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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It would be insufficient just to say aword of thanks for all
those people who have been so instrumental in the success of this
project. However, as a small token of our appreciation we have
named here of all those wonderful people, without whom all this
would not have been possible.
At the very outset, we would like to express our deep sense
of gratitude to our mentors at the college, Principle Mr. S.P.Gupta
who have been so kind to give us the necessary infrastructure.
They have also been a constant source of inspiration.
I am deeply indebted to my guide at STPI, Mr. Shekhar
Saklani for allowing us to gain the benefits of STPI way of life. It
is due to his efforts that my training has gained its present stature
and I can never thank him enough for all he has done.
\ Ankit Vyas
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PREFACE
A very important in curriculum of an engineering student is
practical training.
I under went practical training training at STPI Dehradun.
This is a part of total 45 days training program incorporated in the
curriculum of G.I.T. for B.E. course.
During my practical training I learned about the networking. Why
networking is essential in our life. What are the advantages of
networking? How we can share our data. How a data transfer from
one source to another source. The main devices for networking are
Hub, Switch, and Router. How these devices work. How we give
ip address to computer. I also learned how we configure the router
how we can set the password such as enable, secret, vty password.
How we can telnet the router. How we can access another Routerwhile sitting on our router. So by this training report I have tried to
give an overview of the networking.
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CONTENT TABLE
1. COMPANY PROFILE 4-5
2. INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING 6
3. HANDS ON EXPERIENCE 7
4. PRODUCT AND DEVICES 8
5. SUMMARY 9-10
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY 11-37
7. GLOSSARY 38-40
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COMPANY PROFILE
STPI - A Profile
Software Technology Parks of India (STPI), is a society set up by the
Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, Government of
India in 1991, with the objective of encouraging, promoting and boosting the
Software Exports from India.
STPI - A Boon to the Software Industry
STPI scheme is a 100% Export Oriented Unit scheme for the development
and export of software using Data Communication links or by physical
media or by On site Consultancy. STPI acts as the front end on behalf of the
Government of India to take care of all the statutory needs, like project
approval, import approval, bonding, Software Export Certification, etc.
The scheme tailor made for Software Exports has benefits, viz.,
Duty free imports of hardware and software
Exemption from Corporate Income Tax till 2010
100% Foreign equity participation
Exemption of excise duty for domestic purchase of capital goods
Reimbursement of CST
Domestic Tariff Area (DTA) shall be permissible up to 50% of export
value terms
CG Goods eligible for Depreciation subject maximum of 90%
Issue of Green Card
Certification of Software Export made through Data communication
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To avail STPI scheme benefits, the simplified minimum export obligation is
USD 0.25 million or 3 times of CIF value of imported capital goods,
whichever is higher and Net Foreign Exchange Earning 10% (NFEP).
STPI supports new companies by providing Incubation infrastructure with
all facilities, viz. Internet, Telephone, Fax, Back-up power, etc.,
Today, there are more than 6000 software exporting companies operating
under the umbrella of the STPI. The share of the software exports from STP
units is more than 73% of the total software exports from the country.
The Statutory services are supported on robust Intranet Platforms to
ensure instantaneous responses to customer requirements. The service
delivery is bound with definitive timelines and toned with understanding of
the best practices in the industry.
Quality Policy
The policy of STPI is to continuously strive and delight customer through
total quality performance of all its services in terms of quality culture,
quality cost and quality delivery schedule.
Quality Objectives
To strive for the upgradation of the technology to meet
customer requirements in ever changing market
To upgrade the technology knowledge of all STPI personnel
through continuous improvement training
To provide state-of-art data communication services as per
acceptable international standards
To provide comprehensive service including projectapprovals, import attestation, software export certification
etc., in a time bound manner
Achieving customer satisfaction through the combined
efforts of planning the infrastructure and executing the
projects through dedicated workforce
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National Goal
Make India a global Information Technology Power and one of thelargest generators and exporters of software in the world within the
next 10 years.
Former Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee
Among the statutory services being offered by STPI are, single window
clearances of approval, 90% exemption from corporate income tax, complete
duty free import of software and hardware, reimbursement of CST,
simplified export performance norms, etc,.
STPI committed to take the nation forward to make it an IT superpower.
STPI is a proud for having introduced commercial Internet in India during
1993 and first videoconference from the country.
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INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING
What Is a Network?
A network is basically all of the components (hardware and software)
involved in connecting computers across small and large distances.
Networks are used to provide easy access to information, thus increasing
productivity for users.
