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Neuroscience of Learning An Introduction to Mind, Brain ...Neuroscience of Learning An Introduction...
Transcript of Neuroscience of Learning An Introduction to Mind, Brain ...Neuroscience of Learning An Introduction...
Spring,2016
NeuroscienceofLearningAnIntroductionto
Mind,Brain,Health,andEducation
Section:Reading&DyslexiaJuliaVolkman,TeachingAssistant&ALMCandidateHarvardUniversityExtensionSchool(PSYCE-1609)
March22,2016
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Spring,2016
TheNobelPrize&severedyslexia
2Schnepps, M..LaboratoryforVisualLearning, Harvard-Smithsonian Center forAstrophysics
Carol Greidershared 2009 Nobel Prize for Physiology (telomeres and
chromosomes)
Baruj Benacerraf1980 Nobel Prize for
Medicine (Immunology)
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Spring,2016 http://labvislearn.org/ 3
Dyslexia&astrophysics
Spring,2016 4http://www.learner.org/courses/neuroscience/
Spring,2016 5http://labvislearn.org/research/publications/
Dr.MatthewSchneps
Spring,2016
IQandlanguagedevelopmentappeartobeuncoupledindyslexia
6Ferreretal.,(2010);Shaywitz,Weiss,Saklofske,&Shaywitz(2015)
Spring,2016 Kapoula, Ruiz,Spector, Mocorovii, Gaertner, etal.,2016 7
Dyslexicadolescentsratedhigheroncreativitythantypicallydevelopingadolescents
Spring,2016 8
Entrepreneurswithdyslexia
Spring,2016
Poll:Whatpart(s)ofthebraindoweusetoread?
http://media.nbcphiladelphia.com/images/600*428/millennials-brains-brain-diagram.jpg 9
Spring,2016
Thereadingnetwork
Pegado,etal.2014 10
Spring,2016
Anotherlookatthereadingnetwork
11Dehaene,2009
Spring,2016
Poll:Canyouloseyourleftoccipitallobeandstillread?
Dehaene,2009 12
Spring,2016 13
YES!Thebraincanovercome…
At Age 11
Dehaene,2009
Spring,2016
Poll
• Doyoungreadersusemorecortexthanskilledreaders?
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Spring,2016
Typically,specializedlanguageareasdevelopandlateralizeovertimebasedonexperience
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Age 11 Age 38
Gaillard,2012;Kersey&James,2014
• Longer/refined connections are more efficient (like well-formed highways rather than meandering trails)
• Right hemispheric regions are recruited in early learners but less and less as expertise grows
Spring,2016
Poll
• Readingnetworks&dyslexia…
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Spring,2016
Readingnetworksaredifferentindyslexia
17Finn,2013
Red =Non-impairedreader>Dyslexicreader
Blue =Dyslexicreader>Non-impairedreader
Spring,2016
Connectivityisdifferentintypicalversusdyslexicreaders
18Finn,2013
Red =Non-impairedreader>Dyslexicreader
Blue =Dyslexicreader>Non-impairedreader
Spring,2016
Connectivitydifferencesareseeninchildrenatriskfordyslexiabefore18monthsofage
19Langer,etal.,2015
FHD+=FamilyHistoryofDyslexia FHD- =NoFamilyHistoryofDyslexia
Axonal tracts of the arcuate fasciculus (connecting Broca’s area with Wernicke’s area) have decreased white matter in FHD+ infants
Spring,2016
Whyaretheresuchdifferencesinthesenetworks?
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Spring,2016 21
Wordsareprocessedaswholewordsorphonologically
Dehaene,2009
Spring,2016 22
Longroutetaxesworkingmemory:thephonologicalbuffer
Baddeley,2000
https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/173/flashcards/21173/png/psyc11339595879773.png
Spring,2016
Whataretheimplicationsofthisheavyworkingmemoryload?
