New Frontiers

New Frontiers

Unit 6

1958 Congressional Election• Democrats increase their stronghold in Congress.• A Democrat John Fitzgerald Kennedy won another

landslide senatorial election in Massachusetts– He appeared to be a good choice for the Democratic

Nomination for….

President in the 1960 Presidential election.Kennedy’s Nomination DrawbacksKennedy’s Nomination Drawbacks

• Would have to drive out the notion that a Catholic could be elected President

• He didn’t have a long political career.– Elected to the House of Representatives 1947-1953– Elected to the U.S. Senate 1953-1960

Kennedy’s Nomination DrawbacksKennedy’s Nomination Drawbacks• His opponents were Lyndon B. Johnson Lyndon B. Johnson – House of Reps 1937-1949, Senate 1949-1960, Senate

Majority Whip, Senate Minority Leader, Senate Majority Leader,

• His opponents were Hubert HumphreyHubert Humphrey– Mayor of Minneapolis 1945-1948, Senator 1948-1964.– First introduced the notion of the Peace Corp in 1957 (JFK

gets credit for it though)• His opponents were Stuart SymingtonStuart Symington– US Secretary of the Air Force 1947-1950, Senator 1953-US Secretary of the Air Force 1947-1950, Senator 1953-

1976, orchestrated the Berlin Airlift1976, orchestrated the Berlin Airlift

Election 1960• Kennedy wins the Democratic Nomination and

chooses LBJLBJ to be his VP candidate. (Helped him win the southern vote)

• His opponent was Richard Nixon (republican)– Both were considered similar in political views – Both were staunch Cold War advocates (felt that

communism had to go)– Both were young (early 40’s)– Both were into civil rights– Both supported the same basic concept of the New Deal – Kennedy was just prettier.

Election 1960“The Issues”

• Nixon wasn’t strongly supported by Eisenhower • Kennedy linked Nixon to Eisenhower and how the

USA fell behind the Soviets in the space race during his tenure.

• Kennedy continued to attack the Republican record of late.

• Kennedy being a Catholic was difficult to overcome.– He openly supported the separation of church and state– He rejected federal aid for parochial “private religious” schools– Favored birth control

The Debate

• Sept. 1960 1st televised presidential debate.• Kennedy was refreshed (tanned from his California

campaign run)• Nixon had poor make up, a knee infection and was

tired.• Kennedy had his arguments polished• Nixon did not.• Kennedy was “viewed” as popular after this debate.

The Race

• Kennedy was leading after the debate and it seemed that the Democrats would win the White House.

• Finally Eisenhower (who was extremely popular) campaigned hard for Nixon and almost pulled out a Rupublican victory.

• Kennedy won the 1960 election (by only a margin of 84 electoral college votes)– Smallest margin of victory in US History at the time.– Closest was Bush vs. Gore 2000. Bush won by 5 electoral

votes. (Excluding the Hayes vs. Tiden election)

Kennedy’s Presidential Approach

• JFK felt that Eisenhower's administration suffered because he wasn’t at the center of things.

• JFK felt he would be at the center of action and assert power of office.

• He wanted to “energize” the presidency. – (He wanted the power to rest with the president, not so

much congress)

• He pooled a wide range of advisors to be on his cabinet.


• Most notably was Robert Kennedy as Attorney General and his closest advisor.


• JFK’s top priority was foreign policy and the military• Wanted to contain the Soviet Union– Felt we got to far behind the Soviets in a number of areas

because of a lack of Eisenhower exerting dominance.

• JFK felt that 3rd world nations was the key to winning the overall Cold War.– A policy that would lead to the Bay of Pigs and the Cuban

Missile Crisis during his presidency.


• JFK created the Alliance for Progress program in 1961.– Congress approved $500 million for this.– It was designed to eliminate poverty, hunger, and social

injustice in Latin America. – It was designed to help countries reform their tax systems,

establish democratic governments, improve education, land reform, redistribute income, etc.• Mostly this didn’t work because many Latin American

governments didn’t want to redo their tax systems and establish new governments.


• March 1961 Kennedy launched the Peace Corps.– This was another way to involve the USA into 3rd World

Nations.– Most were young people.– This helped US relations in 3rd World nations so these

countries wouldn’t fall to Castroism or Communism. – It showed the USA as a humanitarian country and

strengthen the USA ideals in 3rd World nations thus improving our relations in “impressionable countries” during the Cold War.

