a "live-in" experience in the United Kingdom with a host for three weeks during the summer. Upon return, the North American students host their British counterparts for three weeks in the following spring.

Such a program could not be undertaken without considerable planning. This planning begins in the fall semester prior to the summer London visit. Students are oriented to the requirements of the course during the spring semester. This orientation is followed by lectures on British cultural and social history as well as the structure of the educational system.

The Washington Seminar. This seminar was established for the purpose of enabling students to learn

about the relationship of education and the federal government. The seminar takes place in Washington, DC, and presentations are held in one of the congressional office buildings. Students are also asked to visit various governmental agencies which administer educational programs in which they are interested. Thus, students are exposed to the important issues before the Executive and Legislative branches of government. The legislative process in the US Congress affecting education is examined carefully by presentations by selected high-level US Department of Education officials as well as members of the Michigan Congressional delegation, particularly those who have membership in committees vital to education.

It can be seen from the above description of the instructional activities undertaken that our program has used outbound resources and facilities to improve the quality of learning and the effectiveness of our teaching. It is now essential that the effectiveness of facility stretching be determined by empirical means. In the following section, the impact on these activities on the students has been empirically evaluated and its findings presented.

The Empirical Aspect of the Study

The effectiveness of facility stretching by the Wayne State University Bilingual Education Program can best be determined by measuring the impact of outbound resources on the trainees. The findings are encouraging because they not only present the student's attitudes and perceptions of the teacher training program, but they also provide an in-depth description of those basic principles which provide the solid foundation for an effective teacher training program.

The authors have stressed this accountability in presenting the concerns, aspirations, and expectations of the students in the program. In addition, this study also provides a background for issues which need to be addressed in future research.

Methodology

The information compiled here was collected in the fall and winter, 1981-82, from 35 participants who were enrolled in our program. A three­part survey booklet was used to collect the information. The first part asked participants to give background information and academic status, as well as whether they had traveled previously to the places where the seminars were held. The second part was a list of possible reasons for participants to consider and rate. This list was generated by a similar sample of the students. Two raters independently sorted them out and came up with a list of ten reasons. The third part consists of a number of questions asked participants about their attitudes, satisfaction/dissatisfaction as well as their own evaluation of the program's academic activities. Thus, a random sample was chosen from those groups taking part in the Montreal, London, and Washington seminars. A final list of 35 participants was made. Data was collected during the Parent Advisory Conference of the Wayne County Intermediate School District in the fall of 1981. Those who did not attend this conference were asked to fill out the surveys during the 1982 winter semester.

Results

Participants and Their Backgrounds: Age and National Backgrounds

Only 30 participants reponded with completed surveys and took part in one or more of the seminars included in this study. Sixty-three percent of the total sample is female and 37 percent male. The average age of the

EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVES I 21

participants is 41.77 years. Though it is a small sample, participants represent a wide display of national origin background. Table 1 shows the number from each country as well as the country of citizenship. It is certain to draw attention to the fact that not all who have US citizenship were necessarily born here and most of the participants who have US citizenship have retained the citizenship of their country of birth. From Table l, it is clear that over 49 percent of the participants in our sample were born in the United States.

Table I

National Background of Bilingual Participants In Our Sample

Country of Birth Colombia Guatemala Jordan Lebanon Panama USA Venezuela Yugoslavia

(N=30)

Country of Citizenship

Colombia Guatemala Jordan Lebanon Panama USA Venei:uela Yugoslavia

N

1 1 1 8 1

15 1 2

N 0 0 1 8 0

27 1 2

Participants and Their Backgrounds: Language

In Table 2 we list the first, second and third language which participants know. From Table 2 it is clear that the participants have rich language backgrounds. It should be noted that not all participants who were born in the US speak English as a first language. Only about 30 percent of them indicated that

22 /EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

English is their first language; 70 percent learned English as a second language.

Table 2

Language Background of Participants

Finl Second Third ungu.tge ungu.tge ungu•ge ungu<1ge

Albanian 0 0 1 Arabic 9 0 0 Serbo-

Croatian 2 1 0 English 9 21 0 French 0 0 6 German 0 0 1 Hebrew 0 0 2 Hungarian 0 1 0 Italian 0 2 0 Macedonian 1 0 1 Spanish 6 10 9 Ukranian 0 1 0 Yugoslavian 1 0 0

Participants and Their Backgrounds: Educational and Professional

Table 3 shows the educational and professional backgrounds of the sample. There are three educational groups involved, one comprising 43.33 on the doctoral level; the second, 36.66 on the master's level, and the third, 20.00 at the start of undergraduate training. It is important to note that the majority of our bilingual program students are working in various educational disciplines-as Table 3 indicates.