http://dana.org/uploadedImages/Images/Content_Images/cere_slide3_0613_cont.jpg 23
Spring,2016
Dyslexiaisvariable:Afewpossiblerootcauses
• Magnocellulartheory(visualprocessingatypicalities)• Impairedvisualattention• Impairedauditoryprocessing
24Goswami,2015
A PHONOLOGICAL DEFICIT is a core component in most forms of dyslexia
Spring,2016
Howthevisualsystemworks(oversimplified)
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Spring,2016
Dorsalstream=location…”where”pathway
https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/-5fvutO3mGNk/ULPz3gqvMeI/AAAAAAABMOg/5x0boyL4HEM/w672-h402/ventral-dorsal-stream.png 26
Spring,2016
Ventralstream=thing…”what”pathway
https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/-5fvutO3mGNk/ULPz3gqvMeI/AAAAAAABMOg/5x0boyL4HEM/w672-h402/ventral-dorsal-stream.png 27
Spring,2016 28
VWFAisintheventralstream
Visual Word Form Area (VWFA)
Dehaene, 2009
Whenwelearntoread,weretrainpartoftheface
area(FFA)intoonethatspecializesin
letters
Spring,2016
Thereisacost…Illiterateadultsarebetterarerecognizingfacesthanliterateadults
29Dehaene,2010
Spring,2016
WhatdoestheVWFA do?
Itandthenetworkedregionsbeforeandafterenable“…therapidrecognitionofstringsoflettersandtheir
translationintosequencesofsounds.”
Dehaeneetal.,2015,p237
http://dana.org/uploadedImages/Images/Content_Images/cere_slide3_0613_cont.jpg
Spring,2016
WhydoestheVWFAmatterindyslexia?
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Spring,2016
“RD[ReadingDisability]oftenhasageneticbasisandhasbeenassociatedwithacommon
neurobiologicalmarker—thefailuretodevelopafunctionallyspecializedvisual-word
formarea(VWFA)…”
32Pugh,2006,p448
Spring,2016
Magnocellulartheory
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Spring,2016
Visualmagnocellularsystem
http://images.slideplayer.com/1/6120/slides/slide_17.jpg 34
Spring,2016
Magnocellulartheory:Visualatypicalities
“…Reading canbedisruptedinpatientswith20/20vision[because]…readingisacomplextaskthatinvolvesaninterplayamongvision,eyemovements,attention,and
linguisticprocessing.”
35Rodriguez &Barton, 2015
Spring,2016
Magnocellulartheory:Visualatypicalities
“…Readingcanbedisruptedinpatientswith20/20vision[because]…readingisacomplextaskthatinvolvesaninterplayamongvision,eyemovements,attention,and
linguisticprocessing.”
36Rodriguez &Barton, 2015
What are the possibilities for intervention?
Spring,2016
Impairedvisualattention
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Spring,2016
Dorsalattentionnetwork
http://www.acnr.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Visual-Hallucinations-Table-1.jpg
38http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-dAYrwpS1IyU/UCVSOS-A-eI/AAAAAAAABVE/njFzhGPb77w/s1600/Dang,+O'Neil,+Jagust+-+2012+-+Dopamine+supports+coupling+of+attention-related+networks.jpg
Spring,2016
ImpairedvisualattentionmayinvolvetheVWFA
TheVWFAhasstrongerconnectionstothedorsalvisualattentionnetworkthantothereadingnetwork
39Vogeletal.,2011
Blue =Readingnetwork Green =Visualattentionnetwork(dorsal)
Spring,2016 40
WhataretheimplicationsofaVWFAtrafficjamonthedevelopmentofthereadingnetwork?
• Hint#1:Practicemakespermanent.• Hint#2:Themindismadebytheworkofthehand.
Visual Word Form Area (VWFA)
Spring,2016 41
Theauditoryprocessingnetwork
http://therapeuticliteracycenter.com/what-we-offer/apd-and-brain-pathways/
Spring,2016
Impairedauditoryprocessing
Decreasedabilitytohearclearlyassoundintensitychangesovertime(thinkofaclassicalmusicpiecethatgoesfrom
pianotoforte…risetime)
Goswami,2015;Hämäläinen,etal.,2012
Spring,2016
Impairedauditoryprocessing
• Troublewithrise-time(theupwardmovingpartofamplitude)ispredictiveoffuturereadingdifficulty
• Behavioral evidenceofrise-timedifficulty:• Impairedmusicalrhythm• Timingdifferencesinsyllableproduction
Goswami, 2015
http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-qdkBc9EXHXU/VZbswH3TqVI/AAAAAAAADkA/zcz76bkrMwE/s1600/Girl%2Bplaying%2Brhythm%2Bsticks%2BVersion%2B4.jpg
Spring,2016
Poll
Symptomsofdyslexia
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Spring,2016 45
Whatdoyouthinkwouldhelp?
