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Volume 5, Issue 2, 2014 ISSN : 0976-450X

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ISSN NO. 0976-450XInternational Journal on Agricultural Sciences

Volume - V Issue : 2 2014

Members of the Board

Dr. Elsayed Elsayed Hafez City of Scientific Research and Technology Applications,

Arid Lands Cultivation Research Institute (ALCRI),PlantProtection and Biomolecular diagnosis Department,

New Borg El Arab City, 21934, Alexandria, Egypt.

Dr. Muhammad AsifAgricultural, Food and Nutritional Science

4-10 Agriculture/Forestry Centre, Univ. of AlbertaEdmonton, AB T6G 2P5

Dr. Gunjan Mukherjee, Ph.D.Scientist, Biotechnology, Agharkar Research Institute (ARI)

(Autonomous Research institute of Department of Science & Technology, Government of India), Pune, MS

Dr. Ratnabali Sengupta Department of Zoology

West Bengal State University , Barasat, WB India

Dr. Sudip Datta BanikSomatology Laboratory of

Human Ecology in Cinvestav-IPN, Merida, Mexico.

Dr. R. S. FougatProfessor & Head & Unit OfficerDepartment of Ag. Biotechnology

Anand Agricultural University, ANAND, Gujarat

Dr. William Cetzal-IxResearch fellow, Herbarium CICY,

Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, México.

Dr. Peiman ZandiDepartment of Agronomy

Takestan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Iran

Dr. Xianping Li, Ph.D.Director of Potato Research CenterIndustrial Crops Research Institute,

Yunnan Academy of Agricultural Sciences KunmingYunnan Province, China

Dr. Lucindo José Quintans JúniorThe University of Iowa, Roy J. and Lucille A. Carver College of Medicine, Neurobiology of Pain Laboratory

375 Newton Road, Iowa City, IA, US

Dr. Xiuhua WuInner Mongolia Academy of Forestry, 288, Xinjian East Street,

Saihan District Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, P.R. China

Dr. Sonam TashiCollege of Natural Resources

Royal University of Bhutan, Lobesa, Punakha

Dr. M.O. AremuDepartment of Chemical Sciences,

Federal University Wukari, PMB 1020, Taraba State, Nigeria

Dr. D. Prantik ChakrabortyAE-248 Sector-I, Salt Lake, Kolkata

Dr. Smita MazumderDept of Economics, Surendranaah College for Women

M G Road, Kolkata-700009 WB India

Dr. Onosemuode ChristopherDept. of Environmental Science, College of Science

Federal University of Petroleum ResourcesEffurun-Delta State, Nigeria

Dr. Akbar MasoodHOD, Biochemistry

University of Kashmir, Sri Nagar, J&K

Dr. Valentin Bartra Abensur Profesor de Legislación Ambiental

Univesidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru

Dr. A.K. GuptaDepartment of Biotechnology, Maharishi Markandeshwar University,

Mullana, Ambala-133207 (Haryana) India

Dr. Saikat Kumar BasuDepartment of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge

Lethbridge AB Canada T1K 3M4

Dr. R.A. BalikaiProfessor & Head, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad

College of Agri. & Regional Agril. Research Station, Bijapur

Dr. K. Sivakumar Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,

Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar-608002

Dr. Pallav Mukhopadhyay,Assistant Professor

Department of Journalism & Mass Communication,West Bengal State University, West Bengal, India

Dr. Onosemuode ChristopherDepartment of Environmental Science

College of Science, Federal University of Petroleum ResourcesEffurun-Delta State, Nigeria

Dr. I. Gerarh Umaru, PhDDepartment of Economics, Faculty of Social Sciences,

Nasarawa State University, Keffi-NigeriaP.O.Box 8414, Wuse-Abuja, Nigeria

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Incharge-Publication SectionGian C. [email protected]

Editor:Dr. A. Arunachalam

Principal ScientistIndian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi

Editor in Chief:Padma Bhushan Dr. S.Z. Qasim

206 Raj Tower-1Alaknanda Comm. Centre, New Delhi - 110 019

ISSN NO. 0976-450X

ISSN NO. 0976-450X

International Journal on Agricultural Sciences

1. EFFECT OF DIFFERENT ORGANIC SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS ON, 121-126PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL AFTER THE HARVEST OF GROUNDNUT (ARACHIS HYPOGAEA L.) Manjunath Bhanuvally, Rajanaika, MudalagiriyappaRamesha, Y.M. and Yogeeshappa, H.

2. EFFECT OF DIFFERENT ORGANIC SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS 127-132ON, GROWTH, YIELD, QUALITY AND ECONOMICS OF GROUNDNUT (Arachis hypogaea L.) Manjunath Bhanuvally, Rajanaika, Mudalagiriyappa, Ramesha, Y.M. and Yogeeshappa, H.

3. IMPACT OF INSECTICIDE (DELTAMETHRIN) ON BEHAVIOURAL 133-136CHANGES OF FRESH WATER LABEO ROHITAArunika Gumasta, Shashi Bala Shrivastava and H. Maini

4. QUALITY PARAMETERS, HARVEST INDEX OF HYBRID RICE 137-144(Oryza sativa L.) AND ECONOMICS OF VARIOUS TREATMENTS UNDER VARIOUS LEVELS OF ZINC SULPHATE AND INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENTAnil Kumar Singh, Alok Kumar Singh and Arvind Kumar

5. BIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS IN RELATION TO POWDERY 145-149MILDEW RESISTANCE, IN BLACK GRAMChannaveeresh, T.S. and Shripad Kulkarni

6. FAMILY AND GENDER BIASES REGARDING PARTICIPATORY 151-158ACTIVITIES OF CHILDREN IN RURAL HARYANA

Jatesh Kathpalia, Rashmi Tyagi and Savita Vermani

7. SPATIAL VARIATION IN SOIL NUTRIENTS 159-165UNDER DIFFERENT LAND USE SYSTEMSH. Mohamed Saqeebulla, K. T. Gurumurthy and P. Veeranagappa

8. MEGA DIETARY FACTS FOR WEIGHT LOSS 167-172Bandana Singh and Pragati

9. SPIRULINA: A POTENT FOOD SOURCE 173-178Pragati, Bandana Singh, and Prem Shankar

10. FRUIT-ROT OF RAMPHAL (ANNONA RETICULATA L.) 179-184AND THEIR CONTROLAjeet Kumar Sharma and R.B. Sharma

11. EXTENSION & DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES FOR ENHANCING 185-195THE ADOPTION OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM) TECHNOLOGIES AMONG CHILLI GROWERS IN KARNATAKAKumara N., Jnanesh A.C., Sachidananda S.N., Hanumanthe Gowda B. and Manoj R.

12. FLOWER MIDGE AND ASSOCIATED PARASITOID 197-201ON COTTON IN RAICHUR DISTRICTBheemanna, M., Geetha, S and Vanitha, B. K.

13. PESTICIDAL ACTIVITES OF COMMERCIAL 203-210BLEACHING POWDER IN PISCICULTUREMamata Kumari, Rashmi Prabha and Navin Kumar

CONTENTS


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

14. EFFECT OF NEWER MOLECULE INSECTICIDES 211-214AGAINST SEED PROPERTIES OF CHICKPEAVidyashree, A. S., Thirumalaraju, G. T., Kavya M. K. and Prabhavathi, M.K

15. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL: AN ECOFRIENDLY APPROACH FOR 215-217ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE MANAGEMENT IN TOMATOHemlata Pant and Gopal Pandey

16. ROLE OF SOIL ORGANIC MATTER IN 219-227SOIL HEALTH SUSTAINABILITYA. K. Singh, R. K. Chauhan and J. S. Bisen

17. VARIABILITY AMONG THE Sclerotiumrolfsii Sacc. 229-236ISOLATES FROM SOUTHERN KARNATAKAJabbar Sab, A. Nagaraja and Mallikarjunandmanu T. G.

18. SCOPE, POTENTIAL AND IMPORTANCE OF CARBON 237-243SEQUESTRATION THROUGH AGRO-FORESTRYParamesh, V., Arun Kumar, P., Akhilesh, K.S., Suresha C.N. and Parameshwar Naik.

19. MANAGEMENT OF DODDER (CUSCUTA SP.) 245-252IN TRANSPLANTED ONION

20. STATISTICAL METHODS IN THE POPULATION 253-259DYNAMIC STUDY OF INSECT

M.K. Nagamani and Jayalaxmi Narayan Hegde

21. INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT 261-267IN RAINFED PEARL MILLETA.K. Guggari and M.B. Patil

22. EFFECT OF ORGANICS AND INORGANICS ON NUTRIENT 269-279UPTAKE, YIELD AND RESIDUAL NUTRIENT STATUS OF SOIL IN ONION (ALLIUM CEPA L.) CV. TELAGI REDA. N. Bagali, H. B. Patil, V. P. Chimmad, P. L. Patil and R. V. Patil

M B Patil, S S Nooli, A K Guggari and S Y Wali

23. IN VITRO EVALUATION OF FUNGICIDES AND BIOAGENTS 281-285AGAINST ALTERNARIA RICINI (YOSHII) HANSF. CAUSING LEAF SPOT OF CASTORNeelakanth, S. Hiremani and S. G. Mantur

24. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF TECHNOLOGIES 287-296FOR SORGHUM PRODUCTION: PRINCIPLE COMP0NENT ANALYSIS APPROACH

Devyanee K. Nemade V. A. Tiwari and S. S. Bhoyar

25. EFFICACY OF BOTANICALS 297-303AGAINST SOYBEAN DEFOLIATORSS. V. Nagrale, M. J. Deshmukh, V. A. Tiwari

M. S. Joshi and Debashree Bhattacharjee

International Journal on Agricultural Sciences

CONTENTS


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT ORGANIC SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS ON, PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL

PROPERTIES OF SOIL AFTER THE HARVEST OF GROUNDNUT (ARACHIS HYPOGAEA L.)

Manjunath Bhanuvally, Rajanaika, Mudalagiriyappa, Ramesha, Y.M. and Yogeeshappa, H.

Department of applied Botany, Kuvempu University, Jnana Sahyadri, Shankaragatta, Shimogga-577 451, Karnataka, India

INTRODUCTIONGroundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is king of oilseeds belongs to the family Leguminoceae and commonly called as poor man's almond. It is the world's fourth important source of edible oil and third most important source of vegetable protein. The groundnut is used for different purposes viz., food, animal feed and industrial raw materials. Seed is valued both for its oil and protein content

as the seeds contain about 40-45 per cent oil, 25 per cent protein and 18 per cent carbohydrates in addition to minerals and vitamins. Groundnut oil contains a higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, including essential fatty acids like linolenic and linoleic acids (Desai et al., 1999). It is also fairly rich in calcium, iron and vitamin B complex like thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin A. It has multifarious usages; it is not

ABSTRACT

A field experiment was conducted during kharif 2011 at Alur, Hiriyur Taluk Chitradurga

district, Karnataka to know the “Effect of different organic sources of nutrients on physical,

chemical and biological properties of soil after the harvest of groundnut” (Arachis hypogaea

L.) under rainfed condition. Results revealed that, application of vermicompost (3 t/ha) + -1

Panchagvaya spray (3 % @ 30, 60 and 75 DAS) + Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) + Jeevamruta -1

(2000 L ha ) recorded significantly higher available nitrogen (269.9 kg/ha), phosphorus (45.9

kg/ha), potassium (389.1 kg/ha), iron (6.22 ppm), zinc (1.77 ppm), copper (0.68 ppm),

manganese (9.87 ppm), maximum water holding capacity (55.3 %) and water stable aggregates

(78.2 %) as compared to other treatments. Whereas, significantly lower available nitrogen,

phosphorus and potassium (256, 37.1 and 374.6 kg/ha, respectively) recorded in the treatment

with the zero application of NPK as compared to other treatments.

No. of Pages: 6 No. of Tables: 4 References: 6

Keywords: Organic manures, Panchagavya, Jeevamruta, available iron, Nitrogen.

International Journal on Agricultural Sciences Vol. V (Issue 2), pp.121-126, 2014

Corresponding author: [email protected]

Research Paper

Received on: 03.03.2014 Revised on: 05.04.2014 Accepted on: 10.05.2014

ISSN NO. 0976-450X

only used as a major cooking medium for various food items but also utilized for manufacture of soap, cosmetics, shaving cream, lubricants, etc. In fact, it plays a pivotal role in oilseed economy of India.

Now, the agriculture research is focused on evolving ecologically sound, biologically sustainable and socio economically viable technologies and there is need for a fresh look to exploit the organic farming approaches using the local manurial sources for growing groundnut without using chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which minimize environmental pollution and maintain long term fertility of soil by maintaining soil organic matter and providing crop nutrients. Many such nature friendly farming practices were evolved and developed by the farmers of the ancient period and the same become available to the successive generations. In the plight of material welfare, the traditional knowledge, which has been subjected to a process of refinement through generations of experience, were given negligible importance and are now receiving recognition. However, the scientific basis for such indigenous technologies needs to be evaluated and perfected before large-scale dissemination. Keeping these points in view, a field experiment was conducted to know the effect of various organic manures which is enriched with bio fertilizers and top dressing with different liquid organic manures on growth and productivity of groundnut in order to explore the possibilities of developing a sustainable input package for organic production of groundnut.

Organic manures, including animal manures, crop residues, green manures and composts were traditionally and preferentially used in developing countries until 1960's before the inorganic chemical fertilizers began to gain popularity. Chemical fertilizers became easily available and unlike organic manures, they were less bulky and thus, easier to transport, handle and store. They produced greater crop response than many organic manures. This was

particularly true during the 'Green Revolution', when high yielding crop varieties were introduced that responded to heavy doses of chemical fertilizers.