With respect to whether the participants have visited the places where the seminars were held before they came to the program, it was indicated that none had been to London or Montreal prior to enrollment in the program; only 6.66 percent had been to Washington DC, before-but they had not participated in the seminar.

Table J

Educational and Professional St-.tus of Participants

(N=30)

Slatus Percentage

Doctorates 43.33 Masters 36.66 Undergraduate 20.00 Elementary Teacher 50.00 Secondary Teacher 33.33 Administrator 6.66 Community Person 3.33 Consultant 3.33 Pa ta-professional 3.33 Parent 0

Academic and Social Reasons for Enrolling in Wayne State's Bilingual Program

Participants were provided a list of possible reasons to consider and to

rate in terms of importance for them personally. They were also asked to indicate which, if any, was the most important reasons for their being in the program. Table 4 shows these results . As for academic reasons for enrolling in our program, about 90 percent indicate that "interested in bilingual education" as a very important reason, and 96.7 percent say it is the most important factor for being in the program. Similarly, "learning about other cultures" at 76.6 percent, and "broadening general education" at 66.6 percent are the next most often mentioned as the most important reasons. These reasons are important to 33.3 percent and 76.6 percent, respectively. "Acquiring a university degree" at 63.3 percent; "academic credibility of the program" at 56.6 percent, and "doing research with

Table 4

Academic and Soclilll Renons for Enrolllng In Wayne State's Bilingual Program

CN• JO)

Most Important Very No Reason for

lmportillnt Important Unimportant Comment Enrolllng-WSBP

Interested in 90.0 76.6 3.3 0.0 96.7 bilingual education (27) (23) (1) (0) (29)

Academic credi- 60.0 66.6 3.3 6.6 56.6 bility of program (18) (20) (1) (2) (17)

Acquire a 83.3 33.3 0 .0 0 .0 63.3 university degree (25) (10) (0) (0) (19)

Help in obtaining 20.0 26.6 30.0 16.6 43.3 or keeping a job (6) (8) (9) (5) (13)

Learn about 33.3 46.6 3 .3 10.0 76.6 other cultures (10) (14) (3) (3) (Z3)

Broaden my 76.6 36.6 o.o 0.0 66.6 general education (23) (11) (0) (0) (20)

Because I can get 13.3 30.0 36.6 23.3 40.0 financial assistance (4) (9) (11) (7) (12)

Help me Interact better with other 30.0 63.3 20.0 13.3 43.3 ethnic groups (9) (19) (6) (4) (13)

Interested in the 70.0 Z6.6 13.3 6 .6 40.0 course offerings (21) (8) (4) (2) (12)

Doing research with bilingual 30.0 86.6 6.6 13.3 50.0 faculty (9) (26) (2) {4) (15)

bilingual faculty" at 50 percent come as the third most-mentioned of the important reasons for being in the program. However, 60 percent of the sample said that "academic credibility" is very important and 66.6 percent consider it as important. These reasons seem to be the most important factors that participants see as part of their motivation for being in the program. "Help in obtaining or keeping a job" and "help me interact better with other ethnic groups" are equally most important to 43.3 percent of the sample. "Because I can get financial assistance" and "interested in the course offerings" are the most important for only 40 percent of the sample. However, "financial assistance" is very important to only 13.3 percent and "interest in course offerings" is very important to 70 percent of the sample. In conclusion, it is clear from these findings that bilingual students in the Wayne State program give preference to academic and social reasons for enrolling in the program. Therefore, we would conclude that our students do see value in pursuing their studies in the program despite the diminishing of federal funds.

Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction with the Program's Academic Activities Outside Wayne State University

A set of questions were posed to permit participants to express their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with our program's offerings. The first question asks participants to state the number of times they took part in the London, Montreal, and Washington, D.C. seminars. It was found that 13.3 percent (4) were in London, 90 percent (27) were in Montreal, and 26.7 percent (8) of the sample participated in the Washington, D.C. seminar.

EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVES/ 23

Table 5

Academic and Personal Changes Attributed to Bilingual Student Experience in Program's Seminars

Question: Have you found your experience in this/these seminar(s) helpful for your ... 7 (Check as many as you wish)

Very Much Much

Academic 53.3 30.0 development (16) (9)

Personal 6.7 13.3 development (2) (4)

Intellectual 3.3 63.3 development (1) (19)

Feeling of 6.7 43.3 self-confidence (2) (13)

Feeling of 60.0 26.6 independence (18) (8)

Job 6.7 so.a (2) (15)

Impact of the Program's Seminars on Academic and Personal Qualities

What is the effect of the program's seminars on the bilingual students? Do these seminars make significant changes in students' academic development, as well as their personal lives, in general? If so, to what extent? The participants were asked to reflect on such questions and their responses were tabulated in Table 5.

