Networking the North: Cross Networking the North: Cross Border Connections and the New Border Connections and the New

International Circumpolar International Circumpolar GeopoliticsGeopolitics

I. The Circumpolar North EmergesI. The Circumpolar North Emerges

19891989 the end of the Soviet Union the end of the Soviet Union

1990s—20061990s—2006 new prospects for a new new prospects for a new

round of cooperation for round of cooperation for social, political and social, political and economic changeeconomic change

2007-20082007-2008 a sense of “competition” for a sense of “competition” for

territory territory

Examples of Early Cooperative Examples of Early Cooperative AgreementsAgreements

Rovaniemi Agreement in Rovaniemi Agreement in (1991) (1991)

major international major international cooperationcooperation

The Arctic CouncilThe Arctic Council• Arctic Monitoring and Arctic Monitoring and

Assessment Program (AMAP)Assessment Program (AMAP) host of other formal and host of other formal and

informal agreements which informal agreements which are comprehensive, region-are comprehensive, region-widewide

• “ “northern dimension” policies northern dimension” policies in both north America and in both north America and Europe, led to cooperative Europe, led to cooperative foreign policies across foreign policies across boundaries. boundaries.

Brokered by “Environment and Brokered by “Environment and Science”Science”

are uniting agendas are uniting agendas within the within the international international community—forum for community—forum for co-operationco-operation some powers, some powers,

specifically the United specifically the United States, understood States, understood these arenas to be these arenas to be distinct from foreign distinct from foreign policy discussionspolicy discussions

By early 21By early 21stst century century geopolitical context of the geopolitical context of the

circumpolar North took on new circumpolar North took on new significance --civil society. significance --civil society.

numbers of individuals numbers of individuals involved in regional policy-involved in regional policy-making has proliferated since making has proliferated since the late 1980s the late 1980s

indigenous voices began to be indigenous voices began to be heard, and facilitated the heard, and facilitated the replacement of old military replacement of old military security and Cold War security and Cold War discourse --comprehensive or discourse --comprehensive or human securityhuman security

Networks of ConnectivityNetworks of Connectivity

by 2005 negotiation” by 2005 negotiation” of a circumpolar of a circumpolar region post Cold-War region post Cold-War saw, complex region-saw, complex region-building discourses building discourses which favour which favour inclusivity and inclusivity and transnational civil transnational civil societysociety

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II. From co-operation to II. From co-operation to competition…competition…

shifted as new challenges shifted as new challenges emerged in the early 21st centuryemerged in the early 21st century

new challenges new challenges threat of global warming, melting threat of global warming, melting

ice,ice, increased international increased international

competition for maritime territoriescompetition for maritime territories and declining interest in and declining interest in

comprehensive security comprehensive security outcomes. has become the way in outcomes. has become the way in which Arctic regionalism is which Arctic regionalism is currently being explained by currently being explained by mediamedia

““Arctic Rush!” or “Melting Arctic Rush!” or “Melting Relations!” geopolitical discourse Relations!” geopolitical discourse which calls for urgent and which calls for urgent and competitive geostrategic thinkingcompetitive geostrategic thinking

The Great Game Revisited?The Great Game Revisited?

RussiaRussia exploration of the Lomonosov Ridge and exploration of the Lomonosov Ridge and

claim to the North Pole in the summer of 2007claim to the North Pole in the summer of 2007 Canadian government’s new security Canadian government’s new security

concerns within the North concerns within the North adopted a relatively aggressive nation-adopted a relatively aggressive nation-

building stance, with programs designed to building stance, with programs designed to heighten military presence and protection in heighten military presence and protection in key areas of Canadian sovereign territory, like key areas of Canadian sovereign territory, like the Northwest Passagethe Northwest Passage

Where do the geopolitics of high drama and Where do the geopolitics of high drama and territorial clashes fit into this scenario of territorial clashes fit into this scenario of

interconnectivity?interconnectivity?

Territoriality has replaced science and environment as the Territoriality has replaced science and environment as the leading geopolitical discourse…leading geopolitical discourse…

“ “Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper has announced his country is to build two has announced his country is to build two military bases in the Arctic as part of their military bases in the Arctic as part of their bid to claim sovereignty of part of the bid to claim sovereignty of part of the region. region.