MATERIAL AND METHODSA field experiment was conducted during kharif 2011 at Alur, Hiriyur Taluk Chitradurga district, Karnataka to know the “Effect of different organic sources of nutrients on physical, chemical and biological properties of soil after the harvest of groundnut” (Arachis hypogaea L.). The texture of soil was red sandy loam having neutral pH with organic carbon (0.52 %),

-1available nitrogen (256.14 kg ha ), phosphorous

-1 -1(37.45 kg ha ), and potassium (381.6 kg ha ). The variety used was TMV-2. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with three replications involving 11 treatments T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Jeevamruta(2000 1

-1L ha ) T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Panchagvaya spray 2

(3%@30,60 and 75 DAS) T : FYM (7.5 3

-1t/ha)+Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) T : 4

-1Vermicompost (3t/ha)+Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray 5

(3%@30,60 and 75 DAS) T : Vermicompost 6

-1(3t/ha)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) T : Neem 7

cake (500 kg/ha)+ Pongamia cake (500 kg/ha) T : 8

FYM (7.5 T/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3% @ -30,60 and 75 DAS)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha

1 -1)+ Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) T : Vermicompost (3 9

t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3%@30,60 and 75 -1DAS)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+

-1Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) T10: Recommended NPK T : Zero NPK. The biofertilizers are 11

enriched with bulky organic manures and oil cakes. Liquid organic manures like 3% Panchagavya was sprayed @ 30, 60 and 75 DAS and Jeevamruta & Bio-digester were analyzed for its nitrogen content before application. Panchagavya stock solution was prepared by using following ingredients and method. 7 kg cow dung and 1 kg cow ghee were mixed well and kept for 2 days; 2 L cow urine and 10 L water were added to the mixture and left for 15 days; Then 3 L of sugarcane juice + 2L of cow milk + 2

IJAS 2014 • 122


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L of curd + 2 L tender coconut water + 250 g jaggary + 1 kg ripened banana were added to accelerate the fermentation. All the materials were added to a wide mouthed pot and kept under shade. The mixture was left for 14 days and stirred twice a day for about 20 minutes both in morning and evening and then filtered. Enumeration of soil microorganisms: Bacteria : By serial dilution plate count technique and by plating on Soil Extract Agar (SEA). Fungi: By serial dilution plate count technique and by plating on Martins Rose Bengal Agar (MRBA). Actinomycetes : By serial dilution plate count technique and by plating on Kusters Agar (KA). Chemical analysis of soil: Soil samples after harvest of the crop were collected from 0-20 cm soil depth from each treatment in all the three replications, dried under shade, powdered and passed through 2 mm sieve. The soil samples were analyzed for available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium content. The

-1available nitrogen (kg ha ) of soil was d e t e r m i n e d b y a l ka l i n e p o t a s s i u m permanganate method as outlined by Subbaiah and Asija (1959). The available phosphorus (kg

-1ha ) of soil was determined by chlorostannous

reduced molybdophosphoric blue colour method in hydrochloric acid system by using Olsen's extractant. The available potassium (kg

-1ha ) of soil was determined by using neutral normal ammonium acetate extractant using a flame photometer (Jackson, 1973).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONPhysical properties of soilThe data on physical properties of soil is presented in table 1. Treatment with the application of vermicompost (3 t/ha) + Panchagvaya spray (3 % @ 30, 60 and 75 DAS) +

-1Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) + Jeevamruta (2000 -1

L ha ) recorded significantly maximum water holding capacity (55.3 %) and water stable aggregates (78.2 %) and which is onpar with the application of FYM (7.5 t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3% @ 30,60 and 75 DAS)+ Liquid

-1 -1manure (2000 L ha )+ Jeevamruta (2000 L ha ) and only application of recommended NPK. Whereas, significantly maximum water holding capacity (41 %) and water stable aggregates (60.2 %) were recorded in the treatment with zero application of nutrients as compared to other treatments.

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Table 1: Physical properties of soil after harvest of groundnut as influenced by organic sources of nutrients.

Treatments Bulk density3(Mg/m ) water holding aggregates (%)

capacity (%) -1T : FYM (7.5t/ha)+Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) 1.24 51.2 72.31

T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Panchagvaya spray (3%@30,60 and 75 DAS) 1.24 51.5 73.12

-1T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) 1.25 50.2 72.13

-1T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) 1.23 52.1 74.64

T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3%@30,60 1.22 53.2 75.55

and 75 DAS)-1T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) 1.23 52.0 74.16

T : Neem cake (500 kg/ha)+ Pongamia cake (500 kg/ha) 1.25 50.0 72.07

T : FYM (7.5 T/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3% @ 30,60 and 75 1.21 54.2 77.58-1 -1DAS)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+ Jeevamruta(2000 L ha )

T : Vermicompost (3 t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3%@30,60 1.20 55.3 78.29-1and 75 DAS)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+

-1 Jeevamruta(2000 L ha )

T : Recommended NPK 1.38 42.55 61.310

T : Zero NPK. 1.39 41.00 60.211

S. Em± 1.20 2.49 3.58

C. D. at 5% NS 7.42 10.6

Maximum Water stable

3Intial soil status : Bulk density (Mg/m )=1.42; Maximum water holding capacity (%) = 41.0; Water stable aggregates (%) = 57.45;


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Available NPK and micronutrients in soil after harvest of cropThe nutrients status of different treatments after the harvest of crop is dependent on both supply of nutrients through various sources and uptake by the crop. Compared to initial soil status, addition of organic sources tended to increase organic carbon and available nitrogen, p h o s p h o r o u s a n d p o t a s s i u m a n d micronutrients content of soil (Table 2 &3). Application of vermicompost (3 t/ha) + Panchagvaya spray (3 % @ 30, 60 and 75 DAS) +

-1Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) + Jeevamruta (2000

-1L ha ) recorded significantly higher available nitrogen (269.9 kg/ha), phosphorus (45.9 kg/ha), potassium (389.1 kg/ha), iron (6.22 ppm), zinc (1.77 ppm), copper (0.68 ppm), manganese (9.87 ppm) as compared to other treatments. The increase in available nutrients may due to the appl ica t ion o f vermicompost + Panchagvaya spray + Liquid manure + Jeevamruta in combination was more pronounced in increasing the post harvest soil available nitrogen and phosphrous. (Sarawgi et al., 1998). N fixation by 'N' fixing bacteria 2

which were added through Jeevamruta and bio-digester and nitrogen source through various organic manures. With respect to phosphorous, improved solubilisation of native phosphorous through secretion of organic acids, which were released during the microbial decomposition of organic matter and activity of phosphatase enzyme by PSB (Pal, 1997) and addition of jeevamrutha and panchagavya increased the soil phosphorous available after the harvest. Applied organic matter leads to the formation of a coating on the sesquioxides, because of this the phosphate fixing capacity of soils was reduced. The higher availability of potassium in soil may be due to beneficial effect of organic sources on the reduction of potassium fixation; added organic matter interacted with K-clay to release K from the non- exchangeable fraction to the available pool. Whereas, significantly lower available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (256, 37.1 and 374.6 kg/ha, respectively) recorded in the treatment with the zero application of NPK as compared to other treatments.

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Table 2: Available organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium status after harvest of groundnut as influenced by different organic sources of nutrients.

-1 -1 -1Treatments OC (%) N (kg ha ) P O (kg ha ) K O(kg ha )2 5 2

-1T : FYM (7.5t/ha)+Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) 0.62 262.4 40.3 382.21

T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Panchagvaya spray (3%@30,60 and 75 DAS) 0.64 263.1 40.5 383.92

-1T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) 0.61 261.0 39.8 381.43

-1T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) 0.67 264.3 42.3 385.14

T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3%@30,60 0.69 266.0 43.2 386.55

and 75 DAS)-1T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) 0.65 264.1 41.5 384.26

T : Neem cake (500 kg/ha)+ Pongamia cake (500 kg/ha) 0.60 258.3 38.5 380.57

T : FYM (7.5 T/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3% @ 30,60 and 75 0.70 268.7 44.0 387.18-1 -1 DAS)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+ Jeevamruta(2000 L ha )

T : Vermicompost (3 t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3%@30,60 and 0.72 269.9 45.9 389.19-1 -175 DAS)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+ Jeevamruta(2000 L ha )

T :Recommended NPK 0.58 256.9 42.9 382.110

T : Zero NPK. 0.51 256.0 37.1 374.611

S. Em± 0.31 0.37 0.41 0.74

C. D. at 5% NS 1.10 1.21 2.22

-1 -1 -1Intial soil status : OC=0.52 %; N=256.14 kg ha ; P O =37.45 kg ha ; K O= 381.6 kg ha2 5 2


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Microbial propertiesSignificantly higher microbial population such

6as bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes (26.5 x 10 -1 3 -1 3

cfu g soil, 17.5x10 cfu g soil, and 10.5x10 cfu

IJAS 2014 • 125

Table 3: Micronutrients status after harvest of groundnut as influenced by organic sources of nutrients.

Table 4: Microbial population in soil after harvest of groundnut as influenced by different organic sorces nutrients

Treatments Iron Zinc Copper Manganese (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)


T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Panchagvaya spray (3%@30,60 and 5.86 1.65 0.59 9.722

75 DAS)-1T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) 5.81 1.60 0.56 9.703


T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray 5.97 1.71 0.62 9.825

(3%@30,60 and 75 DAS)-1T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) 5.89 1.68 0.60 9.776


T : FYM (7.5 T/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3% @ 30,60 6.09 1.75 0.65 9.858

-1and 75 DAS)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+ -1Jeevamruta(2000 L ha )

T : Vermicompost (3 t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray 6.22 1.77 0.68 9.879

(3%@30,60 and 75 DAS)+ Liquid manure -1 -1(2000 L ha )+ Jeevamruta(2000 L ha )


T : Zero NPK. 5.00 1.45 0.50 8.1211

S. Em± 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.02

C. D. at 5% 0.12 0.07 0.08 0.06

Treatments Bacteria Fungi Actinomycetes 6 -1 3 -1 3 -1 (10 cfu g soil) (10 cfu g soil) (10 cfu g soil)

-1T : FYM (7.5t/ha)+Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) 17.3 12.2 6.51

T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Panchagvaya spray (3%@30,60 and 75 DAS) 18.0 12.5 7.02

-1T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) 16.0 12.0 6.13

-1T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) 21.5 14.0 8.64

T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3%@30,60 22.1 15.0 9.55

and 75 DAS)-1T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) 20.0 13.6 8.56

T : Neem cake (500 kg/ha)+ Pongamia cake (500 kg/ha) 15.5 11.0 6.07

T : FYM (7.5 T/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3% @ 30,60 and 75 24.5 16.5 9.88

-1 -1DAS)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+ Jeevamruta(2000 L ha )

T : Vermicompost (3 t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3%@30,60 and 26.5 17.5 10.59

-1 -175 DAS)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+ Jeevamruta(2000 L ha )

T :Recommended NPK 12.5 10.0 5.410

T : Zero NPK. 9.0 5.0 3.311

S. Em± 1.73 0.31 0.41

C. D. at 5% 5.21 0.98 1.23

Intial soil status : Iron (ppm)=5.02 %; Zinc (ppm) = 1.4; Copper (ppm) = 0.5; Manganese (ppm) = 8.16.

6 -1 3 -1 3 -1Note: Initial soil status: Bacteria: (9.0 x 10 cfu g ); Fungi: (5.0 x 10 cfu g ); Actinomycetes: (3.0 x 10 cfu g )


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-1g soil, respectively), were recorded in the treatment with the application of vermicompost (3 t/ha) + Panchagvaya spray (3 % @ 30, 60 and

-175 DAS) + Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) + -1

Jeevamruta (2000 L ha ) and which is onpar with the application of FYM (7.5 t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3% @ 30,60 and 75 DAS)+

-1Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+ Jeevamruta (2000 -1

L ha ) and only application of recommended NPK. Whereas, significantly lower microbial population such as bacteria, fungi and

6 -1 6actinomycetes (9.0 x10 cfu g soil, 5.0 x 10 cfu -1 6 -1g soil, and 3.3 x 10 cfu g soil, respectively)

(Table 4). Addition of Jeevamruta and bio-digester was highly beneficial in improving bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes population in the soil. Similarly, Majumdar et al. (2006) inferred that application of urine to the soil resulted in increased microflora in soil. Not only Jeevamruta and bio-digester but FYM, vermicompost and biofertilizers were also helpful in improving the soil micro flora population. These observations indicate that use of integrated organic sources of nutrients helped in the enhanced microbial activity and ultimately improved the soil fertility.

CONCLUSIONApplication of vermicompost + Panchagvaya spray + Liquid manure + Jeevamruta (2000 L

-1ha ) in combination was improved the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil as compared to only application of NPK and zero application of NPK treatments.

REFERENCES

1. Desai, B.B., Kotecha, P.M. and Salunkhe,

D.K., 1999, Science and technology of

groundnut, Biology, Production, Processing

and Utilization, pp, 8-15.

2. Subbaiah, B.Y. and Asija, G.L., 1959, A

rapid procedure for the estimation of

available nitrogen in soils. Curr. Sci., 25:

259-260.

3. Jackson, M.L., 1973, Soil Chemical

Analysis, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.

New Delhi, pp. 1-492

4. Sarawgi, S.K., Tiwari, S.K and Tripathi,

R. S., 1998, Nitrogen fixation, balance

sheet and yield of winter soyabean as

affected by divergent nutrients. Annals of

Agril. Res. 19 (4): 379-385.

5. Pal, S.S., 1997, Acid tolerant strains of

phosphate solubilizing bacteria and their

interactions in soyabean-wheat crop

sequence. J. of Indian Soc. of Soil Sci., 45

(4):742-746.

6. Majumdar, D., Patel, M., Darbar, R. and

Vyas, M., 2006, Short-term emissions of

ammonia and carbon dioxide from cattle

urine contaminated tropical grassland

microcosm. Environmental Monitoring

Assessment, 122: 9-25.

IJAS 2014 • 126


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT ORGANIC SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS ON, GROWTH, YIELD, QUALITY AND ECONOMICS OF

GROUNDNUT (Arachis hypogaea L.)

Manjunath Bhanuvally, Rajanaika, Mudalagiriyappa, Ramesha, Y.M. and Yogeeshappa, H.

Department of Applied Botany, Kuvempu University, Jnana Sahyadri, Shankaragatta, Shimoga-577451, Karnataka

INTRODUCTIONGroundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is king of

oilseeds belongs to the family Leguminoceae

and commonly called as poor man's almond. It

is the world's fourth important source of edible

oil and third most important source of vegetable

protein. The groundnut is used for different

purposes viz., food, animal feed and industrial

raw materials. Seed is valued both for its oil and

protein content as the seeds contain about 40-45

per cent oil, 25 per cent protein and 18 per cent

carbohydrates in addition to minerals and

vitamins. Groundnut oil contains a higher

proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, including

essential fatty acids like linolenic and linoleic

acids (Desai et al., 1999). It is also fairly rich in

calcium, iron and vitamin B complex like

thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin A. It

ABSTRACT

A field experiment was conducted during kharif 2011 at Alur, Hiriyur Taluk Chitradurga

district, Karnataka to know the “Effect of different organic sources of nutrients on growth,

yield, quality and economics of groundnut” (Arachis hypogaea L.) under rainfed condition.