Bay of Pigs

1961

Bay of Pigs• CIA Plan to train Cuban exiles to join American forces

for an overthrow of Castro.– This had been started with Ike.

• The attack was going to be amphibious (water) landing at the Bay of Pigs.– 1500 troops landed at the Bay of Pigs.– Castro was ready to meet them. – The invaders lacked equipment and man power and

within 3 days Castro overtook them. – The uprising of Cuban exiles never happened.

Bay of PigsCover-up

• The US took several B-26 bombers and painted them to look like (FAR) aircrafts.– FAR= Cuban air force government aircrafts.

• The mission was for these B-26 bombers to go in and destroy Cuban airfields.

• They did destroy some.• At the same time another B-26 bomber with similar

marking took off heading for Cuban headquarters.

Bay of PigsCover-up

• The one engine was pre-removed fired at and reinstalled along with it’s engine cover.

• The pilot flew just south of Florida and radioed a mayday and landed in Miami. He claimed he was a Cuban defector. – He called himself “Juan Garcia” he was really Mario

Zungia. (this was all set up)• USA goes to the UN and says we won’t involve

citizens in the fight against Cuba.

Bay of PigsCover-up

• Kennedy had withdrew additional air strikes prior to the 1st invasion. (Deniable plausibility)

• When the 1st invasion was a disaster, he refused naval invasions He wanted to avoid a war with Cuba.

• He tried to make it look like an internal Cuban invasion.

Bay of PigsCover-up

• Adlai Stevenson (UN Secertary) says the assaults were carried out by Cubans not US and shows him the photos of the “fake” flown by “Juan Garcia”– Stevenson didn’t realize he was lied to about the plane by

the CIA.– The CIA and the presidency weren’t on the same page.– Kennedy forces Allen Dulles into retirement (head of CIA)

and appoints his own man, John McCone

Bay of PigsAftermath

• Kennedy Administration humiliated• This invasion violated the OAS charter because the

USA got involved in another nation’s affairs.• USA relations with Cuba deteriorated quickly.• Soviet-Cuban relations and aid to Cuba strengthened

rapidly• Kennedy then put his brother Robert Kennedy in

charge of “Operation Mongoose”– He wanted someone he could trust this time.

Operation Mongoose

• This was a secret operation of psychological and propaganda Warfare, and sabotage.

• Stealth economic actions were also taken such as destroying sugar crops.

• Many actions and plans were hatched.• Some were real• Some were fake used as propaganda or to “justify

our retaliation”• None were really effective.

Operation MongooseExamples

• There were many attempts/ideas to assassinate Castro.– Lacing his cigars with poison– Harpooning him when he swam– Explosive seashells in his favorite diving spots– Spraying his broadcast studio with hallucinogens before

his speeches– Lacing his clothes with thallium salts (cause his beard to

fall out)

• All of these were failures

Berlin and Kennedy

Graphic Organizer

The Cuban Missile Crisis

• Kennedy didn’t want to go to war with Cuba.– As long as Soviets did not put weapons in Cuba that were direct

threats to USA (nukes)

• 1962 Castro and Khrushchev decided to secretly put medium & intermediate nuclear missiles in Cuba. (TBM)

• Oct. 14th 1962 a US spy plane spotted Soviet Nuclear missile sites in Cuba.


• Kennedy gathered 13 of his closest advisors to determine a course for action to have these Missiles removed. (Headed by Robert Kennedy)

• Khrushchev & Castro did NOT know that the USA spotted the Missile sites.• K & C did NOT know that JFK convened a secret

group of advisers to determine any action at all.• Even the US Media hadn’t known that anything was

up……………..yet


Response Ideas• 1. Do nothing.

– No chance everyone thought the missiles had to go.

• 2. Take out missile sites with air attacks.– Robert Kennedy said no. Too Pearl Harbor-ish and he

didn’t’ want that on his brothers Presidential record.• 3. Use diplomatic pressure to get the soviets to

remove the missiles.– Figured this wouldn’t’ work either because the Soviets

would then require us to give up concessions in Berlin before they would remove them.


Response Ideas• 4. Full scale Military Invasion:– Would make the USA seem too “trigger happy” and JFK

didn’t want that.– Also if they didn’t react to us killing the Russians in Cuba

they would take action in Berlin or the USA.