Types of Networks
Local Area Network (LAN)
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Intranets, Extranets, and the Internet
Peer-to-Peer Networks
Client-Server Networks
Media
Twisted-Pair Copper Wire (POTS)
Coaxial Cable (CoAx)
Fiber Optics (Fiber)
Network Topologies
Linear Bus Network Star Network
Ring Network
Token-Ring Network
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Protocols
Simplex Transmission
Full-Duplex / Half-Duplex Transmission
Synchronous / Asynchronous Transmission
Ethernet
Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
Networking Hardware
Hubs
Bridges and Switches
Gateways
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HANDS ON EXPERIENCE
OSI Reference Model
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The OSI Model and Protocols
The OSI model is used to specify how computer devices communicate
with each other.
What is OSI?
The Open Systems Interchange (OSI) model is a set of guidelines that
describes all the aspects of the communication process.
The main objective is to allow computers and networks to worktogether efficiently. The International Standardization Organization
(ISO) develops product standards for the computer industry.
THE OSI Model
There are seven layers, or sections in the OSI model.
Each layer is responsible for one particular aspect of communication.
Data Transfer
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When data is transferred over a network it must pass through each
layer of the OSI model. Information is added at each layer
When the data reaches the destination, the data must again pass
through each layer. The additional information is then removed.
Application and Presentation Layer
The application layer is responsible for the exchanging information
between the programs running on a computer and other services on a
network.
The presentation layer formats the information so that a software
application can read the information
Session and Transport Layer
The session layer determines how two devices communicate as well
as establishes and monitors connections between computers.
The transport layer corrects transmission errors and ensures that
information is delivered reliably.
Network and Data Link Layer
The network Layer identifies computers on a network and determines
how to direct information transferring over a network.
The Data Link layer groups data into sets to prepare the data for
transport over a network.
Physical Layer
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The Physical layer defines how a transmission medium such as cable,
connects to a computer. This layer also specifies how electrical information
transfers on the transmission medium
The OSI model has seven layers. These seven layers can be summarizedas follow:
Seven layers are defined:
7) Application : Provides different services to the applications
6) Presentation : Converts the information
5) Session : Handles problems which are not communication issues
4) Transport : Provides end to end communication control
3) Network: Routes the information in the network
2) Data Link: Provides error control between adjacent nodes
1) Physical : Connects the entity to the transmission media
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TCP/IP Model
What Is TCP/IP?
TCP/IP is a universal standard suite of protocols used to provide
connectivity between networked devices. It is part of the larger OSI modelupon which most data communications is based.
One component of TCP/IP is the Internet Protocol (IP) which is responsible
for ensuring that data is transferred between two addresses without being
corrupted.
TCP/IP Protocol
TCP/IP Protocol is a collection, or stack of protocols used to allow
communication between networks with different types of computer
systems. It is also the protocol used on the internet.
What is TCP?
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Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is used to transfer information
between two devices on a TCP/IP Network.TCP uses Virtual ports to
make connections and also monitors the transmission of information.
What is IP?
Internet Protocol (IP) is responsible for addressing information and is
used to direct information to its proper destination on a TCP/IP
network.
IP address
Ip address is a logical address or a software which is used to identify a node
in a network ip(internet protocol)
What Do IP Addresses Look Like?
All devices connected to the Internet have an Internet Protocol (IP)
address. Just like a telephone number, it helps to uniquely identify a
user of the system.
IP addresses are in reality a string of binary digits or "bits". Each bit
is either a 1 or a 0. IP addresses have 32 bits in total.
For ease of use, IP addresses are written in what is called a "dotted
decimal" format, four numbers with dots in between. None of the
numbers between the dots may be greater than 255. An example of
an IP address would be 97.65.25.12.
The numbers between the dots are frequently referred to as "octets"
Some groups of IP addresses are reserved for use only in private
networks and are not routed over the Internet. These are:
Private IP Addresses
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10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255
Home networking equipment / devices usually are configured in thefactory with an IP address in the range 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.255.
What Is Local host?
Whether or not your computer has a network interface card it will have a
built in IP address with which network aware applications cancommunicate with one another. This IP address is defined as 127.0.0.1
and is frequently referred to as local host
Network Topology
There are three types of Topology.
1) Bus topology
2) Star topology
3) Ring topology
Bus Topology
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Features:
The cable runs from one pc to another.
One pc sends data;All the host receive it and accepts only whose
network address matches.
Only one pc can send data at a time.
The network does not fail if one pc fails.
Break cable or loose connector can make whole network failed.
It needs termination at either end. For 10base2 cable it is 50W and
for 10Base5 it is 75W. It is very difficult to troubleshoot in Bus Topology.