Results revealed that, application of vermicompost (3 t/ha) + Panchagvaya spray (3 % @ 30, -1 -1

60 and 75 DAS) + Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) + Jeevamruta (2000 L ha ) recorded

significantly higher plant height (26.8 cm), number of pods per plant (42.4), oil yield (690.4

kg/ha), protien yield (386.6 kg/ha), pod yield (2312 kg/ha) and gross returns (Rs 71,829/ha)

and which is onpar with the application of FYM (7.5 T/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3% @ -1 -1

30,60 and 75 DAS) + Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+ Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) and only

application of recommended NPK. Whereas, significantly lower plant height (16.3 cm),

number of pods per plant (19.0), oil yield (204.6 kg/ha), protien yield (107.9 kg/ha), pod

yield (802 kg/ha) and gross returns (Rs 25,612/ha) compared to other treatments.


Keywords: Organic manures, Panchagavya, Jeevamruta, pod yield and quality.

International Journal on Agricultural Sciences Vol. V (Issue 2), pp. 127-132, 2014


Research Paper


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

has multifarious usages; it is not only used as a

major cooking medium for various food items

but also utilized for manufacture of soap,

cosmetics, shaving cream, lubricants, etc. In

fact, it plays a pivotal role in oilseed economy of

India.

there is need for a fresh look to

exploit the organic farming approaches using

the local manurial sources for growing

groundnut without using chemical fertilizers

and pesticides, which minimize environmental

pollution and maintain long term fertility of soil

by maintaining soil organic matter and

providing crop nutrients.

Keeping these points in view field experiment

was conducted to know the

Now, the agriculture research is focused on

evolving ecologically sound, biologically

sustainable and socio economically viable

technologies and

Many such nature

friendly farming practices were evolved and

developed by the farmers of the ancient period

and the same become available to the successive

generations. In the plight of material welfare,

the traditional knowledge, which has been

subjected to a process of refinement through

generations of experience, were given negligible

importance and are now receiving recognition.

However, the scientific basis for such

indigenous technologies needs to be evaluated

and perfected before large-scale dissemination.

, a

effect of various

organic manures which is enriched with bio

fertilizers and top dressing with different liquid

organic manures on growth and productivity of

groundnut in order to explore the possibilities

of developing a sustainable input package for

organic production of groundnut.

Organic manures, including animal manures,

crop residues, green manures and composts

were traditionally and preferentially used in

developing countries until 1960's before the

inorganic chemical fertilizers began to gain

popularity. Chemical fertilizers became easily

available and unlike organic manures, they

were less bulky and thus, easier to transport,

handle and store. They produced greater crop

response than many organic manures. This was

particularly true during the 'Green Revolution',

when high yielding crop varieties were

introduced that responded to heavy doses of

chemical fertilizers.

MATERIAL AND METHODSA field experiment was conducted during kharif 2011 at Alur, Hiriyur Taluk Chitradurga district, Karnataka to know the “Effect of different organic sources of nutrients on growth, yield, quality and economics of groundnut” (Arachis hypogaea L.) The texture of soil was red sandy loam having neutral pH with organic carbon

-1(0.66%), available nitrogen (256.14 kg ha ),

-1phosphorous (37.45 kg ha ), and potassium -1(381.6 kg ha ). The variety used was TMV-2. The

experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with three replications involving 11 treatments T : FYM (7.5 1

-1t/ha)+Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) T : FYM (7.5 2

t/ha)+Panchagvaya spray (3%@30,60 and 75 DAS) T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Liquid manure (2000 L 3

- 1h a ) T : Ve r m i c o m p o s t ( 3 t / h a ) + 4

-1Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) T : Vermicompost 5

(3t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3%@30,60 and 75 DAS) T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+ Liquid manure 6

-1(2000 L ha ) T : Neem cake (500 kg/ha)+ 7

Pongamia cake (500 kg/ha) T : FYM (7.5 T/ha)+ 8

Panchagvaya spray (3% @ 30,60 and 75 DAS)+ -1

Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+ Jeevamruta(2000 -1L ha ) T : Vermicompost (3 t/ha)+ Panchagvaya 9

spray (3%@30,60 and 75 DAS)+ Liquid manure -1 -1(2000 L ha )+ Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) T10:

Recommended NPK T : Zero NPK. The 11

biofertilizers are enriched with bulky organic manures and oil cakes. Liquid organic manures like 3% Panchagavya was sprayed @ 30, 60 and 75 DAS and Jeevamruta & Bio-digester were analyzed for its nitrogen content before application. Panchagavya stock solution was prepared by using following ingredients and method. 7 kg cow dung and 1 kg cow ghee were mixed well and kept for 2 days; 2 L cow urine

IJAS 2014 • 128


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

and 10 L water were added to the mixture and left for 15 days; Then 3 L of sugarcane juice + 2L of cow milk + 2 L of curd + 2 L tender coconut water + 250 g jaggary + 1 kg ripened banana were added to accelerate the fermentation. All the materials were added to a wide mouthed pot and kept under shade. The mixture was left for 14 days and stirred twice a day for about 20 minutes both in morning and evening and then filtered. Growth, yield and yield parameters were recorded as per the procedure. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Growth parameters Application of vermicompost (3 t/ha) + Panchagvaya spray (3 % @ 30, 60 and 75 DAS) +

-1Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) + Jeevamruta (2000

-1L ha ) recorded significantly higher plant height (26.8 cm), number of branches per plant (12.6),

2leaf area (1578 cm /plant) and total dry matter (43.73 g/plant) which is onpar with the application of FYM (7.5 t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3% @ 30,60 and 75 DAS)+ Liquid

-1 -1manure (2000 L ha )+ Jeevamruta (2000 L ha ) and only application of recommended NPK (Table 1) compared to other nutrient management practices the increase in growth parameters of these treatments may be due to the fact that nitrogen and phosphorus play an important role in the synthesis of chlorophyll and amino acids, vermicompost and jeevamrutha ensured the continuous supply of these nutrients, while liquid manure beside supplying N, P and K also improved the soil condition, which enhanced the root proliferation and source to sink relationship. Increase in growth parameters in these treatments may also be attributed to synergistic effect of combined use of Vermicompost, Panchagavya and Jeevamrutha (Panwar and Singh, 2003). Whereas, significantly lower plant height (16.3 cm), number of branches per

2plant (8.5), leaf area (1200.8 cm /plant) and total dry matter production (22.12 g/plant) were recorded in the treatment with zero application of nutrients as compared to other treatments. This may be due non availability of nutrients.

IJAS 2014 • 129

Table 1: Growth parameters of groundnut as influenced by different organic sources of nutrients.

Treatments Plant height Number of Leaf area Total dry2(cm) branches per (cm /plant) matter

plant (g/plant)-1T : FYM (7.5t/ha)+Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) 21.8 10.3 1275.8 31.861

T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Panchagvaya spray (3%@30,60 22.4 10.5 1291.3 32.842

and 75 DAS)-1T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) 21.4 10.1 1263.8 30.993



(3%@30,60 and 75 DAS)-1T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) 23.5 10.9 1309.3 35.286


T : FYM (7.5 T/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3% @ 30,60 26.4 12.3 1487.0 42.998-1and 75 DAS)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+

-1Jeevamruta(2000 L ha )

T : Vermicompost (3 t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray 26.8 12.6 1578.0 43.739-1(3%@30,60 and 75 DAS)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha )

-1+ Jeevamruta(2000 L ha )


T : Zero NPK. 16.3 8.5 1200.8 22.1211

S. Em+ 0.93 0.44 56.0 0.53

C. D. at 5 % 2.76 1.35 168.2 1.60


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

Yield and yield parameters Tr e a t m e n t w i t h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f

vermicompost (3 t/ha) + Panchagvaya spray (3

% @ 30, 60 and 75 DAS) + Liquid manure (2000 -1 -1

L ha ) + Jeevamruta (2000 L ha ) recorded

significantly more pods per plant (42.4), pod

yield (2312 kg/ha) and haulm yield (2469 kg/ha)

which is onpar with the application of FYM (7.5

t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3% @ 30,60 and 75 -1

DAS)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+ -1

Jeevamruta (2000 L ha ) and only application of

recommended NPK (Table 2). In case of

Panchagavya spray, the easy transfer of

nutrients to plant through foliar spray and the

Quality parameters Significantly higher oil and protein yield (690.4

and 386.6 kg/ha, respectively) were recorded in

the treatment with the application of

vermicompost (3 t/ha) + Panchagvaya spray (3

% @ 30, 60 and 75 DAS) + Liquid manure (2000

quantities of IAA and GA present in

Panchagavya (Somasundaram, 2003), could

have created the stimuli in the plant system and

which in turn increased the production of

growth regulators in cell system. Hence,

stimulated the necessary growth and

development in plants, leading to better yield.

These results are in agreement with the Mamaril

and Lopez (1997). Whereas, significantly lower

pod and haulm yield (802 and 1552 kg/ha,

respectively) were recorded in the treatment

with zero application of nutrients as compared

to other treatments.

-1 -1L ha ) + Jeevamruta (2000 L ha ) and which is

onpar with the application of FYM (7.5 t/ha)+

IJAS 2014 • 130

Table 2: Yield and yield parameters of groundnut as influenced by different organic sources of nutrients.

Treatments Plant height Number of Leaf area Total dry2(cm) branches (cm /plant) matter

per plant (g/plant)


-1T : FYM (7.5t/ha)+Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) 32.0 37.5 1413 19011

T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Panchagvaya spray (3%@30, 32.9 37.7 1632 19082

60 and 75 DAS)

-1T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) 31.2 36.8 1338 18593

-1T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) 35.5 38.9 1852 21234

T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray 36.0 39.3 1925 21635

(3%@30,60 and 75 DAS)

-1T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) 33.2 38.7 1849 21206

T : Neem cake (500 kg/ha)+ Pongamia cake (500 kg/ha) 28.5 35.1 1304 17957

T : FYM (7.5 T/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3% @ 30, 60 and 42.3 41.5 2230 23358

-175 DAS)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+-1Jeevamruta(2000 L ha )

T : Vermicompost (3 t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3%@30,60 42.4 42.8 2312 24699

-1and 75 DAS)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+ Jeevamruta -1(2000 L ha )

T :Recommended NPK 41.3 41.1 2175 220610

T : Zero NPK. 19.0 34.5 802.0 155211

S. Em± 0.37 8.25 46.1 88.5

C. D. at 5 % 1.12 NS 138.5 265.1


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

Panchagavya spray, the easy transfer of

nutrients to plant through foliar spray and the

quantities of IAA and GA present in

Panchagavya, could have created the stimuli in

the plant system and which in turn increased

the production of growth regulators in cell

system. Hence, stimulated the necessary growth

and development in plants, leading to better oil

and protien yield. Whereas, significantly lower

oil and protein yield (204.6 and 107.9 kg/ha,

the application of FYM (7.5 t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3% @ 30,60 and 75 DAS)+ Liquid

-1 -1manure (2000 L ha )+ Jeevamruta (2000 L ha ) and only application of recommended NPK . But, application of FYM (7.5 t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3% @ 30,60 and 75 DAS)+

-1Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+ Jeevamruta (2000 -1L ha ) recorded significantly maximum net

returns (Rs 53485/ha) compared to other treatments (Table 4). This is may be due to higher pod yield. Only application of recommended NPK recorded significantly

respectively), were recorded in the treatment

with zero application of nutrients as compared

to other treatments. This may be due lower pod

yield.EconomicsApplication of vermicompost (3 t/ha) + Panchagvaya spray (3 % @ 30, 60 and 75 DAS) +

-1Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) + Jeevamruta (2000 -1

L ha ) recorded significantly higher gross returns ( Rs71,829/ha) and which is onpar with

higher B:C ratio (3.82). Whereas, significantly lower net returns (Rs13612/ha) and B:C ratio

IJAS 2014 • 131

Table 3: Oil per cent, oil yield, protein per cent and protein yield of groundnut as influenced by different organic sources of nutrients.

Treatments Per cent (%) Yield (Kg ha-1)

Oil Protein Oil Protein


T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Panchagvaya spray (3%@30, 39.0 20.9 438.0 234.72

60 and 75 DAS)

-1T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) 38.2 20.4 344.9 184.23



(3%@30,60 and 75 DAS)

-1T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) 39.2 21.1 508.0 273.56


T : FYM (7.5 T/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3% @ 30,60 40.5 22.6 655.7 365.98

-1and 75 DAS)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+ -1Jeevamruta (2000 L ha )

T : Vermicompost (3 t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray 40.9 22.9 690.4 386.69

(3%@30,60 and 75 DAS)+ Liquid manure -1 -1(2000 L ha )+J eevamruta(2000 L ha )


T : Zero NPK. 38.1 20.1 204.6 107.911

S. Em± 5.23 0.27 21.7 14.2

C. D. at 5% NS 0.81 65.2 42.8


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

2. Desai, B.B., Kotecha, P.M. and Salunkhe,

D.K., 1999, Science and technology of

groundnut, Biology, Production, Processing

and Utilization, pp, 8-15.

3. Mamaril, J.C and Lopez, A.M., 1997, The

effect of coconut water growth hormones

(CWGH) on the growth, development and

yield of sweet pepper (Caspicum annum

L.). The Philliphines Journal of coconut

studies, 221(1): 18-24.

4. Panwar, A. S. and Singh, N. P., 2003,

Effects of Conjunctive use of phosphorus

and bio-organics on growth and yield of

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea).Indian J. of

Agron., 48(3): 214-216.

5. Somasundaram, E., 2003, Evaluation of

organic sources of nutrients and

Panchagavya spray on the growth and

productivity of maize sunflower-

greengram system. Ph. D Thesis, Tamil

Nadu Agric. University. Coimbatore.

IJAS 2014 • 132

Table 4: Economics of groundnut as influenced by different organic sources of nutrients.