Harper said the new cold-weather army Harper said the new cold-weather army training base at Resolute Bay and a training base at Resolute Bay and a refurbished supply base at Nanisivik would refurbished supply base at Nanisivik would establish Canada's claims over the establish Canada's claims over the disputed territory. disputed territory.

"Canada's new government understands "Canada's new government understands that the first principle of Arctic that the first principle of Arctic sovereignty is use it or lose it. Today's sovereignty is use it or lose it. Today's announcements tells the world that announcements tells the world that Canada has a real, growing, long-term Canada has a real, growing, long-term presence in the Arctic."presence in the Arctic."  

http://www.nemsplace.co.uk/news.php?20http://www.nemsplace.co.uk/news.php?20

Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, U.S. entering the age of claimsU.S. entering the age of claims

Norway:Geo-economics?Norway:Geo-economics? ““One challenge for Norway is to mark One challenge for Norway is to mark

a line of delimitation with the Russians. a line of delimitation with the Russians. A settling of the line would add stability A settling of the line would add stability to the region and ease the to the region and ease the development of oil and gas resources. development of oil and gas resources. When Norway wants to secure a When Norway wants to secure a balance with the EU, various EU balance with the EU, various EU countries and the US with respect to countries and the US with respect to maintaining sovereignty in the area, maintaining sovereignty in the area, she may also face a pressure to settle she may also face a pressure to settle an agreement. If Russian relations with an agreement. If Russian relations with the West are good, this pressure may the West are good, this pressure may work against Norway. Russia will work against Norway. Russia will remain the biggest and most important remain the biggest and most important actor in supplying more energy to both actor in supplying more energy to both Europe and the world, and be of higher Europe and the world, and be of higher importance to the West than Norway. importance to the West than Norway. Norway should accept (and possibly Norway should accept (and possibly expect) the processes still to take expect) the processes still to take much time to be finished. “much time to be finished. “

III. Is this new discourse now III. Is this new discourse now hegemonic?hegemonic?

is the age of co-operation over?is the age of co-operation over? can we still speak of a circumpolar North, as an international region can we still speak of a circumpolar North, as an international region

of cooperationof cooperation media would say yesmedia would say yes

——link to terrorism, Russia and China discourseslink to terrorism, Russia and China discourses premature to suggest that competitive discourses signal the end of a premature to suggest that competitive discourses signal the end of a

co-operative human security agenda within the circumpolar Northco-operative human security agenda within the circumpolar North• discourse of competitive claims and nation-building agendas has, for discourse of competitive claims and nation-building agendas has, for

example, engendered a refocusing of the North as the primary site for setting example, engendered a refocusing of the North as the primary site for setting the terms of “international” interactionthe terms of “international” interaction

• UNCLOS a major forum—undisputed jurisdictionUNCLOS a major forum—undisputed jurisdiction• in North America the competative models are stressed, because of the in North America the competative models are stressed, because of the

hegemonic role of the U.S. -- thegemonic role of the U.S. -- there is an important subtext to current here is an important subtext to current cooperation within the Arctic which is not appreciated by North Americans, cooperation within the Arctic which is not appreciated by North Americans, and indeed is absent from many north American considerations of Arctic and indeed is absent from many north American considerations of Arctic cooperation—the role of Europecooperation—the role of Europe

Europe has re-emerged Europe has re-emerged as an extremely important as an extremely important broker in Northern co-broker in Northern co-operationoperation

models of Europe co-models of Europe co-operation versus North operation versus North America competitionAmerica competition

low geopolitics of civil low geopolitics of civil society and sustainable society and sustainable development versus the development versus the high geopolitics of nation-high geopolitics of nation-building and geo-building and geo-economics. economics.

Barents and Baltic CooperationBarents and Baltic Cooperation

IV. Current Co-operative IV. Current Co-operative DiscoursesDiscourses

““in May 2008, in May 2008, Denmark's Foreign Minister, Per Stig Møller, urged respect Denmark's Foreign Minister, Per Stig Møller, urged respect for international law from nations bordering the Arctic Ocean region and for international law from nations bordering the Arctic Ocean region and wants cooperation to prevent an environmental catastrophe. wants cooperation to prevent an environmental catastrophe.

““We must continue to fulfill our obligations in the Arctic area until the UN We must continue to fulfill our obligations in the Arctic area until the UN decides who will have the right to the sea and the resources in the region. decides who will have the right to the sea and the resources in the region. We must agree on the rules and what to do if climate changes make more We must agree on the rules and what to do if climate changes make more shipping possible.” shipping possible.”