https://dyslexickids.wordpress.com/2013/06/26/dyslexia-mind-map/
Spring,2016
Dyslexiainterventions
• RepeatingReading:Somesmallevidence• SpellingMastery:Somesmallevidence• LindaMoodPhonemeSequencing:Moderateevidence• OrtonGillingham:Notmuchevidence• FastForward:Mixedevidence• Computertraining:Growingevidence
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Spring,2016
Motorpracticemayimprovevisualattention
https://www.leportschools.com/images/blog/learning-to-write-right/montessori-preschool-huntington-beach-writing-on-chalk-board.jpg
Kersey&James,2013,p11
https://verymontessori.files.wordpress.com/2012/04/teaching.jpg
Spring,2016 48
Andtheapps!
Spring,2016 http://labvislearn.com/compassionate-technology/ 49
MIT&compassionatetech
Spring,2016 http://labvislearn.com/e-readers/ 50
Casestudy:BrettBurlison
Spring,2016 http://www.voicedream.com/reader/ 51
E-reader
Spring,2016 52
Spring,2016
IsitcheatingtouseanE-reader?
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Spring,2016
Casestudy:Holly
“Ithought Iwasilliterate. Ifoundessaywritingreallyhard.Therewasnothingmorefrustratingthanknowingwhatyouwantedtowrite,methodicallyconstructingalogicalplan,tickingalltherelevantcheckpointsandthenthefinalessay
tobesomewhatunrepresentative ofwhatwasinitiallyintended.”
http://www.dyslexiaaction.org.uk/case-studies/holly 54
Spring,2016
Casestudy:Holly
WhathelpedinHS:o Technologyo Tests:areader,scribe,andmoretime
Whathelpedincollege:o A universitymentoro Twomonthsextratimeforherdissertation
o A laptopwithassistivetechnologysoftware
http://www.dyslexiaaction.org.uk/case-studies/holly 55
HollyrecentlygraduatedfromcollegewithadegreeinPhysicalEducation
Spring,2016
Casestudy:Tom
• 8yearsold• Can’tconstructCVCwords• Can’trecallsightwords• Readsqfory• Soundsoutdressasbrss• Frustrated
http://www.dyslexiaportfolio.co.uk/case_studies_tom.php 56
Spring,2016
Casestudy:Tom
Interventionplan• Memory(auditoryandvisual,toincludesequentialmemory)
• Developingasightwordstore• Securingphoneme-graphemecorrespondence• Alphabeticknowledge
…What’smissing???
http://www.dyslexiaportfolio.co.uk/case_studies_tom.php 57
Spring,2016
Casestudy:Grace
• Troublewithvisualscanning,processing,andworkingmemory.
• Difficultieswithspellingandsequencingforproblemsolving.
• Strongverbalskillsandartisticabilities.• Learnswellwithcolorandwhenherhandsareoccupied.
• Struggleswithnotetaking(duetodifficultieswithspellingandvisualscanningassheswitchesfromthefrontoftheroomtoherpaper)
• Difficultykeepingupwithlecture(gets“lost”)• Lookslikeshe’sdaydreaming…
http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/professionals/students-strengths-and-interests/case-studies 58
Spring,2016
Casestudy:Grace
• Troublewithvisualscanning,processing,andworkingmemory.
• Difficultieswithspellingandsequencingforproblemsolving.
• Strongverbalskillsandartisticabilities.• Learnswellwithcolorandwhenherhandsareoccupied.
• Struggleswithnotetaking(duetodifficultieswithspellingandvisualscanningassheswitchesfromthefrontoftheroomtoherpaper)
• Difficultykeepingupwithlecture(gets“lost”)• Lookslikeshe’sdaydreaming…
http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/professionals/students-strengths-and-interests/case-studies 59
What are the possibilities?