Treatments Cost of Gross Returns Net Returns B:C-1Cultivation (Rs. ha )

-1T : FYM (7.5t/ha)+Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) 16250 44291 28041 1.731

T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Panchagvaya spray (3%@30, 15750 50868 35118 2.232

60 and 75 DAS)

-1T : FYM (7.5 t/ha)+Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) 16250 41999 25749 1.583

-1T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+Jeevamruta(2000 L ha ) 20000 57683 37683 1.884

T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray 19500 59913 40413 2.075

(3%@30,60 and 75 DAS)

-1T : Vermicompost (3t/ha)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) 20000 57590 37590 1.886

T : Neem cake (500 kg/ha)+ Pongamia cake (500 kg/ha) 17000 40915 23915 1.417

T : FYM (7.5 T/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray (3% @ 30, 15750 69235 53485 3.408

-160 and 75 DAS)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha )+ -1Jeevamruta(2000 L ha )

T : Vermicompost (3 t/ha)+ Panchagvaya spray 19500 71829 52329 2.689

-1(3%@30,60 and 75 DAS)+ Liquid manure (2000 L ha ) -1+ Jeevamruta(2000 L ha )

T :Recommended NPK 14000 67456 53456 3.8210

T : Zero NPK. 12000 25612 13612 1.1311

S. Em± 165.1 - 388.3 0.38

C. D. at 5% 495.0 NA 1165 1.15

-1(Rs. ha ) Ratio

NA: Not Analyzed


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IMPACT OF INSECTICIDE (DELTAMETHRIN) ON BEHAVIOURAL CHANGES OF FRESH

WATER LABEO ROHITA

1 2*Arunika Gumasta Shashi Bala Shrivastava and H. Maini

*Shri Gurunanak Women's College, Jabalpur. (M. P.)1&2Govt. M. H. College of H. Sc. & Sc. (Auto) Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh

INTRODUCTIONIn all 84 species of fish belonging to 45 genera,

20 families and 6 orders were recorded, Anon

(1992). Various studies have been made to

record the changes in the different animals,

particularly the fishes exposed to different

concentrations of organochlorine and

organophosphorous pesticides, metals, salts

and detergents. According to an article

published in (2008) deltamethrin is a Pyrethroid

insecticide used extensively to control

invertebrate pests on cotton and other crops. It

is acutely toxic to non target aquatic

organisms.The fresh water teleost Labeo rohita

belongs the family Cyprinideae. This graceful

Indo-Gangtic reveries species is the natural

inhabitant of the revering system of northern

and central India, and the rivers of Pakistan,

Bangladesh and Myanmar. It occasionally

browses the shallow bottoms having preference

to plank tonic algae; bottom sand, vegetable

debris, decaying leaves of aquatic plants is most

suitable culture. A pair of small maxillary

barbells concealed in lateral groove, no teeth on

jaws, color bluish on back, silvery on flank and

belly. Fish was identified with the help of

Jhingran (2007) and Days Fauna (1968).

ABSTRACT

The pollution of water where by the quality of the water deteriorates aquatic ecosystem.

Fresh water teleost Labeo rohita, most delicious table fish is now being affected with the

toxicant Deltamethrin (insecticide) shows extremely lethargic behavioural changes in

preliminary hours of exposure at different concentration. Selection of 5 concentrations is

based on the series in progressive bisection of intervals on the logarithmic scale such as

0.075, 0.15, 0.3, 0.6, and 1.2 ml.


Keywords: Deltamethrin, Labeo rohita.



Research Paper


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

Deltamethrin is very active synthetic

Pyrethroid insecticide with specific gravity –

0.89 and molecular formula C H Br No . An 22 19 2 3

Alphacyano class of Pyrethroid insecticide is

used to insect pest control and anti malaria

programs in several countries including India.

This insecticide used extensively to control

invertebrate pest on cotton and other crops. It

is acute toxic to non target aquatic organisms.

Sharma and Prakash (2005) analyzed the

presence of pesticide residues using solid

phase extraction and gas chromatographic

techniques.

Deltamethrin is extremely lipophilic, it easily

penetrates the cuticle of insects and ocarinas,

which rapidly paralyze the nervous system.

Reinke (1972) and Bevanue and Hylin (1972)

reported the massive quantities of pesticides

occasionally in aquatic environment.

MATERIAL AND METHODThe specimen of Labeo for the present study

have collected from different ponds

(Hanumantal, Mahanadda, and Fish farm of

agriculture) located in the city Jabalpur in

Madhya Pradesh (India). Living and healthy

specimens of Labeo rohita were kept in glass

aquaria for acclimatized to stored tap water for

15 days. Fishes were treated with 0.01 % of

KMno solution to obviate dermal infection. 4

Fishes were daily fed with chopped and

powdered prawns at the rate of 0.80

mg/fish/day.

Two groups were prepared for experiments, at

least 10 fishes in each group. In first group

fishes were kept in water without insecticide

throughout the experiments to detect mortality

rate in normal condition. Fishes of second

g r o u p w e r e e x p o s e d b y d i f f e r e n t

concentrations of toxicant deltamethrin (i,e.

0.075, 0.15, 0.3, 0.6, 1.2 ml/l). and observation

were noted.

Table 1 : Showing the detail of experimental

groups.

S.N. Group I Group Time II/conc. in In hrs.

Ml/l

1 Control 0.075 12

2 ,, 0.15 24

3 ,, 0.3 48

4 ,, 0.6 72

5 ,, 1.2 96

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONTable-II Showing behavioral changes observed in experimental fish Labeo rohita as compared to control.

Changes Control Delta-methrin

Swimming ventrally & +

Loss of co-ordination & +

Intake of food + _

Dehydration & +

Deposition of mucous & +

Body bent & +

Excess rate of respiration & +

Pigmentation + _

Activeness + _

Movement (stable) + _

*(+) Positive characters, (-) Negative character.

Food consumption in control group of

experiments according to table – II, given food

was fully consumed by the Labeo rohita within

24 hours while in group II of toxicants

deltamethrin the food was not completely

consumed and about 20 to 25% food per day

was left unconsumed for the same fish. Fish

was active and exhibited co-ordinate

swimming activity in control group I. Fish in

IJAS 2014 • 134


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

group II with toxicants deltamethrin showed

high gulping rate as against group I of animals.

Sayed and Saad (2007) reported effects of sub

acute concentration (1.46 µg/l) of a Pyrethroid

insecticide, Deltamethrin against the monosex

Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus. Except

control fishes, excessive secretion and

deposition of mucous was found on the body of

fishes of experimental group belonging to

group II of toxicant, color of aquaria water

changed to milky white.

After introducing the fish into test solution

copious secretion of the mucous was observed

over the body which might be in response to

irritation caused to the body surface by the

toxicants deltamethrin. Shedding of scales,

dull and faded skin color were also observed.

Relatively increased respiratory activity in the

beginning and reduced later as revealed by

increased and decreased opercular movement

was observed during the early hours of

exposure of the fishes to the toxicant

deltamethrin. Behavioural response of the fish

to a large number of pesticides and pollutants

has been reported by various workers like

Cairns and Scheier (1962), Spraque (1971).

Frequently, definite system of restlessness

were shown by the fishes making frequent

visits to the surface of water to gulp

atmospheric air directly and tried to jump out

of container. Some fishes frequently dashed

against the walls of the container and showed

highly agitated movements, suggesting

impairment of the sense of balance.

Subsequently, fish's activity become

progressively lethargic and they lost their

balance. Ultimately, the fishes sank down to

the bottom of the container and died. Slight

hemorrhage in skin was noted. Remarkable

changes observed were the fast opercular

movements. At the time of death body became

slightly curved showing imbalance in nervous

system. Hyper sensitivity was indicated by

extreme irritability at slightest mechanical

disturbances. Slight damage in pelvic and

caudal fins was noticed. Fins became

transparent and stiff as compared to control

group of fishes, group II of toxicant

deltamethrin , shows swimming ventrally, loss

of co-ordination, no intake of food,

dehydration, lot of secretion of mucous, bent

position of body, excess rate of respiration,

dispigmentation and dullness of scales,

damaging of fins margins etc.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to my gratitude to Dr. (Smt.) Pankaj

Shukla, Principal, Govt. M. H. College of HSc.

& Sc. Jabalpur, & Dr. Suneeta Shrivastava,

Head of the Zoology Deptt. of same college to

gave opportunity to do this work. I am

(Arunika Gumasta) also thankful to my Guide

Dr. Shashi Bala Shrivastava to give me

valuable guidence.

REFERENCES1. Bevenue, A. J. N. ogato, and Hylin, J. H.

(1972). Organochlorine pesticides in rain

water oahu Hawaii. Bull. Environ.

Contam.Toxicol.,8: 238 - 241.

2. Cairns, J. and Scheier, A., 1962. The acute

and chronic effects of standard sodium

alkyl benzene sulphonate upon the

pumpkin seed sunfish, Lepomis gibbosus

(Lin) and the blue gills sunfish, L.

macrochirus. Raf. Proc. 17th Ind. Waste

conf. purdue Univ. Engng. Extn. Ser., 112.

:14-28.

3. Effects on river water and salinity of the

toxicity of deltamethrin to fresh water

shrimp, Cladoceran and fish. Research

article Summary (Published 16 Mar 2008).

4. Jhingeran V.G., 1983 Fish and fisheries of

India (New Delhi: Hindustan Publishing

Corporation)pp 1-666.

IJAS 2014 • 135


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

5. Sprague, J.B., 1971. Measurement of

pollutant toxicity to fish III Sublethal

effects and safe concentrations. Water

research pergamon press., 5:245-266.

6. Sharma, Niti and Prakash Alka,

Environmental Biotechnology Laboratory,

Department of Zoology Dayalbagh

Educational Institute, Agra, 282005, India

7. Sayed, Y.S. and Saad, T.T. 2007.

Department of Veterinary Forensic

Medicine and Toxicology. Poultry and

Fish disease. Alexandria University,

Egypt.

IJAS 2014 • 136


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

QUALITY PARAMETERS, HARVEST INDEX OF HYBRID RICE (Oryza sativa L.) AND ECONOMICS OF VARIOUS TREATMENTS

UNDER VARIOUS LEVELS OF ZINC SULPHATE AND INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT

Anil Kumar Singh*, Alok Kumar Singh** and Arvind Kumar***

*Tea Board, DTR & DC, A.B. Path, Kurseong-734 203, Darjeeling, West Bengal, India

**Department of Crop Physiology and ***Department of Agricultural Meteorology,Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology,

(Narendra Nagar) Kumarganj-224 229 Faizabad (U.P.), India

INTRODUCTIONTo meet the demands of increasing population

and maintain this self-sufficiency, the present

production level of around 90 million tonnes,

needs to be increased up to 120 million tonnes

by the year 2020. This increase in production

has to be achieved in the backdrop of declining

and deteriorating resource base such as land,

water, labour and other inputs without

adversely affecting the environment. This

indeed appears to be a herculean task, with the

available technological options (Ahmed et al.,

ABSTRACT

The present experiment was conducted during kharif season of 2005-06 and 2006-07 at

Student Instructional Farm of Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology,

Narendra Nagar (Kumarganj), Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh, India. In this study, the quality

parameters, harvest index of hybrid rice (Oryza sativa L.) and economics of various

treatments under various levels of zinc sulphate and integrated nutrient management have

been performed. The quality, harvest index of hybrid rice was higher in the integrated

application of organic (green manuring) and inorganic sources of nutrients as compared to

sole application. The result showed that the maximum protein content, hulling and milling

per cent was observed with 75% of recommended dose of fertilizer + green manure along

with 40 kg zinc sulphate per hectare. Similar trend was observed for net return. Finding of

this study revealed that integrated application of organic with inorganic fertilizers helps in

increasing the quality, harvest index of hybrid rice and increase the net return too.


Keywords: Hybrid rice, INM, net return, harvest index and protein content.



Research Paper


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

2003). Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is among the most

important staple food crops in the world.

Among the various approaches contemplated

to break the existing yield barriers in rice to

feed the rising population with quality food

stuffs, hybrid rice technology is considered as

one of the promising sustainable and

ecofriendly technologies. To targets and

demands can be well meet and hybrid rice

holds great promise to increase the rice

production.It contributes significantly in

sustaining not only our rice demand but also

global demand. Hybrid rice possess 10 to 15

per cent yield advantage over inbred varieties

due to more vigorous and extensive root

system (Young et al. 1999). Consequences

upon which in hybrid rice, increased growth

rate during vegetative stage (Yamauchi, 1994),

more efficient sink formation, faster rate of

translocation of photosynthates and greater

sink size (Kabaki, 1993) was occurred. The

chemical fertilizer use is not only inadequate

but highly imbalanced also because the use of

fertilizers by the Indian farmers often depends

on its availability and is rarely decided by

recommendation based on soil test values. As

results, the NPK consumption ratio has

become 6.5: 2.5:1 as against accepted optimum

ratio 4:2:1. This erratic fertilizer consumption

ratio hindrance the native soil fertility as well

as other physical, chemical properties of soil.

Integrated nutrient supply involving

conjunctive use of fertilizers, organic sources

of nutrients and bio-fertilizer assumes greater

significance in India mainly due to two

reasons. Firstly, the need for continuous

increase in yield in rice-wheat system requires

the application of still higher amount of

nutrients than used at present. The present

level of fertilizer availability and economic

conditions of large number of farmers do not

permit applying them in quantities adequate

enough to meet the total plant nutrients needs

at the desired level of productivity. Secondly,

the results of several long-term experiments in

different cropping systems revealed that long-

term sustainability of productivity in intensive

cropping system could be achieved only

through integration of inorganic and organic

sources of nutrients.It improves the soil

physical conditions in terms of soil structure,

aggregate stability, soil moisture retention and

hydraulic conductivity as well as chemical

properties of soil such as decreasing soil pH,

ESP increase CEC etc. Such improvements in

soil physical and chemical conditions

contribute to soil fertility and productivity

(Hegde, 1998). Taking these views into

consideration,the present investigation was,

therefore, undertaken to assess the quality

parameters, harvest index of hybrid rice

(Oryza sativa L.) and economics of various

treatments under various levels of zinc

sulphate and integrated nutrient management.

MATERIALS AND METHODSThe present investigation was conducted at

the Student Instructional Farm of Narendra

Deva University of Agriculture and

Technology, Narendra Nagar (Kumarganj),

Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh, India during kharif

(wet) seasons of 2005-06 and 2006-07. The

experimental site falls under subtropical zone

in Indo-Gangetic plains having alluvial soil.

The experimental site lies between 24.4to 0 0

26.56 N latitude and 82.12 to 83.98 E

longitudes with an elevation of about 113 m

from mean sea level. The soil of the

experimental site was sandy loam in texture.

The experimental sites receive, on an average,

about 1200 mm rain annually. About 85% of

the total rainfall is concentrated from mid June

to end of September. The integration of

inorganic fertilizer was done with green

manure. Dhaincha (Sesbani aculeata) crop

was used as green manuring (GM). The

experiment comprising of twenty treatment

combination presented in Table 1. The rice

hybrid variety NDRH-2 was taken as test crop.