““We also have an obligation to provide for sustainable development of the We also have an obligation to provide for sustainable development of the Arctic Ocean with respect for indigenous people who have fished and Arctic Ocean with respect for indigenous people who have fished and hunted here for centuries.” hunted here for centuries.”

Together with the Greenlandic Premier, Hans Enoksen, Møller has invited Together with the Greenlandic Premier, Hans Enoksen, Møller has invited foreign ministers from Norway, Canada, Russia and the US to a conference foreign ministers from Norway, Canada, Russia and the US to a conference about the Arctic Ocean.”about the Arctic Ocean.”[1][1]

[1][1]Arctic Council Website. Arctic Council Website. Conference on the Arctic Ocean.The Danish Foreign Minister wants Conference on the Arctic Ocean.The Danish Foreign Minister wants unity about the future of the Arctic Ocean. Outrageous attempts to make demands on the Arctic unity about the future of the Arctic Ocean. Outrageous attempts to make demands on the Arctic Ocean region should be a thing of the past. Ocean region should be a thing of the past. http://arctic-council.org/article/2008/5/conference_on_the_arctic_ocean. May 25http://arctic-council.org/article/2008/5/conference_on_the_arctic_ocean. May 25, 2008. Accessed , 2008. Accessed June 19, 2008.June 19, 2008.

florescence of regional actors florescence of regional actors involved in the performance of involved in the performance of new regional governmental new regional governmental initiatives, particularly in north initiatives, particularly in north Europe but also throughout the Europe but also throughout the circumpolar North. circumpolar North.

Indigenous people’s Indigenous people’s organizations and organizations and intergovernmental intergovernmental organizations have been organizations have been effective in bridging borders effective in bridging borders and linking the region from and linking the region from east to west. east to west.

UNCLOSUNCLOS ““the emergence of new structures to resolve disputes in the emergence of new structures to resolve disputes in

the Arctic, as reflected by the UN Convention on the Law the Arctic, as reflected by the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which provides various of the Sea (UNCLOS), which provides various mechanisms for dealing with competing claims…All three mechanisms for dealing with competing claims…All three of these issues are coming together, and that means the of these issues are coming together, and that means the time of the Arctic is now. …all these factors, and the time of the Arctic is now. …all these factors, and the manner they’re all intersecting, basically mean this is the manner they’re all intersecting, basically mean this is the initial phase of a new Arctic international regime.”initial phase of a new Arctic international regime.”[1][1]

[[1]1] Huebert, quoted in, Barry S. Zellin Huebert, quoted in, Barry S. Zellin, , Viewpoint: Cold Front Rising, As Climate Change Thins Polar Ice, a New Viewpoint: Cold Front Rising, As Climate Change Thins Polar Ice, a New Race for Arctic Resources Begins,Race for Arctic Resources Begins, Center for Contemporary Conflict, 2007. Center for Contemporary Conflict, 2007.http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/si/2008/Feb/zellenFeb08.asp. Accessed April 9http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/si/2008/Feb/zellenFeb08.asp. Accessed April 9 , , 2007.2007.

Other Regional linkagesOther Regional linkages

in the 1990s several counties, among them Lapland in in the 1990s several counties, among them Lapland in Finland and the Komi Republic in Russia, Canada and Finland and the Komi Republic in Russia, Canada and the EU, created their own regional 'foreign' and the EU, created their own regional 'foreign' and economic policy. economic policy.

In northern Europe the idea of trans-boundary In northern Europe the idea of trans-boundary regionalism via the model of Euro-Regions includes east-regionalism via the model of Euro-Regions includes east-west cooperation across the national borders between west cooperation across the national borders between the counties of the Nordic states and Northwest Russiathe counties of the Nordic states and Northwest Russia

cooperation like Haparanda-Tornio has also promoted cooperation like Haparanda-Tornio has also promoted integration across the national borders among the Nordic integration across the national borders among the Nordic countriescountries

V. Challenging the New Territorial V. Challenging the New Territorial Security FocusSecurity Focus

Conceptual tensionConceptual tension post 9/11 formal geopolitical concerns: post 9/11 formal geopolitical concerns:

Sovereignty, “control society”, military and energy security vs. co-operation and Sovereignty, “control society”, military and energy security vs. co-operation and civil societycivil society

delegation of human security to the lower rungs of policy concern within the delegation of human security to the lower rungs of policy concern within the NorthNorth

reflects a new preoccupation with other definitions of security (state, energy reflects a new preoccupation with other definitions of security (state, energy and military) in the post 9/11 eraand military) in the post 9/11 era

deflects attention from a pre-existing agenda of concern with the acute deflects attention from a pre-existing agenda of concern with the acute social and environmental threats facing indigenous populations within the social and environmental threats facing indigenous populations within the regionregion

are there areas where communication across borders has potential to are there areas where communication across borders has potential to mitigate and refocus security issues?mitigate and refocus security issues?

ICT and communications part of a larger roster of institutions promoting civil ICT and communications part of a larger roster of institutions promoting civil society and transnationalism society and transnationalism

-- focus on low geopolitics, civil society, comprehensive security-- focus on low geopolitics, civil society, comprehensive security

Programme for the Norwegian Programme for the Norwegian Chairmanship of the Arctic Council 2006-Chairmanship of the Arctic Council 2006-

20082008

Conceptual linkage of sustainable development to co-operation and Conceptual linkage of sustainable development to co-operation and transnational activities to comprehensive security agenda: in its transnational activities to comprehensive security agenda: in its Programme for the Norwegian Chairmanship of the Arcti Council Programme for the Norwegian Chairmanship of the Arcti Council 2006-2008, Noway stated2006-2008, Noway stated

… …..it will not be possible to maintain settlement patterns and ensure ..it will not be possible to maintain settlement patterns and ensure

growth and welfare without economic activity. Therefore, the Council growth and welfare without economic activity. Therefore, the Council should also initiate broad political debate on all issues of importance should also initiate broad political debate on all issues of importance to the Arctic and the people living there. These include economic to the Arctic and the people living there. These include economic activity in the energy, fisheries and mining sectors and other matters activity in the energy, fisheries and mining sectors and other matters of joint interest related to social and economic development.of joint interest related to social and economic development.

Will Norway’s AC sustainability and Will Norway’s AC sustainability and comprehensive security agenda comprehensive security agenda

succeed?succeed? the answer really lies in the degree to the answer really lies in the degree to

which connecting institutions, discourses which connecting institutions, discourses and projects are valued and the degree to and projects are valued and the degree to which comprehensive security agendas which comprehensive security agendas can be linked to securitization discoursescan be linked to securitization discourses

currently AC leadership oriented towards currently AC leadership oriented towards comprehensive security (sustainable comprehensive security (sustainable development) development)

VI. ICT CapacityVI. ICT Capacity

while institutional capacity for environmental cooperation while institutional capacity for environmental cooperation is well developed within the North, and it is possible to is well developed within the North, and it is possible to speak of a circumpolar region in terms of the speak of a circumpolar region in terms of the instruments, ICT proves to be a different story. instruments, ICT proves to be a different story.

to date, individualized nation-state agendas have not to date, individualized nation-state agendas have not been an effective conduit for the delivery of ICT capacity, been an effective conduit for the delivery of ICT capacity, infrastructure and quality internet resources. infrastructure and quality internet resources.

delivery is highly localized because the development of delivery is highly localized because the development of communications infrastructure is not perceived, by communications infrastructure is not perceived, by national governments, as being a transnational project in national governments, as being a transnational project in the same sense that environmental assessment and the same sense that environmental assessment and environmental treaties might be seen environmental treaties might be seen

Special issuesSpecial issues make ICT networks are critical to the make ICT networks are critical to the delivery of comprehensive security in an nternationalized delivery of comprehensive security in an nternationalized contextcontext

yet it is clear that the delivery of ICT remains the domain yet it is clear that the delivery of ICT remains the domain of the national governmentof the national government

this is true for in terms of strategies, goals, focus areas this is true for in terms of strategies, goals, focus areas and implementation of higher education applications of and implementation of higher education applications of ICTICT

it is true, as well, in terms of the infrastructure and it is true, as well, in terms of the infrastructure and governmental policies which sustain technology governmental policies which sustain technology programs. programs.