Easy to extend the network; means new comp. Can be easily
connected.
The network speed decrease as the no of computers increases so
this topology is suitable for very small network.
It generally uses co-axial cable and T-connector.
Star Topology
Features:
The cable runs from each
pc to the central device. The central device may be hub or switch.
Thus, star topology needs more cable requirement than any other
topologies.
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Easy to add new pc and thus easy to extend network.
No termination is required.
Whole network does not fail if single pc or cable or connector
fails.
Very easy to troubleshoot as compared to any other topology. Mostly uses UTP CAT5 cables and RJ-45 connectors now a days.
The only major disadvantage is if the central device fails whole
network goes down.
Ring Topology
Features:
In Ring Topology each
pc is connected to the next pc and finally last pc is connected to the
first pc .so in Ring Topology doe snot required termination. It is
considered improved version of Bus Topology.
Each pc sends what it receives until the final destination arrives.
Whole network fails if one pc fails.
It is the most efficient and speedy because it uses token passingmedia access scheme because of this each pc sends source address
and destination address along with data and thus no need to match
address.
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Types of Cable
Twisted Pair
Twisted pairs consist of two insulated wires twisted together.
They are specifically intended for carrying signals and were invented in
the 1880s for wiring up the early telephone systems. Twisted pairs offer
low noise pick-up and low noise emission from a cable because it is a
balanced line and because a balanced line offers "common-mode noise
rejection".
Coaxial CableCoaxial cable, or coax, for short, is the other most popular cable
configuration. The signal on the cable is not the same on the twoconductors since the shield carries both ground and signal. The two
conductors are not the same size, same resistance. Therefore, coax is
not a balanced line. It is an unbalanced line.
Fiber-optic
Consists of a small core of glass or plastic surrounded by a cladding
layer and jacket.
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Fibers are unidirectional (light only travels in one direction) so two
fibers are used, one for sending and one for receiving. Kevlar fibers
are placed between the two fibers for strength.
Good for very high speed, long distance data transmission.
NOT subject to electrical interference.
Cable can't be tapped and data stolen => high security
Most expensive and difficult to work with.
Immune to tapping.
can transmit at 100 Mbps and way up to 2 Gbps
Up to 2000 meters without a repeater.
Supports data, voice and video.
Needs specialized knowledge to install => expensive all round.
Products & Divisions
What are internetworking devices?
Internetworking devices are products used to connect networks. As
computer networks grow in size and complexity, so do the
internetworking devices used to connect them.
The purposes of having devices:
First, they allow a greater number of nodes to be connected to the
network.
Second, they extend the distance over which a network can extend.
Third, they localize traffic on the network.
Fourth, they can merge existing networks.
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Fifth, they isolate network problems so that they can be diagnosed more
easily.
Networking Hardware
Hubs
Bridges and Switches
Gateways
Routers
Connectivity Hardware
Network Interface Card (NIC)
Modem
Fax Modem
Cable Modem
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LOCAL AREA NETWORKS AND DEVICES
LAN Devices
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Host
Provides users with connection to network
computers (both clients and servers)
printers scanners
other user devices
Connects directly to a network segment
Operates at all 7 layers of the OSI model
NIC
Network interface card
Printed circuit board usually installed inside a computer case
Also called network adapter
Adapts host device to the network
Layer 2 device
Carries a unique code called a MAC address
Media
Carries a flow of information, in the form of bits and
bytes, through a LAN
Considered layer 1 component
Includes
Cat 5 UTP
optical fiber free space
coaxial cable
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Repeater
Regenerates and retimes network signals
Allows signal to travel a longer distance on the media
Single-port in and single-port out device
Classified as layer 1 device
Bridge
Connects two LAN segments to make one larger continuous LAN
Filters LAN traffic to keep local traffic local
Allows connectivity to other parts of the LAN
Simple to install and managecosts less than router
Checks MAC address to make forwarding decisions
Considered layer 2 device
ROUTER & ROUTING ALGO
What is a Router?
As stated before, switches and hubs usually only have servers
connected to them that have been configured as being part of the
same network.
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Routers will connect into multiple switches to allow these networks
to communicate with one another.
Routers can also be configured to deny communication between
specific servers on different networks. They can also filter traffic
based on the TCP port section of each packet. For example, it ispossible to deny communication between two servers on different
networks that intend to communicate on TCP port 80, and allow all
other traffic between them. Routers therefore direct and regulate
traffic between separate networks, much like a traffic policeman.