Spring,2016
Casestudy:Grace
• NotDaydreaming:Desperatelywantstoblendinwithherpeers(soshelookedtothemtoseewhatshewassupposedtobedoing)
• Abletofollowalonginbooksthatshecouldhighlightandmakedoodlesandnotesinthemarginsduringthelecture;thisfreedherattentiontofocusonthelectureandgavehernotestorefertolater
http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/professionals/students-strengths-and-interests/case-studies 60
Spring,2016
Casestudy:Amy
• Enjoyscreativewriting,fashion,andart
• Extremelybrightandhasastrongmemory
• Benefitsfromrule-basedinstruction.Ifyoutellheraruleonce,shewillbeabletoreciteittoyouthenexttimeyouseeher.
• Shedelightsinbeingabletobetheteacherandteachtherulesherselforcorrectothers’errors.
• Amy’sstoriesoftenjumparoundwithoutanycohesionorplot
http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/professionals/students-strengths-and-interests/case-studies 61
Spring,2016
Casestudy:Amy
• Enjoyscreativewriting,fashion,andart
• Extremelybrightandhasastrongmemory
• Benefitsfromrule-basedinstruction.Ifyoutellheraruleonce,shewillbeabletoreciteittoyouthenexttimeyouseeher.
• Shedelightsinbeingabletobetheteacherandteachtherulesherselforcorrectothers’errors.
• Amy’sstoriesoftenjumparoundwithoutanycohesionorplot
http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/professionals/students-strengths-and-interests/case-studies 62
What are the possibilities?
Spring,2016
Casestudy:Amy
• Visual/editingapproachtostories
• Workonherstorydaily• Useamulti-sensorymodeltoillustratethepartsofastory(character,setting,initiatingevent,internalresponse,plan,andresolution)
• Amydraftedstoriesaboutglamorouspeopleandenjoyedillustratingtheirwardrobes
• Amyrevisedherstories(withguidance)usingthestorytool
• Afterseveralrevisions,sheproducedawell-developedstoryandcolorfulillustrationthatwasframedanddisplayed.
http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/professionals/students-strengths-and-interests/case-studies 63
Spring,2016
Casestudy:Ryan
• DiagnosisofPDD-NOSthataffectshislanguage,social,andliteracyskills
• Struggleswithanxiety.• Interests:piratesandtreasure,cooking,watchinghisfavoriteTVshows,anddrama
• Strongmemory• Conveysagreatdealofsocialknowledgewhenheisactingordrawing
• Protestsandshutsdownwhenhehastoreadorwrite
dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/professionals/students-strengths-and-interests/case-studies 64
Spring,2016
Casestudy:Ryan• DiagnosisofPDD-NOSthataffectshislanguage,social,andliteracyskills
• Struggleswithanxiety• Struggleswithreadingandfollowingdirections,askingforclarification,andcomprehendingandusingabstractvocabulary
• Protestsandshutsdownwhenhehastoreadorwrite
• Interests:piratesandtreasure,cooking,watchinghisfavoriteTVshows,anddrama
• Strongmemory• Conveysagreatdealofsocialknowledgewhenheisactingordrawing
dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/professionals/students-strengths-and-interests/case-studies 65
What are the possibilities?
Spring,2016
Casestudy:Ryan– Socialanxietyreduction
• Watchedshows thattaughtlessonsaboutfriendshiporhada“moraltothestory”
• Tooksomeofthosethemesandstoriesandmodifiedthemintohisownstorythatincludedkidsfromhisschoolandhimselfascharacters
• Illustratedhisstoryandmadeitintoashortbook.