IJAS 2014 • 138


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

The experiment was laid out in spilt plot

design (SPD) with three replications. Nitrogen,

phosphorus and potash @ 150, 60 and 60 -1

kg ha , respectively were considered as

recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF). One

third of nitrogen and full dose of phosphorus,

potassium and zinc sulphate was applied

through urea, single super phosphate, muriate

of potash and zinc sulphate, respectively, as

per treatment as basal at the time of

transplanting. Remaining two third part of

nitrogen was top dressed into two equal splits;

one at active tillering stage and other at panicle

initiation stage. The samples of rice grain at

harvest stage were analyzed for total N content.

Samples were air dried followed to facilitate

fine grinding. The finally ground material,

passed through 0.4 mm sieve was analyzed.

Modified Kjeldahl's method was followed for

determination of nitrogen content in grains as

described by (Jackson, 1973). The nitrogen

percentage was then multiplied by 6.25

(A.O.A.C., 1970) to obtain crude protein in

hybrid rice grains. Two hundred grams of grain

after threshing, winnowing, cleaning and

drying was taken for de-husking (manually)

IJAS 2014 • 139

Table 1: Treatments

Symbol Treatments

-1T Green manuring + 0 kg zinc sulphate ha1





-1T 50% RDF + Green manuring + 0 kg zinc sulphate ha6










-1T 100% RDF + 0 kg zinc sulphate ha16






ISSN NO. 0976-450X

and brown rice thus obtained was weighed and

then hulling percentage was calculated. One

hundred grams of brown rice obtained after

hulling was taken and put to polishing by

removing rice bran, embryo and aleurone layer

manually by sand paper and polished white

kernels thus obtained was weighed and then

milling percentage calculated. Data were

analyzed statistically applying spilt plot

design (SPD) by the method of “Analysis of

Variance” as described by (Gomez and Gomez

1984).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Quality parametersData regarding protein content in grain

presented in Table 2 clearly revealed that

protein content of rice was significantly

affected by various treatment combinations.

The maximum protein content (8.33 and

8.53%) were found under treatment having

75% RDF + GM which was at par with

treatment having 100% RDF and significantly

superior over treatment consisting 50% RDF +

GM and GM alone in 2005 and 2006,

respectively. Zinc levels also affected the

protein content in rice grain. The maximum

protein content (8.21 and 8.36%) was observed -1

with 40 kg zinc sulphate ha which was at par -1with 30 kg zinc sulphate ha and significantly

-1superior over 0, 10 and 20 kg zinc sulphate ha

in 2005 and 2006, respectively. It was noticed

from data that protein content in grain

increased significantly with the treatments

consisting various doses of NPK along with

green manure and zinc sulphate. Protein

content increased because of higher N

utilization by the crop, which enhances the

protein synthesis in plants. It ultimately

increased the protein content in rice grain by

increasing the osmophyllic bodies and

formation of amino acids. The increase in

protein content due to enhancement of N

uptake in these treatments may be due to the

adequate N availability in soil. These results

were in accordance with the findings of

Krishna and Ram (2006). Similarly, Gupta et

al., (2000) also reported that conjunctive use of

chemical fertilizer along with Sesbani

aculeata improve the N content and uptake of

rice crop. Increasing levels of zinc sulphate

significantly improved the protein content in

rice grain. This is due to fact that zinc

enhances the utilization of nitrogen, resulting

increase in N content. Application of zinc

appreciably improved seed quality by

improving protein content in the seed.

Improved N content with increase in levels of

zinc in rice was also reported by Mali and

Shaikh (1994). Data regarding hulling and

milling percent have been presented in table

4 and 5 indicate that hulling percentage

significantly influenced by various treatment

combination. Maximum hulling percent

(76.28 and 76.39%) was recorded with

treatment 75% RDF + GM which was at par

with treatments having 100 % RDF and 50%

RDF + GM and significantly superior over GM

alone in both the years. Result further

indicates that zinc levels had also affected the

hulling percent of rice. Maximum hulling

percent (77.10 and 77.21%) was found with 40 -1

kg zinc sulphate ha which was at par with 30 -1kg zinc sulphate ha and significantly superior

-1over 0, 10 and 20 kg zinc sulphate ha . Similar

trend was observed for milling percentage.The

hulling and milling percent have been

influenced considerably by combined use of

fertilizer, green manure and zinc than

inorganic alone. The maximum hulling and

milling percent were observed with 75% RDF -1

+ GM along with 40 kg zinc sulphate ha ,

while minimum hulling and milling percent

were recorded with green manuring alone. It

is due to the balanced application of nutrients

which improved grain quality of rice. These

IJAS 2014 • 140


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

results corroborate with the findings of Krishna

and Ram (2006).

Harvest IndexData regarding harvest index presented in the

table 2 showed positive effect of different

treatments combinations. Critical examination

of data revealed that maximum harvest index

(44.29) was recorded with 75% RDF + GM

which was at par 100% RDF and statistically

better than 50% RDF + GM and GM alone in

2005, while in the year 2006 maximum harvest

index (44.24) was recorded with treatment

having 75% RDF + GM which was at par with

100% RDF and 50% RDF + GM and

significantly better than treatment GM alone.

Non-significant variations in the harvest index

due to levels of zinc had been recorded in both

the years of experiment. It is obvious that

harvest index of crop was affected by the

various treatment combinations. The maximum

harvest index was noticed under treatment

consisting 75% RDF + GM 40 kg zinc sulphate -1

ha . Highest harvest index in green manure plot

along with chemical fertilizer was mainly due to

higher grain yield. This may be due to

translocation of photosynthates from vegetative

parts to grain which increases the proportion of

grain yield in total biological yield, ultimately

increase the harvest index of the crop. Due to

better physical and chemical properties of soil

and availability of nutrient in soil increased

IJAS 2014 • 141

Table 2: Impact of integrated nutrient management and zinc sulphate on the quality parameters and harvest index of hybrid rice.

Fertility levels

GM 7.39 7.53 71.55 71.65 65.46 65.51 38.40 38.72

50% RDF+GM 7.81 7.93 73.18 73.30 68.00 68.15 43.48 43.54

75%RDF+GM 8.33 8.53 76.28 76.39 72.63 72.67 44.29 44.24

100% RDF 8.13 8.25 76.25 76.37 72.58 72.63 44.14 43.99

SEm± 0.1 0.1 0.95 0.96 0.88 0.89 0.19 0.35

CD (P=0.05) 0.35 0.36 3.29 3.33 3.06 3.09 0.64 1.2

-1Zinc Sulphate Levels (kg ha )

-10 kg ha 7.56 7.70 70.98 71.09 66.55 66.62 42.24 42.38

-110 kg ha 7.72 7.86 72.47 72.58 67.94 68.01 42.80 42.92

-120 kg ha 7.97 8.12 74.87 74.98 70.18 70.26 42.62 42.66

-130 kg ha 8.11 8.26 76.16 76.28 71.39 71.47 42.77 43.20

-140 kg ha 8.21 8.36 77.10 77.21 72.27 72.35 42.47 41.93

SEm± 0.06 0.06 0.59 0.58 0.56 0.55 NS NS

CD (P=0.05) 0.18 0.18 1.710 1.66 1.61 1.57 NS NS

Treatments Quality Parameters

Protein content (%)

2005 2005 2005 20052006 2006 2006 2006

Hullingpercentage

Milling percentage

Harvest Index (%)


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

ultimately increase the nutrient absorption by

plant results more grain yield. These results

corroborates with the findings of Senger et al.

(2000).

Economics of the treatmentsThe economics of different treatment

combinations have been presented in table 3. It

was worked out on the basis of input and output

analysis. Result obviously showed that the cost

of cultivation varied mainly due to wide

difference in the recommended dose of

fertilizer, green manure and levels of zinc

sulphate. Maximum total cost of cultivation -1(Rs. 16818 ha ) was computed under the

treatment having 75 % RDF + GM with 40 kg

-1zinc sulphate ha . Minimum cost of cultivation -1(Rs. 13330 ha ) was recorded with GM without

zinc sulphate. However, maximum gross -1income (Rs. 41909 and 43101 ha ) were

recorded under the treatment having 75 % RDF -1

+ GM with 40 kg zinc sulphate ha , while

minimum gross income (Rs 19575 and 20345 -1

ha ) were recorded in treatment receiving green

manure without zinc sulphate in the year 2005

and 2006, respectively. Whereas highest net -1

return (Rs 25091 and 26283ha ) was recorded

under plots having 75% RDF + GM with 40 kg -1

zinc sulphateha followed by treatment having -175 % RDF + GM with 30 kg zinc sulphate ha in

which Rs 24968 and 26146 were computed in

Table 3: Impact of INM on Cost of cultivation, Gross income, Net income and B: C ratio of various treatment combinations

T 13330 19575 20345 6245 7015 0.47 0.531

T 13580 22455 23338 8875 9758 0.65 0.722

T 13830 24870 25855 11040 12025 0.80 0.873

T 14080 26804 27877 12724 13797 0.90 0.984

T 14330 27049 28128 12719 13798 0.89 0.965

T 15024 27668 28314 12645 13291 0.84 0.886

T 15274 31197 31936 15923 16663 1.04 1.097

T 15524 34739 35562 19215 20038 1.24 1.298

T 15774 37439 38324 21666 22551 1.37 1.439

T 16024 37619 38512 21596 22488 1.35 1.4010

T 15818 30558 31424 14740 15606 0.93 0.9911

T 16068 34276 35247 18207 19179 1.13 1.1912

T 16318 38001 39074 21683 22756 1.13 1.3913

T 16568 41536 42714 24968 26146 1.51 1.5814

T 16818 41909 43101 25091 26283 1.49 1.5615

T 15028 28198 28893 13170 13866 0.88 0.9216

T 15278 32351 33146 17074 17868 1.12 1.1717

T 15528 35330 36204 19803 20676 1.28 1.3318

T 15778 38968 39864 23190 24086 1.47 1.5319

T 16028 39166 40199 23139 24172 1.44 1.5120

Treatment Cost of cultivation

Gross income

2005 2005 20052006 2006 2006

Net income B:C ratio

IJAS 2014 • 142


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

2005 and 2006, respectively. Maximum

benefit: cost ratio (1.51 and 1.58) was

computed with treatment receiving 75 % RDF -1+ GM with 30 kg zinc sulphate ha , followed

by treatment having 75% RDF + GM with 40 kg -1zinc sulphate ha in both the years,

respectively. In respect to economic feasibility -

the highest net return (Rs. 25091 and 26283 ha1) was computed under the treatment receiving

-175% RDF+GM with 40 kg zinc sulphate ha in

respective years. However, highest benefit cost

ratio (1.51 and 1.58) was found in treatment -175% RDF + GM with 30 kg zinc sulphate ha .

The net return and benefit cost ratio increased

due to low cost of cultivation and higher yield

of rice crop under treatment having combined

application of organic and inorganic fertilizer.

Similar result was also reported by Verma and

Acharya (2004).

CONCLUSIONThe findings presented in this study reveal

some distinct benefit of integrated use of

organic and inorganic fertilizer. This is not

only increased the net return but also improve

the quality and harvest index of the crop. It is

possible that by supplying nutrients to the

plant in an integrated way, the use of fossil fuel

based inorganic fertilizer can be reduced

which in turn, can reduce the risk of fertilizer

related environmental consequences (Anon,

1997). The best part is that the practice will

suit the cash poor small and marginal farmers

of the state (Modgal, 2000).

REFERENCE1. A.O.A.C.,1970. Association of official

analytical chemists.Official method of

analysis, P.O. Box. 540. Benjamin Franklin

station, Washington- 4 DC.

2. Ahmed, M. I.; Viraktamath, B.C.;

Ramesha, M.S.;Vijayakumar, C.N.M. and

Mishra, B., 2003. Hybrid rice in India.

Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad,

India, p3-4.

3. Anon . , 1997 . A gu ide to f i e ld

implementation of integrated plant

nutrition system.IFFCO, New Delhi,

India, p.106.

4. Gomez, KA, Gomez AA. 1984. Statistical

procedures for Agricultural Research, Ed.

J. John Wiley and Sons. Inc. USA.

5. Gupta, C., Lal, P., Bisht, P.S. and Pandey,

P.C., 2000. Integrated organic and organic

N management in lowland rice.Oryza, 37

(2): 20-30.

6. Hegde , D .M. , 1998 . Long t e rm

sustainability of productivity in rice

(Oryza sativa) wheat (Triticum aestivum)

system in sub humid ecosystem through

integrated nutrient supply. Indian J. of

Agron. 43 (2): 189-198.

7. Jackson M.L., 1973. Soil chemical

analysis, Prentice Hall of India, Pvt. Ltd.

New Delhi.

8. Kabaki, N., 1993. Growth and yield of

Japonica-indica hybrid rice.Japan Agril.

Res. 27: 87-94.

9. Krishna, D. and Ram, S., 2006. Long term

impact of organic and inorganic

fertilization on grain yield and quality of

rice (Oryza sativa L.) in mollisol of tarai.

Intl. J. Agric. Sci., 02 (1): 61-63.

10. Modgal, S.C., 2000. Balance nutrition for

sustainable high crop yield in Uttar

Pradesh. Proceeding of workshop held on

May 10, at Krishi Bhawan, Lucknow, Uttar

Pradesh, India.

11. Sengar, S.S.; Wade, L.J.; Baghel, S.S.;

Singh, R.K. and Singh, G., 2000. Effect of

nutrient management on rice in rainfed

lowland o f sou th eas t Madhya

Pradesh.Indian J. Agron., 45 (2): 315-322.

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12. Verma, M.L. and Acharya, C.L., 2004. Soil

moisture conservation, hydrothermal

requires nitrogen uptake and field of

rainfed wheat as affected by soil

management practices and nitrogen level.

J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 52 (1): 69-73.

13. Yamauchi, M., 1994. Physiological bases

of higher yield potential in F-1 hybrid.

JRRN: 71-80.

14. Young, Zian Chang; Su, Bao Lin; Wang,

Zhi Qin; Long, You Zhong; Zhu, Qing,

Sen; Yang, J.C., Su, B.L.; Wang, Z.Q.l

Long, Y.Z.; Zhu, A.S. and Lu, FelJia., 1999.

Characteristics and physiology of grain

filling in inter sub specific hybrid rice,

Chinese Agril. Sci., 61-70.

IJAS 2014 • 144


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

BIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS IN RELATION TO POWDERY MILDEW RESISTANCE IN BLACK GRAM

1 2Channaveeresh, T.S . and Shripad Kulkarni

1Department of Plant Pathology,

University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad-580 005, India2Department of Plant Pathology,

Institute of Organic Farming, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad

INTRODUCTIONBlack gram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper) is one of

the most important pulse crops of Fabaceae. The

lower productivity of black gram is mainly

attributed to low genetic yield potentiality,

indeterminate growth habi t , canopy

architecture, low partitioning efficiency,

cultivation in marginal land and due to biotic

and abiotic stresses. Among biotic stresses

powdery mildew, cercospora leaf spot,

anthracnose and mungbean yellow mosaic

virus (MYMV) are the major diseases of black

gram. The reduction in photosynthetic activity

and physiological changes are considerable,

which lead to potential decrease in yield (40-

90%) due to powdery mildew infection.