• 5. A Naval Blockade of Cuba. 5. A Naval Blockade of Cuba. – This was decided the best action.– It would essentially quarantine off Cuba so no ships

carrying Nuclear Warheads or equipment to complete the Missile sites could get in.


• This gave the USA and Soviets some flexibility.

• OCT 22OCT 22ndnd 1962: The Blockade goes into action. 1962: The Blockade goes into action.• Kennedy goes on TV to inform the USA & Soviet Union

of the situation.• He demanded dismantling & removal of the missile

sites.• KENNEDY ADDRESS CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS


• Stated that any nuclear missile launch from Cuba against any nation would be an attack by the Soviet Union on the USA and the USA would go full bore response with Nuclear Weapons.

• 5 days of tension resulted.• Khrushchev denied the existence of missile sites• More Soviet ships steamed toward Cuba carrying

equipment for the completion of the missile sites.


• 2 days after the “blockade” (OCT 24th) the USA launched B-52 bombers carrying nuclear warheads with orders to take out the ships if they tried to run the blockade.

• USA went to DEFCON 3 • The Soviet ships turned back.


• Oct 25th. Kennedy backs the quarantine line up further and takes the USA to DEFCON 2 (only time in US History)

• Kennedy sends a letter to Khrushchev stating this is his responsibility for this crisis because of his weapon building in Cuba.


• Oct. 26th. Khrushchev “supposedly” sent a message to Kennedy stating he would remove the weapon sites from Cuba in exchange for not invading Cuba.– Kennedy Accepted

• Khrushchev then sent a 2nd proposal stating that he also wanted the USA to remove their Jupiter missiles from Turkey and Italy.– Kennedy didn’t like this 2nd request.– He sent a message that he accepted the 1st request and

played like he never got the 2nd request.


• Oct. 27th. “Black Saturday”• An American U-2 spy plane was shot down over Cuba

and the pilot (Major Rudolf Anderson) was killed.• Kennedy’s message to Khrushchev that he will end

the quarantine and promises not to invade Cuba if Khrushchev removes the missiles.

• The missile sites were now fully operational and Kennedy figures to take them out shortly. – The Cubans/Soviets had made the 1st strike on the USA

killing Anderson. (WAR WAS IMMINENT)


• Oct. 27th. “Black Saturday”• Attorney General Robert Kennedy meets with Soviet

Ambassador Dobrynin and says that if the soviets agree to remove the missiles from Cuba then the USA will remove it’s Jupiter missiles from Turkey and Italy BUT…

• The Soviets can NOT make this information public.


• Robert Kennedy says if the Soviets make this info public the deal is off and most likely the US will strike.

• Robert Kennedy gives Dobrynin till the 28th (24 hours) to have a decision. If not the USA would most likely strike.

The Cuban Missile Crisis• Oct 28th. Khrushchev sends a message to Kennedy

agreeing to the deal.• Without consulting with Cuba the Soviet Union starts

dismantling the missile sites. • Cuba makes 5 demands to the USA, the USA rejects

them all.• Weeks later the USA starts removing their Jupiter

missiles from Turkey.• The crisis of WW III is averted. • Kennedy stood up to the Soviets and the Soviets backed

down. • Moral victory for the USA in the Cold War.

The Cuban Missile Crisis“Aftermath”

• Kennedy and Khrushchev decided to move towards co-existence” rather then confrontation.

• A direct “hotline” was established between the 2 leaders. – Also known as the Red Telephone.

The Cuban Missile Crisis“Aftermath”

• Kennedy states in a speech a year later at American University that: – All the worlds problems don’t necessarily need an

American answer.

• July 25th 1963 USA and Soviets sign the NUCLEAR TEST BAN TREATY:– Banning all atmospheric and underwear nuclear weapons

testing.

• This began the softening of relations between the Soviets and USA.

Kennedy & the Space ProgramProject MercuryProject Mercury

• 1st Human Space Flight Program in the USA.– 1959-1963

• 7 military test pilots became the first astronauts in US history.