• TherapistsuggestedthatRyanmakehisstoryintoaplay,andthathecouldbethedirector
• Role-playsdonewiththerapisttohelpwithsocialanxiety:greetings,turn-taking,activelistening,problemsolving,andflexibilityforhandlingunforeseencircumstances
• Heinvitedapeertoactinhisplay;Hassincedirectedfourplaysandwrittencountlessothers
• Fiveofhispeershavecomeandactedinhisplays.(Ithasbecomea“cool”thingtodoinRyan’ssocialcircle)
• Gainedconfidenceinrelatingtohispeersandinhisstrengthofwritinganddirectingplays
dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/professionals/students-strengths-and-interests/case-studies 66
Spring,2016
Casestudy:Ryan– Sequencing&directions
• Bakingprojects:requiredhimtolocatethedirectionsonthepackage,sequenceandfolloweachstepinasequence,anddeterminethemeaningofnewvocabulary
• Thiscontextuallearningincreasedhisattentionandremovedallanxiety
• Builtonhisstrengthsforbaking• Learningincontextallowedhimtorememberthemeaningsofabstractvocabulary
• Ultimatelyhebroughthisbakedtreatstoothersthusreceivingmorepositivesocialfeedback
dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/professionals/students-strengths-and-interests/case-studies 67
Spring,2016
Casestudy:Ryan-Readingpractice
• Scavengerhuntstoboostreadingfordirectionsandvocabularyskills
• Enjoyedthechallengeofcomplexdirectionsbecausetherewasanelementofsurpriseandadventure
• Clearconsequenceifheincorrectlyfollowedthedirections(creatingtheopportunityforRyantoaskfordirectionsorseekclarification)
• Context-basedlearning(i.e.,hewaslookingatafireextinguisherwhenhewasreadingthewordforthefirsttime)waseasytoremember
• Manyconjunctions(but,therefore,so,if)andsequencewords(when,atthesametime,before,after,next)weretargetedmultipletimes,whichledtomastery
dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/professionals/students-strengths-and-interests/case-studies 68
Spring,2016 69
Julia’sTopRecommendations• Bountifulearlyexposuretoorallanguage(includingmusic,rhymes,andpoetry)fromhumanswhocare
Spring,2016 70
Julia’sTopRecommendations• Bountifulearlyexposuretoorallanguage(includingmusic,rhymes,andpoetry)fromhumanswhocare
• Explicitearlylessonsonphonemicawarenessandletter-soundcorrespondence
Spring,2016 71
Julia’sTopRecommendations• Bountifulearlyexposuretoorallanguage(includingmusic,rhymes,andpoetry)fromhumanswhocare
• Explicitearlylessonsonphonemicawarenessandletter-soundcorrespondence• Ifthey’renotgettingthey’resounds,scheduledaily(justlikebrushingyourteeth,shortbutconsistent)practicewith:
o Hearingthesounds inlanguage(soundgame)o Linkingthesoundsandsymbolsoflanguage(sandpaperletters/movablealphabet)
Spring,2016 72
Julia’sTopRecommendations• Bountifulearlyexposuretoorallanguage(includingmusic,rhymes,andpoetry)fromhumanswhocare
• Explicitearlylessonsonphonemicawarenessandletter-soundcorrespondence• Ifthey’renotgettingthey’resounds,scheduledaily(justlikebrushingyourteeth,shortbutconsistent)practicewith:
o Hearingthesounds inlanguage(soundgame)o Linkingthesoundsandsymbolsoflanguage(sandpaperletters/movablealphabet)
• Playmemorytraininggames(e.g.,“bringmeasock”,“bringmesomethingblue”)
Spring,2016 73
Julia’sTopRecommendations• Bountifulearlyexposuretoorallanguage(includingmusic,rhymes,andpoetry)fromhumanswhocare
• Explicitearlylessonsonphonemicawarenessandletter-soundcorrespondence• Ifthey’renotgettingthey’resounds,scheduledaily(justlikebrushingyourteeth,shortbutconsistent)practicewith:
o Hearingthesounds inlanguage(soundgame)o Linkingthesoundsandsymbolsoflanguage(sandpaperletters/movablealphabet)
• Playmemorytraininggames(e.g.,“bringmeasock”,“bringmesomethingblue”)• Linktheirintereststothewrittenword(sotheyareinspiredtoperseverewithreadingsomethingtheylove)
Spring,2016 74
Julia’sTopRecommendations• Bountifulearlyexposuretoorallanguage(includingmusic,rhymes,andpoetry)fromhumanswhocare