ABSTRACT

Powdery mildew caused by Erysiphe polygoni DC is one of the major constraints in the

production of black gram. In order to know the biochemical compositions such as

cholorophyll, sugars and phenol content of both healthy and diseased leaf carried out in

resistant(LBG-17) and susceptible(TAU-1) cultivars. A healthy leaf of resistant cultivar LBG-

17 had more amount of total chlorophyll (3.2 mg/g) than diseased leaf (2.57 mg/g). Whereas,

it was drastically reduced in susceptible variety TAU-1 from 2.46 mg/g to 1.83 mg/g. The

amount of total sugars in healthy leaves of susceptible variety TAU-1 (15.68 mg/g) was less

compared to diseased leaves (23.74 mg/g). In resistant cultivar LBG-17, the amount of total

sugars in healthy leaves (7.96 mg/g) was less than diseased leaves (11.36 mg/g). Initially

healthy leaves of susceptible variety (TAU-1) had 5.70 mg/g of total phenols and it was

increased to 7.63 mg/g after infection by E. polygoni. Whereas, healthy leaves of resistant

cultivar LBG-17 had 8.34 mg/g of total phenols and it was increased to 16.78 mg/g in

diseased leaves.


Keywords: Powdery mildew, Erysiphe polygoni, Biochemical and resistance.



Research Article


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

In general, plant biochemical constitution

forms a basis of resistance. Hence, it is

important to know the biochemical's produced

before and after infection of plants of resistant

and susceptible variety, which helps to identify

the resistant source at initial stages.

Biochemical factors play an important role in

defence mechanism of host plant against

diseases. Several changes are observed in the

plant constituents in reaction to the disease

among susceptible and resistant hosts.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Estimation of chlorophyll contentAbout 100 mg of healthy and infected leaf

samples of resistant (LBG-17) and susceptible

(TAU-1) cultivar were collected from the field.

The chlorophyll was extracted in Dimethyl

sulfoxide (DMSO) as described by Hiscos and

Israelstan (1979). The leaf samples were placed

in a test tube containing 7 ml DMSO and

incubated at room temperature for 24 hours.

The extracted liquid was transferred to

graduated test tubes and volume was made up to

10 ml with DMSO, and the stock solution was

diluted to 50 per cent with DMSO. About 3 ml

sample of chlorophyll extract was transferred to

cuvette and OD values were read at 645 and 663

nm along with DMSO blank in the

spectrophotometer.

Chlorophyll content was calculated by

following formula (Arnon, 1949).

IJAS 2014 • 146

Estimation of total phenols Estimation of total phenols in the plant samples

was carried out following Folin-Ciocalteau

reagent method.

Reagents: Folin - Ciocalteau reagent (FCR) - 1%Sodium carbonate - 2%

Procedure: One ml of alcohol extract was taken

in a test tube to which one ml of Folin-ciocalteau

reagent was added followed by two ml of

sodium carbonate solution. Then the tubes were

shaken well and heated on boiling water bath

for exactly one minute and cooled under


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

running tap water. The blue solution was

diluted to fifteen ml with water and its

absorbance was read at 650 nm in

spectrometer. The amount of phenols present

was calculated with the help of a standard

curve prepared from catechol.

Estimation of sugars Reducing sugars for the leaf samples were

estimated by Nelson's modification of

Somogyi's method (Nelson, 1944). Non-

reducing sugars were hydrolyzed by using 1 ml

1N H SO and then estimated as in case of 2 4

reducing sugars to get the total sugars. Non-

reducing sugars were calculated by

subtracting the reducing sugars from that of

total sugars.

ResultThe amount of chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b

and total chlorophyll, sugars and phenols in

healthy and powdery mildew infected leaves

(mg/g fresh leaf weight) of resistant and

susceptible genotypes estimated as described

in “Material and Methods” and data pertaining

to this are presented in the Table 1.

Chlorophyll contentIn susceptible variety TAU-1 the chlorophyll-a

content in healthy leaf was 1.83 mg/g and it has

been reduced to 1.43 mg/g after infection by

Erysiphe polygoni. In resistant variety LBG-17,

initial chlorophyll-a content was 1.97 mg/g

and it came down to 1.64 mg/g on infection.

The initial chlorophyll-b content in healthy

leaves was 0.63 mg/g in susceptible variety

TAU-1and it has been reduced to 0.40 mg/g

after infection. But the reduction of

chlorophyll-b in healthy (1.23 mg/g) and

diseased (0.93 mg/g) leaves was very less in

resistant variety LBG-17. A healthy leaf of

resistant cultivar had more amount of total

chlorophyll (3.2 mg/g) than diseased leaf (2.57

mg/g). Whereas, it was drastically reduced in

susceptible variety TAU-1 from 2.46 mg/g to

1.83 mg/g (Table 1).

IJAS 2014 • 147

Table 1 : Effect of powdery mildew on biochemical composition of susceptible and resistant cultivars of black gram.

Chloro- 1.83 1.43 21.85 - 1.97 1.64 16.75 -phyll a

Chloro- 0.63 0.40 36.50 - 1.23 0.93 24.39 -phyll b

Total 2.46 1.83 25.60 - 3.2 2.57 19.68 -Chloro-phyll

Reducing 8.94 6.12 31.54 - 4.82 3.69 23.44 -sugars

Non 6.74 17.62 - 161.42 7.67 3.14 - 144.26reducing sugars

Total 15.68 23.74 - 51.40 7.96 11.36 - 42.71sugars

Biochemical parameters

Chloro-phyll(mg/g)

Sugars(mg/g)

Phenols (mg/g)

TAU-1(Susceptible)

Healthyleaf

Healthyleaf

Per centreduction

Per centreductionDiseased

leafDiseased

leaf

Per centincrease

Per centincrease

LBG-17(Resistant)

5.70 7.63 - 33.85 8.34 16.78 - 101.19


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

SugarsThe amount of total sugars in healthy leaves of

susceptible variety TAU-1 (15.68 mg/g) was

less compared to diseased leaves (23.74 mg/g).

In resistant cultivar LBG-17, the amount of

total sugars in healthy leaves (7.96 mg/g) was

less than diseased leaves (11.36 mg/g). Healthy

leaves (8.94 mg/g) of powdery mildew

susceptible variety TAU-1 has got more

amount of reducing sugars than diseased

leaves (6.12 mg/g). Contrast to this in resistant

variety, healthy leaf had 4.82 mg/g of reducing

sugars and it was decreased to 3.69 mg/g after

infection. The amount of non-reducing sugars

in healthy and diseased leaves of TAU-1 was

6.74 mg/g and 17.62 mg/g respectively. Healthy

leaves of LBG-17 had 3.14 mg/g of non-

reducing sugars and it was more in diseased

leaf (7.67 mg/g) (Table 1).

PhenolsInitially healthy leaves of susceptible variety

(TAU-1) had 5.70 mg/g of total phenols and it

was increased to 7.63 mg/g after infection by E.

polygoni. Whereas, healthy leaves of resistant

cultivar LBG-17 had 8.34 mg/g of total phenols

and it was increased to 16.78 mg/g in diseased

leaves (Table 1).

DiscussionThe common biochemical constituents like

chlorophyll, sugars and phenols are important

in imparting resistance to the crop and plants

against disease. Sometimes due to infection

host plant is induced to synthesize these

compounds.

Chlorophyll contentIn the present study, chlorophyll-a,

chlorophyll-b and total chlorophyll were

found to be higher amounts in resistant

cultivar than susceptible cultivar and their

concentration has been found decreasing

relatively due to disease. However, the rate of

decrease was higher in susceptible cultivar

than resistant cultivar. Results of the present

study were similar with the findings of many

workers, such as Gupta (2001) while working

with black gram powdery mildew, Xu Bing

Liang et al. (2005) with Lucerne powdery

mildew. Dinesh (2009) similar observations

were also made by while working with

sunflower powdery mildew and Divyajyothi

(2012) with green gram powdery mildew.

SugarsSugars are precursors and basic molecules for

the synthesis of phenols, phytoalexines and

farm a skeleton for the synthesis of nucleic

acids (Vidyasekaran, 1974). The concentration

of the reducing sugars in both genotypes before

infection was higher and it was reduced after

infection. Non reducing sugars in leaves were

less before infection and increased after

infection in both resistant and susceptible

genotypes. But rate of increase in non-

reducing sugars more in susceptible variety

compared to resistant variety. Present findings

are in agreement with results obtained by

Mandahar and Garg (1975), Munshi et al.

(1987), Dakshayani et al. (2005), Dinesh (2009)

and Divyajyothi (2012) while working with

powdery mildew of okra, peas, green gram,

sunflower and Mungbean respectively.

PhenolsOne of the major biological properties of

phenolic compounds is their antimicrobial

activity and their main role in plants is to act as

protective compounds against disease causing

pathogens. These compounds were involved

in resistance mechanism and their

concentration was much higher in resistant

genotypes than in susceptible ones at all the

growth stages. In the present investigation,

there was an increase in phenol content in

response to infection of E. polygoni DC both in

resistant and susceptible black gram

genotypes. Similar results were observed in

the present study with higher concentration of

IJAS 2014 • 148


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

phenolic compounds in resistant cultivars

than susceptible cultivars of black gram plants

(Saini et al., 1988) and also agreement with

results obtained by Avtar et al. (2003), Dinesh

(2009) and Divyajyothi (2012) while working

with powdery mildew of fenugreek, sunflower

and Mungbean respectively.

CONCLUSIONThe chlorophyll content was found to decrease

due to infection of E. polygoni and the rate of

decrease was more in susceptible (25.60%)

variety than resistant cultivar (19.80%).

Increase in phenol content in leaves of

resistant genotype was more (8.34 mg/g to

16.78 mg/g) after infection than the susceptible

genotype (5.70 mg/g to 7.63 mg/g). The total

sugar content was more in highly susceptible

genotype than resistant genotype both before

and after infection. Reduction in reducing

sugar was observed in both the genotypes after

infection whereas content of non-reducing

sugar increased after infection.

REFERENCES1. Arnon, D. I., 1949, Copper enzyme

isolated chloroplasts, polyphenol oxidase

in Beta vulgaris. Physiol., 24 : 1-15.

2. Avtar, R., Rathi, A. S., Jatasra, D. S. and

Joshi, U. N., 2003, Changes in phenolics

and some oxidative enzymes in fenugreek

leaves due to powdery mildew infection.

Acta Phytopathologica et Entomologica

Hungarica, 38(3/4) : 237-244.

3. Dakshayani, R., Mummigatti, U. V.,

Srikant Kulkarni and Ravikumar, R. L.,

2005, Screening green gram genotypes for

powdery mildew using biochemical

parameters. Karnataka J. Agric. Sci., 18(2) :

500-502.

4. Dinesh, B, M., 2009, Studies on powdery

mildew of sunflower caused by Erysiphe

cichorocearum DC., M. Sc (Agri) Thesis,

Univ. Agri. Sci., Dharwad (India).

5. Divyjyothi, U., 2012, Epidemiology and

management of powdery mildew of

greengram caused by Erysiphe polygoni

DC., M. Sc (Agri) Thesis, Univ. Agri. Sci.,

Dharwad (India).

6. Gupta, V, R., 2001, Studies on powdery mildew of green gram, black gram and pea caused by Erysiphe polygoni DC. Ph. D., Thesis, Dr. P. D. K. V. Akola (India).

7. Hiscos, J. D. and Israelstan, G. F., 1979, A method for extraction of chlorophyll from leaf tissue without maceration. Candian J. Bot., 57 : 1330-1334.

8. Mandahar, C. L. and Garg, I. D., 1975, Carbohydrates and movement of photosynthate in powdery mildew infected okra leaves. Indian J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol., 5(1) : 3-4.

9. Munshi, G. D., Jhooty, J. S. and Bajaj, K. L., 1987, Basis of resistance in peas to powdery mildew caused by Erysiphe polygoni. Indian J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol., 17 : 280-283.

10. Nelson, N., 1944, A photometric adaptation of Somogyi method for determination of glucose. J. Biolog. Chem., 153 : 375-378.

11. Saini, R. S., Arira. Y. K., Chawla, H. K. L. and Wagle, D. S., 1988, Total phenols and sugars content in wheat cultivars resistant and susceptible to Ustilago nuda (Jens.) Rostrep. Biochemic and Physiologie Der Pflazen, 183 : 89-93.

12. Vidaysekaran. P., 1974, Possible role of suga r s in r e s t r i c t ion o f l e s ion development in finger millet leaves infected by Helminthosporium tetromera. Physiological Plant Pathol., 04 : 457.

13. Xu Bing Liang, Li Min Quan, Yu Ji Hua and

Xing Hui Qin, 2005, Correlation between

chlorophyll content and resistance to

powdery mildew (E. polygoni) in lucerne.

Pratacultural Sci., 22(4) : 72-74.

IJAS 2014 • 149


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IJAS 2014 • 150

ISSN NO. 0976-450X

FAMILY AND GENDER BIASES REGARDING PARTICIPATORY ACTIVITIES OF CHILDREN IN RURAL HARYANA

Jatesh Kathpalia, Rashmi Tyagi and Savita Vermani

Department of Sociology, College of Basic Sciences & HumanitiesCCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125 004, Haryana, India

INTRODUCTIONIn India, discriminatory attitude towards men

and women have existed for generations and

affect the lives of both genders. Although the

Constitution of India has granted men and

women equal rights, gender disparity still

remains. From childhood, girls are encouraged

to take the traditional female roles. Women have

no say in money matters and in most of the

families, women even did not know the source

ABSTRACT

In India, the female is facing biases right from the beginning. Gender biases do not stop in

family of orientation, where the female grows up but also continue in the family of

procreation where she gets married or establishes a long-term partnership. The attainment

of higher literacy rate and performance of different roles depends not only on the existence

of facilities and opportunities but also on attitude and efforts of their families. The

preference for boy in society is so strong that many women choose to abort rather than give

birth to a girl. The United Nations World Population Fund indicated that India has one of

the highest sex imbalances in the world. According to Census 2011, child sex ratio is just

930 girls per 1000 boys and in Haryana it is 877 females per thousand males. So a study

was undertaken among 100 rural women of Haryana to know the role of family and gender

biasness regarding participatory activities of children and its associated factors influencing

the participation.