– Notables:Notables: John Glenn, Alan Shepard– Dec 4th 1959---Sam the Monkey was launched for an 11 minute flight. Returned safely.– May 5th 1961 Alan Shepard was launched into a suborbital

flight (15 min)

Kennedy & the Space Program

Project MercuryProject Mercury• Feb 20th 1962 John Glenn launched inside Friendship

7 for a 5 hour orbital flight.• Orbited the earth 3x• July 20th 1969 Apollo 11 landed on the Moon.– Neil Armstrong– Buzz Aldrin– Michael Collins

• Stayed aboard the shuttle

Kennedy sacrifices for the Economy

• 1962 Steel workers were prepared to strike.• Kennedy’s secretary of Labor helped avoid a strike.– Steel workers accepted a small pay raise and the Steel

industry promised not to raise prices of steel to the consumers (American public)

• Kennedy praised the Steel Industry for settling this dispute.– About a week later US Steel announced steel prices would

rise by $6 per ton.


• Kennedy was irate and decided to put political pressure on the steel industry to retract the price hike.– The FTC announced it would look into the Steel industry

for price fixing. (illegal activity)– Robert Kennedy stated he would pursuit antitrust activity

against the Steel industry (illegal activity)– Steel industry got the message and retracted their price

increase. – JFK won but the industry leaders resented him and this

would ultimately hurt him for reelection.


• Congress rejected most of Kennedy’s economic plans.• 2 major economic breakthroughs during JFK’s

administration.• 1. OECD Treaty 1961OECD Treaty 1961– Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development.• Support sustainable economic growth• Boost employment• Raise living standards• Maintain financial stability• Assist other countries' economic development• Contribute to growth in world trade


• 2. Trade Expansion Act 1963:Trade Expansion Act 1963:– This allowed closer trade with European Common Market

Countries.– It reduced tariffs in these nations up to 50%.– Trade increased significantly because of this.– This lead the way to GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade)

Civil Rights

• During Kennedy’s campaign in 1960 he made it known he was for Civil Rights.

• He promised to end segregation in federal funded housing projects.– This helped him win the black vote.

• The Kennedys also helped get Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. released from jail during JFK’s campaign.– JFK and Robert Kennedy helped get Martin Luther King

released from prison.

GOT MLK?

Brief history of events of MLK’s arrestssss. (in relation to JFK)

• May 1960 May 1960 gets arrested from driving without a license in Georgia….Had a license in Alabama though.

• Oct 19Oct 19thth 1960 1960 arrested for being part of a sit-in at Rich’s lunch counter in Atlanta Georgia.

• Oct 25Oct 25thth 1960 1960 sent to prison in GA for his parole violation from May.

• Oct. 26Oct. 26thth 1960 1960 Robert Kennedy calls GA’s governor to arrange MLK’s release from prison.

Key Civil Rights Demonstrations in 1960

Feb 1Feb 1stst 1960: Woolworth’s Lunch Counter Sit In. 1960: Woolworth’s Lunch Counter Sit In.


Feb 1Feb 1stst 1960: Woolworth’s Lunch Counter Sit In. 1960: Woolworth’s Lunch Counter Sit In.– 4 black students sit down at Woolworth’s lunch counter in

Greensboro N.C. KNOWING that whites only were permitted to sit. (Blacks had to stand)

– They were refused service but the store owner didn’t have them thrown out.

– They stayed all day. (Cops were stationed outside the store fearing violence)


• Feb 1Feb 1stst 1960: 1960: Woolworth’s Lunch Woolworth’s Lunch Counter Sit In.Counter Sit In.– Feb 2nd they came back

with 27 other people and did the same. • (no real violence)

– Feb 5th the number was over 300 people.

– Woolworth Lunch Counter


• March 1960March 1960 several students from the Atlanta University Center’s CCommittee OOn AAppeal for HHuman RRights targeted several businesses (particularly lunch counters and dept stores) in Atlanta– Black civil right activists boycotted these businesses for

more than a year. – MLK is arrested in the process. (Oct 19th) – Eventually in 1961 Atlanta

is desegregated.

JFK on Civil Rights

• Very cautious.Very cautious. Balanced his ideas with realistic expectations (willingness) of the nation.

• He did appoint some African Americans to federal positions.– Thurgood Marshall (Circuit court judge)

• Robert Kennedy took more of an active role in civil rights.– Problem was how to move forward with civil rights

without causing problems with the southern democrats.

JFK on Civil Rights

• During Kennedy’s administration he did have to react to civil rights demonstrations.