Interesting results were found which pertain to the impact of the program's experience on these participants' lives. Over 50 percent ~ay that the experience has affected them much or very much with regard to their "intellectual development," "feeling of independence," "academic development," and was helpful for their "jobs." About 43.3 percent say that their "self-confidence" has been much raised by the seminars' experience. The program experience had an impact on the "personal development" of 13.3 percent of the sample. We realize, of course, that similar experience in other bilingual programs might have similar impact on the student's sense of maturity

Not Very Sure Little Little None

6.7 3.3 3.3 o.o (2) (1) (1) (O)

3.3 36.6 16.7 10.0 (1) (11) (5) (3)

6.7 3.3 3.3 13.3 (2) (1) (1) (4)

30.0 3.3 10.0 3.3 (9) (1) (3) (1)

0.0 0.0 10.0 0.0 (0) (0) (3) (0)

23.3 13.3 0.0 3.3 (7) (4) (0) (1)

and responsibility, however, what is particularly significant is that so much of a change in academic and personal growth is attributed by these participants to the experience they had at Wayne State's bilingual program. In a social sense, then, those bilingual students who, because of their culture, live with their parents and do not have that much freedom to travel believe that the program experience has helped them develop personal skills as well as increase their feeling of independence and raised their self­confidence level. This is particularly true of females, who feel that through their experience at our program they are ready to face greater professional responsibility with a hard-earned sense of accomplishment and confidence.

In gener<ll, ue you Htlsfied with your overall academic <lnd social experience In the progr<lm activities outside of W<lyne Stille University?

Very satisfied 30.0 (9)

Satisfied 53.3 (16)

Neutral 3.3 (1)

Dissatisfied 10.0 (3)

Very dissatisfied 0.0

24 I EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

When asked about satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the program's activities, over 50 percent indicated a general satisfaction, and 30 percent said they were very satisfied. However, it should be noted that the program's seminars were not too satisfying to IO percent of the sample. The message implied in these participants' reactions might mean that the program could enhance and strengthen the learning/training process of prospective bilingual leaders by improving the quality, intellectual stimulation, and accessibility of its activities. When participants were asked if their experience in the seminars enhanced their research interests or helped them develop new areas of investigation, we found that 73.3 percent {22) responded in the affirmative. This was due to their interaction with other researchers who opened, for them, hithertofore unknown areas. They also saw possible field experiments that could provide easily collectible data.

To what extent does the program's seminars affect the participants' perception of our program? The participants were asked:

In wh;it w;iy has your partidpation in those semin;irs dfected your view of our program?

I am more positive now about WSU's bilingual program

My view of the program has remained the same

I am more negative now about the program

76.6 (23)

16.6 (5)

6.6 (2)

For the majority of participants, 93 percent plus, their views of Wayne State's program have either no~ been affected or have become more positive as a result of their experience in these seminars. For about 76 percent a favorable and healt.hy sense of appreciation may have grown up. However, for about 6 percent their experience in these

seminars seems to have generated a more negative view of the program.

Will you be interested to participate in these seminars in the future? Yes=86.6 (26) No•l3.3 (4}

If yes or no, why?

A surprisingly large number of participants, 86 percent plus, want to participate in these seminars again. When asked to state the reasons, profound information was provided. However, because the responses represented similar ideas, it was decided to present a typical reaction:

"Yes, I would like to participate in these seminars again because it was a very rewarding and fulfilling experience for me. I learned so much in such a short time. The lectures by McGill's faculty were excellent, Visits to immersion programs were stimulating. My learning experience in the London and Washington seminars was very rich. I have a different outlook now toward life, in general. I thank the bilingual department at Wayne State University for their efforts with us, in terms of letting us experience and enrich our education further."

Finally, participants were asked to spell out new directions, recommendations or suggestions for our program to help students achieve their goals best. Valuable and most revealing suggestions were made. The program could do the following: Improve its advisory/orientation services; relax its rules to help bilingual students get more scholarships; bilingual faculty should provide inservice opportunities for other faculty in the university as well as people in the public schools and community to become more sensitive and knowledgeable about bilingual students' cultures and nations; to be sensitive and delicate with bilingual students' needs, limitations and look at their differences, not as bad but as unique. They also suggested that government and local people have to be taught what discrimination means to bilingual students.

In summary, while there are extensive questions in this survey, the findings are stimulating and it is our hope that these results can be of practical use. This survey not only sheds considerable light on the program's activities, but it also provides potentially valuable feedback information necessary for effective program management and implementation.