Results revealed that in majority of the respondents, gender bias was there regarding

participation in different activities of their children. They provided better educational facilities

to their sons and simultaneously limiting the occupational choice for daughters. This gender

biasness would be an obstacle to the progress and improvement of status of women. Therefore,

family is the foundation stone for overall development of personality of the children.


Keywords: Education, family, gender-bias, participation.



Research Paper


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

of income and the expenditure of the family.

Another important social value leading to

discrimination is that daughters are

considered “Paraya Dhan”and investment in

their studies as they are not to benefit the

fami ly. They become v ic t ims o f a

discrimination socialization process. When a

girl grows up a bit, she has to take care of

younger siblings, collect fuel, fetch water and

even to cook food. In other words, the girl's

child labour begins at home itself and her

family is the first to exploit her. Whenever,

there is any talk of women in development at

the national or international level, a very

important statistics which is often quoted to

show the fact that economic development does

not guarantee improvement in the status of

women in sex-ratio of India's economically

highly developed states viz. Haryana and

Punjab. Sex ratio (number of females per

thousand males in population) is an important

indicator which is taken as a measure of the

extent of gender equity prevailing in any

society at any given time. In India, sex ratio has

remained unfavourable to women throughout

the last centuries. Demographers warn that

there will be a shortage of brides in the next 20

years, due to female foeticide, one of the major

consequences of gender biasness and

surprisingly by the family members.

The 2011 Census data presented very gloomy

scene for the child sex ratio. The sex ratio crisis

was comparatively higher in rural areas than

urban areas. While the child sex ratio in rural

India declined from 934 per 1000 in 2001 to

923 per 1000 in 2011, urban area reported a

decline from 906 per 1000 in 2001 to 905 per

1000 in 2011. Such skewed distribution of the

child sex ratio in India has been largely

attributed to the acute son preference

prevailing in the country. Across several parts

of India, sons add to the family's upward social

mobility by being potential 'Dowry earners'

and also are endowed with certain

cultural/religious rights (Samiyar, 2008). The

socio-cultural practices of women vulnerable

in the family of marriage and this lower her

access to resources both within the household

and at the societal level (Kaur, 2004).

The extreme form of devaluation of women

had been the practice of female infanticide.

Nearly 10 million female foetuses have been

aborted in the country over the past two

decades. Arnold et al. (2001) reported the use

of amniocentesis for sex selection of children

in Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab. They reported

that there are 1.30 million induced abortions

in India every year of which over one lakh are

sex selective abortions following an

ultrasound/amniocentesis test. In Haryana,

sex ratio of lowest of all the states (Census of

India, 2011). Though the practice of female

infanticide has become a thing of the past; after

coming into force, the Pre-natal Diagnostic

Technique Act (PNDT) 1996, yet the neglect of

the female child and limited access to female

child to health, nutrition, education and

medical care still continue.

Family is the most important social institution

of any society which plays an important role

regarding participation of their children in

different activities like in education, decision-

making, occupational choices, economic

matters etc. Family is the key force in gender

socialization and primary children for later

social roles including the choices they make

for their children, while gender is determined

by the conception of activities, tasks, functions

and roles attributed to women and society and

in public and private life. In rural areas,

educating a girl would mean an indirect loss of

earnings, non-availability of girl child for

household work . Haryana, be ing a

predominantly peasant society, preferences for

sons for doing agriculture especially

ploughing is clearly evident for gender

discrimination in traditional society.

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ISSN NO. 0976-450X

With this background, the present study was

conducted in the year 2012-13 to know the role

of family members and gender bias regarding

participatory activities of children in rural

Haryana.

MATERIALS AND METHODSThe study was conducted in Hisar district of

Haryana state during the year 2012-13. From

Hisar district, block-I was selected randomly.

From this block, two villages were selected viz.

Kaimri and Mangali. From each of the selected

villages, 50 mothers were taken purposively

having both male and female school/college

going children. Thus sample size for the

present study was 100 mother respondents.

Primary as well as secondary data was

collected for the study. Data was collected on

the basis of structured interview schedule,

along with interview schedule, observations

regarding biased behaviour during the

discussion with the respondents were also

recorded and were incorporated while writing

the results and discussion. Collected data was

subjected to simple statistical analysis in terms

of two way frequency tables and percentages

for making interpretations.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONA study of socio-economic profile of the

respondents is very important as within each

class, there is constellation of specific life style

factors and that tend to distinguish members of

each family/class from the members of all

other families/classes. Data on socio-economic

profile of the respondents revealed that

maximum number of the respondents (55%)

were from young age group (20-30 years)

followed by 34 per cent from middle age group

i.e. between 31-40 years of age and remaining

11 per cent were from above 40 years of age.

Half of the respondents were educated upto

primary and remaining 34 per cent and 16 per

cent were illiterate and educated upto matric

and above, respectively. Regarding caste, data

shows that 30 per cent of the respondents

hailed from scheduled castes and special

backward castes, rest 24 per cent and 16 per

cent were from backward castes and high

castes, respectively. Majority of the

respondents hailed (60%) from joint family

groups and 40 per cent from nuclear family

group. About 46 per cent of the respondents

were from small family (upto 4 members)

while about one third (34%) and remaining 20

per cent were from medium family i.e. 5-8

members and large family group. Per capita

annual income index shows that 45 per cent

respondents were belonging to middle income

group (60,000-120,000) followed by 35% and

20% low income group (<60,000) and high

income group i.e. Rs. >1,20,000.

Providing costlier education and sending

children to hostels for studiesThe gender discrimination in schools is an

extension of what we think in the family, in

society and in the community in which we

live. Unless there is camaraderie, dignity and

partnership among the members of and within

the family, it is difficult to expect the school to

create it artificially in the school environment,

and to pursue it without reference to what is

happening in society. There has to be a

democratic environment in the home for the

child to be democratic in his/her lifestyle.

Moreover, today the social barriers standing in

the way of girls attending school – poverty,

compulsions of older girls in families having to

look after the home and siblings, the

conception or misconception that girls do not

need education and/or that what is taught in

schools is irrelevant to them, parents seeing

limited (economic) benefits in educating

daughters, lack of women teachers and

separate schools for girls, supportive facilities

to travel to school and back, all these inhibit

parents from getting their girls enrolled. Girls

have to stay at home once they attain puberty

and must be protected till they are married.

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ISSN NO. 0976-450X

And they become part of another family; leaving

the parental home. Add to this, the commonly

held belief that marriage is the be-all and end-all

for girls, leading to early marriage and

pregnancy.

So naturally the son is sent to the school, not the

daughter. Comparison regarding providing

costlier education and better facilities to

children is made. Table 1 shows that more than

half of the respondents (51%) were ready to

provide better facilities for sons as that would

help them in getting a good job. Also the son

would be the bread earner of the family. 33 per

cent reported good education for both the sexes.

Rest 12 per cent would provide equal facilities

for daughters only because they found their

sons were not interested in studies while

daughters were very intelligent. Rest 4 per cent

reported that costlier education, they would

provide to none because of poor socio-economic

status and they were not in a position to provide

costly education to anyone. In such cases,

poverty was considered to be stumbling block.

Bhogle (1991) opined that the major

discrimination was in the area of age of sending

to school, choice of schools and future

aspirations of the girl child. It was also found

that girls were sent to schools at late age, in any

nearby school and less expensive schools.

Another important social value leading to

discrimination was that daughters were

considered 'Paraya Dhan' and investment in

their studies was not to benefit the family of

procreation. Puri et al. (2007) concluded that

dowry is a major reason for parents to resent a

daughter's birth and moreover they think that it

is pointless to spend so much on a girl's

education and upbringing only to leave for

another's home, without repaying.

In the same table, data also revealed that two

third (63%) of the parents were agree to send

sons to hostels for higher studies. Those who

were against sending daughters to hostels for

studies advanced three main reasons namely

uncongenial environment in hostels, customs

and financial problems. They told that hostels

were not good and girls were exposed to socially

degraded habits. Respondents also felt that

instead of spending on girls' education, they

would save that amount and spend in their

marriages which was required customarily for

educated girls too. Traditional customs, values

and beliefs also prevented them from sending

girls to hostels for higher education. While 16

per cent of the daughters were studying in

hostels or parents were ready to send them in

hostels. Those girls were lucky enough to have

open-minded parents. Rest 11 per cent and 10

per cent respondents told that they would send

both of the children to hostel while 10 per cent

IJAS 2014 • 154

Table 1: Providing costlier education and sending children to hostels for studies.

Sr. No. Children Provide costlier education Send children to hostels

1. Sons 51 (51) 63 (63)

2. Daughters 12 (12) 16 (16)

3. Both 33 (33) 11 (11)

4. None 04 (4) 10 (10)

Total: 100 (100) 100 (100)

(n=100)

Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

refused to send any child to hostel, The Hindu

(2001). According to the Report of the

Committee on the Status of Women in India

(1974) found that girls constitute a higher

proportion of the unpaid family workers

throughout the country and that is a major

reason for their exclusion from school; fear of

alienation of girls from their environment is

another inhibiting factor for not sending girls to

hostels or even in schools.

Demand from Children on arrival of GuestsThe arrival of guests in the home is very

common and when someone comes, it becomes

the duty of host to attend him. The mothers were

asked that when some guest came, what you

On contrary, when question of continuing the

studies comes, the results were just in contrast

i.e. it was male children (42%) who got benefit

from our social system to continue their studies

on the arrival of guests while one-fourth

respondents told they never asked their

children to leave their studies as the parents

themselves attended the guests while 17 per

cent and 16 per cent respondents reported to

continue studies by both the sexes and from

daughters, respectively. Even it was also found

that some families were more bounded by their

customs and females were not allowed to attend

the guests or serve the tea. Whenever elder male

members were not in the home, it becomes the

duty of son to attend the guest. Mishra et al.

demanded from children – whether to leave the

studies or to continue their studies. Here the

process of socialization played an important

role as from the beginning; girls are taught to do

the domestic chores. Table 2 shows that more

than 50 per cent of the parents (54%) demanded

from their daughters to leave the studies and to

attend the guest by preparing tea, food etc. while

about one-fourth of the respondents demand

from the sons also. Further 15 per cent and 5 per

cent of the parents were expecting it from both

the children and none of the children,

respectively. The respondents told that it

depends upon situation who is free at that time.

(2012) reported that there are some traditional

boundaries for girls, they are subjected to

various rules and regulations both inside and

outside home. It is expected that the girls should

take all the traditional female roles within the

home perfectly. Thus, the socialization process

installs orthodoxy and stereotypes in the minds

of children. Families are responsible for

preparing the girls suppressed and they are

made to forget their own identities. The

domestic activities of the girls are women's

work i.e. done by women only. This segregation

of tasks by gender leads children to think that

some tasks are for males and some are for

females.

IJAS 2014 • 155

Table 2: Demand from children on arrival of guest.

Sr. No. Children Demand to leave the studies Demand to continue the studies

1. Sons 26 (26) 42 (42)

2. Daughters 54 (54) 16 (16)

3. Both 15 (15) 17 (17)

4. None 05 (5) 25 (25)

Total: 100 (100) 100 (100)

(n=100)



ISSN NO. 0976-450X

Caste and Family Members against Girls

Higher Education and other Participatory

activitiesAll of us have multiple identifies. For example,

in addition to being a woman, a persona may

be Hindu, middle class; upper or lower caste

etc. gender interacts with the other identities,

impacts and is impacted by social and

economic factors. Generally speaking “upper”

castes are much more male dominated or

patriarchal because they are concerned about

caste purity as well as controlling property.

In our society, especially in rural areas, women

had no say in decision making and in other

participatory activities like money matters,

education of the children, property matters

etc. So to know the caste distribution and

family members against higher education and

other participatory activities (like decision

making, property rights etc.), the respondents

were probed through an interview technique

to name the family members who were against

girls' education and response in this regard are

summarized in Table 3, which shows that in

scheduled castes, one-third of mothers

themselves were against the girls higher

education while in equal percentage (33%)

none was against in the family. Saraceno

(1988) stated that the family is the social and

symbolic place in which differences, in

particular, sexual differences, is believed to be

fundamental and at the same time constructed.

From childhood, a girl sees her mother's

contribution to the families, when she

becomes mothers; she always keeps her head

down in the family decision-making process.

Females observe the modesty submissiveness

of their mothers in the family environment.

Thus, she understands the socialization

process and trains herself accordingly. This

view is also supported by Marinova (2003)

who stated that the first lessons children

receive from their mothers are usually heavily

influenced by the same stereotypical thinking.

It was found in special backward classes i.e.

Jats, Bishnoi and Tyagis, one third of the

fathers were against higher education of the

girls or sending them to hostels or having

interferences of females in decision making

aspects o f the households . Dur ing

interviewing the respondents , male

dominance was reflecting. In the same way, 50

per cent of the fathers were against for

participatory activities and higher education

in backward caste families. In general caste

families about half (47%), none of the parents

or any family member was found against

higher education and other participatory

activities. Mukesh (2013) in a study conducted

among 100 households of Hisar district of

Haryana State found necessity of son to carry

on the family name, to earn for family and to

perform last rites of the parents. The main

reason given by general castes respondents for

necessity of a son are to inherit property for

cultivation, to earn for family and to carry

family name. Parents are the primary influence

on gender role development in the early years

of one's life (Miller and Cynthia, 1987; Kaplan,

1991; Santrock, 1994). This view is supported

by Saraceno (1988), who stated that the family

is the social and symbolic place in which

differences, in particular sexual difference, is

believed to be fundamental and at the same

time constructed. Thus, gender-based

prejudices and economic hardship both

operate on girls' depriving them of enjoying

their childhood.

IJAS 2014 • 156


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

like teaching, anganwadi supervisor and

other female related jobs.

SUGGESTIONSOn the basis of the findings of the studies, the

following suggestions are submitted:

1. Awareness mission for families should

focus on women and girl child in rural

areas.

2. Parents should be convinced about the

utility and importance of girl's education

through community development

programme and other folk media.

3. Age of marriage of a girl is a main hurdle in

higher education, so age of girl's marriage

should be raised to 21 years. For that strict

implementation of laws should be there

and violators should be strictly punished

irrespective of the status, they hold.

4. Another important barrier is the lack of

girls senior secondary schools and

colleges within the village. Therefore,

every village must have senior secondary

schools at a walkable distance.

CONCLUSIONS

1. Gender biases were found among boys and

girls by family members in education,

occupational choices and other activities.