Freedom RidesFreedom Rides• Done in 1961• Interstate bus rides to test the Supreme Court decision

(Boyton vs. Virginia)(Boyton vs. Virginia)– Overturned decision that convicted a black man’s trespassing

arrest for being in a whites only bus terminal restaurant – The rationale stated that bus transportation was related to

interstate commerce so federal government had jurisdiction.

JFK on Civil Rights

Freedom RidesFreedom Rides• 1st one was from

Washington D.C. to N.O.

• It was to challenge local laws that tried to enforce segregation.

• The freedom riders were met with violence.

Freedom Ride Violence ExampleFreedom Ride Violence Example

Anniston & Birmingham:• Police commissioner told

the FBI that they would give them a 15 min window for no arrests to give mob a chance.

• Slashed tires (A)• Firebombed the bus (A) • Held riders in to burn to

death. (A)


Anniston & Birmingham:• Riders were taken to local

hospital where most refused care. (A)

• Upon arrival in (A) they were met with KKK who board the bus and beat the remaining passengers unmercifully.


Anniston & Birmingham:• Then when the bus

arrived in (B) again the KKK boarded the bus.

• Dragged the freedom riders off and beat them with bats, bike chains, clubs, etc. (B)

• White riders were singled out and beaten even worse (B)

Freedom RidesFreedom Rides• Robert Kennedy sent a special assistant to calm the

situation. • The Freedom Riders got their point across.• In 1961 (under pressure from Robert Kennedy) The

Interstate Commerce Commission drafted orders for bus companies to desegregate.– The Justice dept followed suit by persuading 13 segregated

airports to desegregate. (2 others wouldn’t and they punished them with law suits.)

– AMERICAN EXPERIENCE: Freedom Riders: The Strategy– The Freedom Riders

James Meredith

• Sept. 1962 James Meredith tried to enroll into U of Mississippi.

• U of Miss said no. • Meredith got a U.S. Supreme Court order stating U of

Miss must accept him.• Governor blocked his enrollment.• Violence ensued• President Kennedy had to react and ordered 5000 US

Army soldiers to restore order and protect Meredith for the year he enrolled.

•James Meredith

guarded by US Troops

and Federal Marshals

•Meredith guarded by US Marshalls being taunted by white students.

•Meredith graduates from U of Miss 1963

MLK in Birmingham• April 12th 1963 the SCLC

(Southern Christian Leadership Council) lead “non-violent” demonstrations in Birmingham, AL.

• Their goal was to eliminate segregated hiring practices

MLK in Birmingham

• Bull Connor---Public Safety Commissioner put an end to these demonstrations.– Via: arrests, cattle prods,

attack dogs, high pressure fire hoses.

– Over 3000 people were arrested (which is against the 1st amendment)

MLK in Birmingham

• Demonstrators were adults and children.• Many criticized the SCLC

and King for using children in these protests

• MLK was jailed and write his famous essay “Letter from Birmingham Jail” (outlining the rational of nonviolent action)

MLK in Birmingham• Segregation at All Costs• May 10th the demonstrations and violence ended. • City officials agreed to desegregate.• Biracial groups were formed to facilitate progressive

movements.– Governor George Wallace (Alabama) denounced all agreements.– Lead to Wallace stopping 2 black students from trying to enroll

in U of Alabama. – Kennedy federalized the Alabama Guard and forced enrollment.

(2 hours later it was over) – CIVIL RIGHTS, GEORGE WALLACE– SCHOOL PROJECT FGu

JFK acting on Civil Rights

• June 11th 1963 JFK gives the 1st ever Civil Rights Speech by a president.– Excluding the Emancipation Proclamation– JFK Civil Rights Speech

• Kennedy then proposes the most extensive Civil Rights Bill ever in our nation. – Later to be the Civil Rights Act of 1964

• In support over 200,000 people marched on Washington and gathered at the reflection pool.

• March on Washington (Abbreviate this)

JFK acting on Civil Rights

• The culmination was MLK’s “I have a Dream Speech”– This has become the hallmark of the Civil Rights struggle.This has become the hallmark of the Civil Rights struggle.

• Afterwards JFK met with MLK.– Threat of filibuster on any civil rights bill loomed.– Then…….2 months later…..

• John Fitzgerald Kennedy was John Fitzgerald Kennedy was Assassinated in Dallas Texas.Assassinated in Dallas Texas.– Civil rights, policy, economy, was all put on hold while

the nation mourned.

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