Summary and Conclusions

This study clearly shows the need of universities to work and interact with other institutions of higher education as well as to use outbound facilities. Shrinking resources impede the maintenance of an optimal level of learning and teaching. Our program's effort to use external ways and means is an indication that facility stretching can have a positive effect on the students. This impact can be summarized as follows:

Teachers and school district administrators are given an opportunity to have a global, first-hand experience of teaching activities, school policies, and curriculum materials used in other countries.

Participants are provided opportunities to teach and have first-hand experiences in living in another culture and observing the customs and traditions of that country, thereby becoming more sensitive to the needs of others.

Students have an opportunity to participate in the planning and implementing of an innovative program.

Graduate students are provided with invaluable opportunlties to conduct cross­cultural and cross-national research activities which permit them to extend and maximize their research interests.

Graduate students are afforded the opportunity to use host-country facilities and resources to collect necessary data for their individual research.

Participants are given the opportunity to develop new and innovative programs based on a more global perspective.

Trainees are provided an opportunity for intellectual development, academk: progress, and a feeling of self­independence. This was particularly important and significant to the majority of the students.

Given the successful impact on our program, it is suggested that facility stretching will strengthen teacher training programs and help train teachers who will have a greater sensitivity to a changing world.

footnotes

•Cuban, Larry. "Shrinking Enrollment and Consolidation: Political and Organizational Impacts in Arlington, Virginia," in f1111c111ion 11nil Urban Sodtly, vol. II, no. 3, May 1979, pp. 367-395.

icolton, David and Alan Frelich. "Enrollment Decline and School Closings in a Large City," in EJucalion anJ Urban Sodtly, vol. II, no. 3, May 1979, pp. 396-417.

)Tyler, Ralph W. "The School of the Future: Needed Research and Development," in Louis Rubin, ed., Tht Fulurt of fJl11C111ion: Pmptcli11N on Tomorrow's Schooling, Boston : Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1975.

•Henderson, Alga D. Tlit lnno111lli11t Spirit, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1970.

'Roth, Robert A. "The Changing Locus of Control in Teacher Education," in Tht T mchtr fJlucalor, vol. XXXll, no. 2, Autumn 1981, pp. 2-11.

•Branch, Jan S. "Ohio's Teacher Education Redesign Mandate: Major Implications for Universities," in Thr Tt11chtr fJluc11lor, vol. XXXll, no. 1, Summer 1981, pp. 21-26.

7Acosta, Robert and George Blanco. Comptltncits for Uni11trsi/y Progr11ms in Biling1111/ EJ11c111ion, Washington DC : US Government Printing Office, 1978.

•Britton, Augusto. "The Integrative Model for the Professional Training of Bilingual Teachers," in Curriculum 11nJ lnslruclion Cullum/ Iss11ts in EJuc11lion: A Boal: of RtaJings. Pomona, California : National Multilingual Multicultural Materials Development Center, 1978.

•Blanco, George. "The Preparation of Bilingual Teachers," in Rudolph C. Troike and Nancy Mediano, eds .• Prou tdrngJ of tht Firs/ lnttr-Amrrir11n Confrrtnet on Bilingual Educ111ion, Arlington, Virginia : Center for Applied Linguistics, 1975, pp. 203-297.

10Golub, Lester S. "Teacher Preparation in Bilingual Education," in Raymond V. Padilla, ed., Ethnopmptclitlt in Bilingual EJ11c111ion Rmarch, vol II-Theory in Bilingual Education, Ypsilanti, Michigan : Bilingual Program, Eastern Michigan University, 1980, pp. 388-410.

llCordasco, Francesco and Eugene Bucchioni. "An Institute for Preparing Teachers of Puerto Rican Students," in Francesco Cordasco, ed., Bilingu11I Schooling in tht UniltJ SIRIN: A SollrUbool: for EJuc11/ion11I Pmonntl, New York : McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1976.

EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVES/ 25

RoJolfo Marlintr. is Associa/t Profmor of EJuc11/ion 11nJ Dim/or of tht Bilingu11I Progr11m 111 W11ynr 5111/t Univmily. Ht has pwblishrd st11tr11l 11rliclts on /11ng11agt policy, progr11m 11d111inistmlion 11nd f11clors unsltrlying stuJtnlJ' succtss in bilingu11/ progr11ms.

Ang11 A. Youssrf is Assistant Profm or of fllut11tion 11/ W11ynt S/11tr Uni11mily. Sht lr11s publisht1I stvtml 11rliclrs on tht rtl11tionslrip btlwun mo/i1111/ion. abilily. timt 11nJ stuJrnts' 11chit11tmrnt in srconJ langu11gt classts. Shr h11s 11/so 11wlhorrJ 11rl1clrs on biling1111/ ins/ruction, curriculum Jr11rlopmrnl And impltmtnlalion of bilrng1ud progr11ms.