But geographical conditions which impact upon delivery But geographical conditions which impact upon delivery of ICT capacity also demand cooperative transnational of ICT capacity also demand cooperative transnational efforts and cooperation among the spectrum of northern efforts and cooperation among the spectrum of northern governmental and non-governmental agencies. governmental and non-governmental agencies.

although preliminary, this cooperation if brokered although preliminary, this cooperation if brokered through the Arctic Council, may have some important through the Arctic Council, may have some important implications for the achievement of the broader goal of implications for the achievement of the broader goal of social equity, strengthened civil society and sustainable social equity, strengthened civil society and sustainable development. It also represents, in a nutshell, the development. It also represents, in a nutshell, the problems faced by the circumpolar North as it attempts problems faced by the circumpolar North as it attempts to redefine itself, in many ways, as an international to redefine itself, in many ways, as an international region.region.

VII. Communicating Across BordersVII. Communicating Across BordersCo-operation for comprehensive security Co-operation for comprehensive security

and sustainable developmentand sustainable development

The 2006 Arctic ICT The 2006 Arctic ICT Assessment Proposal Assessment Proposal and Rationale (AICTA)and Rationale (AICTA)

a co-operative project a co-operative project based upon deliberations based upon deliberations and recommendations of and recommendations of the Arctic Council’s ICT the Arctic Council’s ICT Technical Advisory Technical Advisory Committee, which met as Committee, which met as recently as 2007 to recently as 2007 to consider how to promote consider how to promote such projects such projects

a comprehensive document which presents the a comprehensive document which presents the rationale for Arctic Council involvement in the rationale for Arctic Council involvement in the study of information and communications study of information and communications landscapes of accessibility in the North. landscapes of accessibility in the North.

raises the concern that the degree to which raises the concern that the degree to which delivery of other issues such as northern health delivery of other issues such as northern health and education services, both key social and and education services, both key social and economic goals. ICT is regarded by many as an economic goals. ICT is regarded by many as an important vehicle for their deliveryimportant vehicle for their delivery

Nunavut Broadband Project. Nunavut Broadband Project.

Conclusions...Conclusions... competition for new maritime territories have emerged in the wake competition for new maritime territories have emerged in the wake

of global warming, and appear to dominate regional geopolitical of global warming, and appear to dominate regional geopolitical discoursesdiscourses

as this paper suggests, these competitive discourses are a thin as this paper suggests, these competitive discourses are a thin veneer upon regional cooperation which, over the past few decades, veneer upon regional cooperation which, over the past few decades, has widened and deepened in response to a comprehensive has widened and deepened in response to a comprehensive security agenda competitive notions of territoriality within the Arctic security agenda competitive notions of territoriality within the Arctic may be more imagined than realmay be more imagined than real

new post-war security agenda in the North also reflects a growing new post-war security agenda in the North also reflects a growing awareness of the need to apply the concepts of sustainable awareness of the need to apply the concepts of sustainable development which include a broader focus on “human security”development which include a broader focus on “human security”

the impact of 9/11 notwithstanding, this new approach to the the impact of 9/11 notwithstanding, this new approach to the definition of security has had a catalytic impact upon the structure of definition of security has had a catalytic impact upon the structure of international relationsinternational relations

To some extent reflects differing national geopolitical concerns To some extent reflects differing national geopolitical concerns (NA/EU)(NA/EU)

geopolitical discourse is linked to major shifts in soft power and to geopolitical discourse is linked to major shifts in soft power and to the new recognition of ICT as a key to sustainable development the new recognition of ICT as a key to sustainable development (comprehensive security)(comprehensive security)

despite some recent indications of new geopolitical pressures which despite some recent indications of new geopolitical pressures which might serve to launch competitive claims and challenge existing might serve to launch competitive claims and challenge existing security and sovereignty concerns among North American nations, security and sovereignty concerns among North American nations, there remains a strong regional subtext of cooperation and there remains a strong regional subtext of cooperation and institutional pressure for regional cooperation. institutional pressure for regional cooperation.

whether or not this will happen in the circumpolar North is perhaps whether or not this will happen in the circumpolar North is perhaps debatable, and yet in the final analysis, a co-operative relationship is debatable, and yet in the final analysis, a co-operative relationship is potentially ensured in the existing international institutions and potentially ensured in the existing international institutions and agendas which allow for indigenous participation and regional agendas which allow for indigenous participation and regional specificityspecificity

This is why ICT is imperative and where its co-operative role will be This is why ICT is imperative and where its co-operative role will be most influentialmost influential