• Explicitearlylessonsonphonemicawarenessandletter-soundcorrespondence• Ifthey’renotgettingthey’resounds,scheduledaily(justlikebrushingyourteeth,shortbutconsistent)practicewith:
o Hearingthesounds inlanguage(soundgame)o Linkingthesoundsandsymbolsoflanguage(sandpaperletters/movablealphabet)
• Playmemorytraininggames(e.g.,“bringmeasock”,“bringmesomethingblue”)• Linktheirintereststothewrittenword(sotheyareinspiredtoperseverewithreadingsomethingtheylove)
• Makesurethey’regettingenoughsleepandoutdoortime
Spring,2016 75
Julia’sTopRecommendations• Bountifulearlyexposuretoorallanguage(includingmusic,rhymes,andpoetry)fromhumanswhocare
• Explicitearlylessonsonphonemicawarenessandletter-soundcorrespondence• Ifthey’renotgettingthey’resounds,scheduledaily(justlikebrushingyourteeth,shortbutconsistent)practicewith:
o Hearingthesounds inlanguage(soundgame)o Linkingthesoundsandsymbolsoflanguage(sandpaperletters/movablealphabet)
• Playmemorytraininggames(e.g.,“bringmeasock”,“bringmesomethingblue”)• Linktheirintereststothewrittenword(sotheyareinspiredtoperseverewithreadingsomethingtheylove)
• Makesurethey’regettingenoughsleepandoutdoortime• Limitscreentime(oneminuteofreading/everyminuteunassignedscreentime)
Spring,2016 76
Julia’sTopRecommendations• Bountifulearlyexposuretoorallanguage(includingmusic,rhymes,andpoetry)fromhumanswhocare
• Explicitearlylessonsonphonemicawarenessandletter-soundcorrespondence• Ifthey’renotgettingthey’resounds,scheduledaily(justlikebrushingyourteeth,shortbutconsistent)practicewith:
o Hearingthesounds inlanguage(soundgame)o Linkingthesoundsandsymbolsoflanguage(sandpaperletters/movablealphabet)
• Playmemorytraininggames(e.g.,“bringmeasock”,“bringmesomethingblue”)• Linktheirintereststothewrittenword(sotheyareinspiredtoperseverewithreadingsomethingtheylove)
• Makesurethey’regettingenoughsleepandoutdoortime• Limitscreentime(oneminuteofreading/everyminuteunassignedscreentime)• Beginregularstudyofamusicalinstrument
Spring,2016 77
Julia’sTopRecommendations• Bountifulearlyexposuretoorallanguage(includingmusic,rhymes,andpoetry)fromhumanswhocare
• Explicitearlylessonsonphonemicawarenessandletter-soundcorrespondence• Ifthey’renotgettingthey’resounds,scheduledaily(justlikebrushingyourteeth,shortbutconsistent)practicewith:
o Hearingthesounds inlanguage(soundgame)o Linkingthesoundsandsymbolsoflanguage(sandpaperletters/movablealphabet)
• Playmemorytraininggames(e.g.,“bringmeasock”,“bringmesomethingblue”)• Linktheirintereststothewrittenword(sotheyareinspiredtoperseverewithreadingsomethingtheylove)
• Makesurethey’regettingenoughsleepandoutdoortime• Limitscreentime(oneminuteofreading/everyminuteunassignedscreentime)• Beginregularstudyofamusicalinstrument• Lettheparent’sknowit’snottheirfault!But,theycanmakeadifference
Spring,2016 78
Julia’sTopRecommendations• Bountifulearlyexposuretoorallanguage(includingmusic,rhymes,andpoetry)fromhumanswhocare
• Explicitearlylessonsonphonemicawarenessandletter-soundcorrespondence• Ifthey’renotgettingthey’resounds,scheduledaily(justlikebrushingyourteeth,shortbutconsistent)practicewith:
o Hearingthesounds inlanguage(soundgame)o Linkingthesoundsandsymbolsoflanguage(sandpaperletters/movablealphabet)
• Playmemorytraininggames(e.g.,“bringmeasock”,“bringmesomethingblue”)• Linktheirintereststothewrittenword(sotheyareinspiredtoperseverewithreadingsomethingtheylove)
• Makesurethey’regettingenoughsleepandoutdoortime• Limitscreentime(oneminuteofreading/everyminuteunassignedscreentime)• Beginregularstudyofamusicalinstrument• Lettheparent’sknowit’snottheirfault!But,theycanmakeadifference• Focusonthepositives!Letthemknowthateveryonehaschallenges/gifts(nameyours)andeveryonefindsstrategiestoworkwiththem…everythingisworkable.
Spring,2016
Goodluckwithyourwork!
Gradstudents,remembertocompletethe3-2-1!
Ms.Volkman’sson 79