If you intend to route between networks, then for each network, you
must reserve an IP address for a router and make sure that the
router is directly connected to the LAN associated with that
network.
Routers Work at the Network Layer
Use the Protocols to carry Data over Network
Link Networks used for different purposes
Apply rules or filters to let certain data in
Route data Over Specific Set of Network Connections
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What is a Gateway?
Another name for a router.
What is a Default Gateway?
A default gateway is really a gateway of last resort. Say for example:
You have two routers R1 and R2
R1 is connected to both your SOHO home network (192.168.1.0) and
the internet
R2 is connected to both your SOHO home network (192.168.1.0) and
your credit card transaction payment the network (10.46.123.0) which
is also connected to other corporate networks with addresses starting
with 10.X.X.X
You could put a route on your SOHO servers that states:
Go to network 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 via router R2
Go to everything else via router R1. R1 therefore would be considered
your default gateway
For most home networks, your default gateway would be the router /
firewall connected to the Internet.
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What is a NIC?
Your network interface card is frequently called a NIC. Currently, the mostcommon types of NIC used in the home are Ethernet and wireless Ethernet
cards.
What is a DTE?
DTE stands for Digital Terminal Equipment, a terminology originally
intended for computer terminals located at remote offices or departments
that were directly connected modems. The terminals would have no
computing power and only functioned as a screen / keyboard combination
for data processing.
Nowadays most PCs have their COM and Ethernet ports configured as if
they were going to be connected to a modem or other type of purely
networking oriented equipment.
What is a DCE?
DCE is the acronym for Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment. Modems
and other purely networking oriented equipment.
ROUTING
Routing is a protocol that is designed to defined path for packet delivery to
the destination
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LAB DESIGNING:
1) Set our hostname and get our interfaces up.
2) Ping our directly connected interfaces
3) Configure routing for our topology
4) View our routing table
5) Verify that we can ping all routers
Hub & Switch
Whats a Smart Hub?
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A smart hub can be configured and remotely managed. For example,
ports can be shut off.
However, this doesnt mean that it does anything smart with network
traffic. It has no switching capabilities. Traffic is always forwarded to
all ports.
Our most common smart hub on campus is the Asant NetStacker.
Networking no longer recommends hubs for wiring closets. It may be
OK to use small unmanaged hubs to give selected offices additional
ports. Use hubs with care!
Hubs
Operate at layer 2 of the network
Data link layer
Ethernet
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Main purposes
Repeat traffic out all ports
Media conversion inside a LAN
Advantages of Hubs
Easy to Understand
Easy to Implement
so theyre cheap
Disadvantages of Hubs
Wasteful of bandwidth Poor security
HUB broadcasts packets on all other ports
Switches
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Also operate at layer 2 of the network
Data link layer
Ethernet
Main purposes
Repeat traffic outsome ports
Media conversion within a LAN
Often called a bridge
Difference between Hub and Switch
A bridge with more than two interfaces (ports) is also known as a
switch. There are important differences between switches and hubs. In
particular, the way in which they forward frames.
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A Hub sending a packet form F to C.
A hub (or repeater) forwards a received frame out of all the interfaces
(ports), resulting in the frame reaching all connected equipment, even
though the frame may be only destined for a system connected to one
particular interface (C, in the above diagram).
A switch, on the other hand, forwards the frame to only the required
interface. The switch learns the association between the systems MACaddresses and the interface ports in the same way as a bridge (see
above).
By sending the packet only where it need to go, the switch reduces
the number of packets on the other LAN segments , increasing the
overall performance of the connected LANs. The switch also
improves security.
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A Switch sending a packet from F to C
Switches (like bridges) normally forward all multicast and broadcast
packets to all receivers (some switches have extra processing to help
improve performance of multicast forwarding). More details about
this and the operation of switches may be found in a related page (see
below).
A Switch sending a frame from F to a multicast / broadcast addres
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SUMMARY
In this training report I have tried to give an overview of the networking . by
this report we can know about the networking. how a data transfer from one
source to another source, type of topologies such as bus, star, ring type of
network LAN, WAN etc. networking devices such as router, hub bridge,
switches, etc. networking protocols such as Tcp/ip, rip, igrp, eigrp, pap,
chap, hdlc etc. by this report we can also know how a router work & what
are the essential commands for routing. How we make excess list.
Now a days networking is very essential to share our data &
transfer our data from source to destination. By the networking we can be
connected in all over the world. Without networking human life is notpossible. Networking is used every where such as in offices, in companies,
in colleges etc. The best example of networking is internet.
Lastly I would like to thank all the Staff members of STPI for
cooperating me during this training.