2. Rural women are ignorant about the

nature of education in general. However,

for sons, science and technical subjects

are preferred because of the economic

motive but for the girls, it was not so.

3. Elderly male family members are not

convinced about the need of the girls to

higher education nor want to send girls for

studies outside the village/hostels. Even

mothers are not willing to send daughters

in hostels as the adolescent girls need

close supervision.

4. Regarding participatory activities, on

arrival of guests, daughters are expected to

leave studies and prepare tea etc. although

tea/food is served by males only.

5. Paid job/service and higher education

enhances the status of women but it is not

a necessity for them. Girls are not allowed

to go for jobs of their choice and are

socialized to join only limited professions

IJAS 2014 • 157

Table 3: Caste and family members against girls higher education and other participatory activities.

Sr. No. Caste Family Members

Father Mother Grand- None Totalparents

1. Scheduled caste 05 10 05 10 30(16.66) (33.33) (16.66) (33.33) (30.00)

2. Backward caste 12 03 07 02 24(50.00) (12.50) (29.16) (8.33) (24.00)

3. Special backward 10 6 08 6 30 class (33.33) (20.00) (26.66) (20.00) (30.00)

4. General caste 03 2 03 8 16 (18.75) (11.76) (18.75) (47.05) (16.00)

(n=100)



ISSN NO. 0976-450X

5. Security measures should be increased

for safe work places.

6. Strict punishment to the sex offenders

and eve-teasers.

7. Social and cultural barriers must be

relaxed, man-folk must change their

outlook towards female efficiency and

her stamina also.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bhogle S., 1991. Child rearing practices

a n d b e h a v i o u r a n d b e h a v i o u r

development of a girl child. The Indian J.

of Social work, 52 (1), 61-69.

2. Kaplan P S., 1991. A child's odyssey. St.

Paul: West Publishing Company.

3. Kaur M., 2004. Socio-economic

correlates of low sex ratio in Punjab.

Project reports submitted to Department

of Sociology and Social Anthropology,

Punjabi University, Patiala.

4. Miller, Cynthia, L., 1987. Qualitative

differences among gender-stereotyped

toys: Implications for cognitive and

social development in girls and boys. Sex

Roles, 16(9-10), 473-487.

5. Mishra S, Behera D K, Babu B V., 2012.

Socialization and gender bias at the

household level among school attending

in a tribal community of the Kalahandi

district of Eastern India. Anthropological

Notebooks, 18(2), 45-53.

6. Mukesh, 2013. A study of social and

economic factors affecting gender

preferences among rural people. M.Sc.

Thesis, Department of Sociology, CCS

HAU, Hisar.

7. Puri S, Bhatia V, Swami, H.M., 2007.

Gender preference and awareness

regarding sex determination among

married women in slums of Chandigarh.

Indian Journal of Community Medicine,

32(1), 66-67.

8. Samiyar P., 2008. Intensifying son

preference and declining sex ratio in

India. The Indian J. of Social Work, 69(1),

73-82.

9. Santrock J W., 1994. Child development.

Madison: Brown and Benchmark.

10. Saraceno C., 1988. Sociologia della.

Famiglia.Bologna:II Mulino.

11. Marinova J., 2003. Gender stereotypes

and socialization process. Expert Group

Meeting on the role of men and boys in

achieving gender equality. Document No.

E G M / M e n _ B o y s - G E / 2 0 0 3 / E P. 3 ,

Brasilia.Brazil:United Nations.

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discrimination in school system. 2001,

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h i n d u / e d u / 2 0 0 1 / 1 2 / 1 8 s t o r i e s /

2001121800030200.htm

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SPATIAL VARIATION IN SOIL NUTRIENTSUNDER DIFFERENT LAND USE SYSTEMS

H. Mohamed Saqeebulla, K. T. Gurumurthy and P. Veeranagappa

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural ChemistryUniversity of Agricultural Sciences (GKVK), Bangalore–560 065, Karnataka, India

INTRODUCTIONLand use deals essentially on land and in the

way in which the land surface is adopted or

could be adopted to some human needs. Land

use is the expression of human management of

ecosystem in order to produce some of his basic

needs. "Land is used differently in different

places or geographical regions according to the

necessity of local people. In rural area, land is

used or agriculture, pasture, settlement,

forestlands etc whereas in urban area it is

mainly used for residential, industrial and

business purposes. Land use pattern are

determined basically by ecological condition,

altitude geological structure and slope. Apart

from the above sectors technological and

ABSTRACT

Five soil profiles were studied under different land use systems (LUS) in acid soils of

Karnataka. Spatial distribution of soil physical properties and nutrients in soil profiles

revealed that these soils ranged from loam to clay loam in their texture. The soils were

found to be acidic in reaction, electrical conductivity was normal for crops which

decreased depth wise, whereas organic carbon gradually decreased along the depth.

Irregular distribution of CEC was observed. Calcium content increased with depth.

Available forms of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulphur to crops decreased depth

wise. Among different land use systems micronutrients content decreased with depth

which could be due close association with organic matter content of soil. The results

further reported that sapota and paddy land use systems exhibited low magnitude of soil

fertility parameters and were less productive. Soil samples were also collected from profiles

of forest and arecanut LUS and exhibited higher levels of soil fertility. Higher levels of soil

fertility parameters in profiles were associated with higher content of finer fraction and

organic matter. The magnitude of soil fertility parameters generally decreased with depth in

profiles under different land use systems.


Keywords: Land use system, spatial distribution, soil fertility, nutrients.



Research Paper


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

institutional factors are also expected to affect

the land use change. Nutrients have an

important role increasing the productivity and

quality of crops. Their availability in soil

depends on parental material, land form,

climatic condition, natural vegetation and

land use pattern. The distribution of nutrients

in different land use systems is helpful in

understanding the inherent capacity of the

soils to supply these nutrients crops and their

down word movements in soil as roots of many

crops draw nutrients from sub layers of the

soils. However, the information on effect of

land use systems on soil quality to give

recommendations for optimal and sustainable

utilizations of land resources is scanty. The

present investigation was taken up to know the

physico-chemical characteristics of soils

under different land use systems.

MATERIAL AND METHODSThe study area located at Horticultural

research station (Areca) Seebinakere,

Thirthahalli, Shivamogga district. This area

comes under Western-Ghats and South

Western region. The study area belongs to hilly

zone of Karnataka, this covers an area 2.56 M

ha. The Research Station belongs to

Thirthahalli taluk of Shivamogga district. The

Horticultural research station (Areca) 0 1Seebinakere is located at 13 41 N latitude and

0 175 71 E longitude with an average elevation of

610 m above mean sea level (MSL). The

climate is humid and receives highest rainfall

among all the zone of Karnataka, with a mean

annual average rainfall of 904.4 to 3695.1 mm.

The relief normally having nearly level to very

gently slope. The soil sampling sites were

selected based on the land use systems and

they were demarcated into five blocks Viz.,

forest land use system, arecanut land use

system, mango-cashew land use system,

sapota land use system and paddy land use

system. Soil samples were collected depth

wise (0-15, 15-30, 30-45, 45-60, 60-75 and 75-

90 cm). Geological environment, soils are

peninsular genesis in which soil are red sandy

clay loam belong to taxonomic class Typic

Haplustaff with 1:1 non expanding clay

minerals and structure is sub angular blocky.

The topography is rolling to undulating with

slope < 1 per cent and the soils are acidic in

soil reaction.

The soil samples were analyzed for pH, EC,

CEC, organic carbon, free iron oxides,

exchangeable calcium and magnesium,

available phosphorus and potassium were

determined as per the standard procedures

(Jackson, 1973) Calcium carbonate equivalent

(%) was determined by standard procedure

(Piper, 1966). Available nitrogen was analyzed

by potassium permanganate method

(Subbaiah and Asija ,1959). Available sulphur

was determined by turbidometrically as

described by Black, (1965). The Fe, Mn, Zn and

Mn in these soil samples extracted with DTPA

solution (Lindsay and Norvell, 1978).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONAcross different land use profile samples

indicate that the per cent sand content Table 1

showed a decreasing trend with increasing

depth, while per cent silt and clay showed an

increasing trend with increase in depth

indicating pedogenic soil development.

Similar results have been reported by Sahu

and Mishra (1997) and Sharma et al. (1996).

The decreasing trend of sand may be attributed

to coarse grained granite and granodiorite

parent materials and topography (Sharma et

al., 1996). Further increase in pattern of silt

and clay content with depth may be due to

illuviation and insitu weathering of parent

material as reported by Walia and Rao (1996).

The increase in pH down the profile in all land

use systems up to certain depth could be due to

leaching and accumulation of basic cations in

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the lower depths of the profile. Electrical

conductivity values ranged from 0.012 to 0.070

-1 dSm indicating accumulation of salts in the

sub-soils.

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Table I: Depth-wise distribution of physico-chemical properties of profile soil samples under different land use system


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

-1The highest (22.35 g kg ) organic carbon in the

surface layer compared to subsurface layers of

the soil (Table I), organic carbon was higher in

soils under forest cover and was lowest in

mango-cashew land use system whereas, it

was intermediate in other systems, due to the

accumulation of organic matter in surface

horizon and recycling of organic matter,

addition of organic manures and also because

of crop residues remaining in the surface

(Singh and Ganeshmurthy, 1991; Ashok,

1998). The decrease in CEC of soils with depth + -

and its values ranges 8.42 to 15.88 cmol (P ) kg1 in all the land use systems CEC decreased

uniformly with depth is due to high proportion

of clay minerals and increased with increasing

clay content. Among the exchangeable cations 2+ 2+Ca is the dominant cation followed by Mg , + +

Na and K , (Walia and chamuah, 1992). This

is due to low values of cation exchange

capacity in sub surface were attributed to the

presence of pH dependendent exchange sites

occupied by either hydrogen or hydroxy

aluminium ions at low pH. The organic matter

seems to be the determining factor of the CEC

within the profile. Since functional groups of

soil humus contributes to CEC. Such

difference in CEC with surface and subsurface

soils reflects the electrochemical behaviors of

these soils were influenced by potential + 3+ -determining ions namely H O (or Al and OH3

) (Sen et al., 2003). Per cent calcium carbonate

equivalent increased from 0.21 to 0.69 under

different land use systems.

It was observed that available nitrogen

decreased significantly with depth under

forest, arecanut, mango-cashew, sapota and

paddy systems. It decreases from 426.50 to

225.79, 275.97 to 175.62, 301.06 to 186.14,

225.79 to 175.62 and 225.79 to 165.12

respectively (Table II). This could be due to

decrease in organic carbon content and

microbial population in lower depths (Ashok,

1998). The phosphorous content in surface soil

was higher than sub surface soil it decreased

from 21.61 to 10.53 under different land use

systems. This could be due to fixation of

phosphorus by iron and aluminium

containing minerals in lower depths. Available

potassium in profile soil samples markedly

decreased with increasing in depth in all the

land use systems. The decreasing trend with

depth may be due to higher organic carbon

content in surface soils then the sub surface

soil and presence of higher potassium bearing

minerals (Hirekurubar et al., 1991).

The exchangeable calcium and magnesium +

content were higher (8.50 and 4.70 cmol (P ) -1

kg ) in lower depths of profile as compared to + -1

surface layer (5.00 and 3.40 cmol (P ) kg )

(Table II) this can be attributed to leaching of

cations by higher content of clay in the sub

surface. Similar results were observed by

Ashok, (1998). In general, the available

sulphur content under forest, arecanut,

mango-cashew, sapota and paddy systems it

decreases from 28.56 to 15.17, 16.64 to 12.50,

26.07 to 14.28, 24.10 to 16.96 and 22.31 to -112.50 mg kg . Decrease in available sulphur

was due to low organic carbon and reducing

microbial population are the possible reasons

for such a decreasing trend.

The DTPA extractable iron content decreased

with depth in all the systems (Table II). This

may be due to decrease in organic carbon

content as reported by Kannan and Mathan,

(1994). Comparatively less amount of DTPA

extractable manganese in lower horizons

studied under different land use system which

might be due to reduced mobility in lower

horizons, specific adsorption of manganese

and iron oxides, clay minerals, humic acid and

fulvic acid (Rajkumar, 1994). The zinc content

decreased in all the profiles under

investigation. Comparatively less amount of

DTPA extractable copper in lower horizons

studied under different land use system it

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might be due to its close association with

organic matter content (Kannan and Mathan,

1994; Rajkumar, 1994).

Available nitrogen have highly significantly

positively correlated with clay (r=0.564**),

EC (0.611**) and OC (r=0.685**). The

available phosphorus content was significant

and positively correlated with EC and OC,

Avail P was positively correlated with clay, pH,

CEC and CaCO . The decrease in availability of 3

phosphorus with decrease in pH due to

increase in phosphate sorption by clay and

fixation of P by soluble iron and aluminium

oxides (Sharma et al., 2008). A positive effect

of clay on available potassium content

indicate that availability of K content increases

with increase in clay content. The

exchangeable calcium and magnesium was

positively and significant correlation with pH

(0.543**), EC (0.366*, 0.611**) CEC

(r=0.712*, 0.628*). Available sulphur showed

significant relationship with organic carbon

(r=0.554**). Sulphur increased with increase

in organic carbon content which confirms the

observation reported by Sharma et al. (2008).

The DTPA extractable Fe significantly and

positively correlated with OC (r=0.484*) and

negatively significantly correlated with clay

and CaCO . DTPA extractable copper is 3

positive and significant correlation with EC

(r= 0.484**) and OC (r=0.560**). Present

study inferred that the different land use

systems and management practices have

profound influence on physico-chemical

properties of soils. All the major, secondary

and micronutrients (Zn,Fe,Cu and Mn ) are

safer side for cultivation and productivity of

crops. The soil samples drawn from profiles of

IJAS 2014 • 163

Table 2: Depth-wise distribution of nutrients of profile soil samples under different land use system.


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

forest and arecanut LUS have higher levels of

soil fertility. Higher levels of soil fertility

parameters in profiles were associated with

higher content of finer fraction and organic

matter. The magnitude of soil fertility

parameters generally decreased with depth in

profiles.

REFERENCES1. Ashoka, K., 1998, Studies on the properties

of an Alfisols under selected forest

plantations, M. Sc (Agri) Thesis, Univ.

Agric. Sci., Bangalore (India).

2. Black, C. A., 1965, Methods of Soil

Analys is Par t – I . Physical and

mineralogical properties. Agronomy

Monograph No. 9. American Society of

Agronomy, Inc. Madison, Wisconsin, USA,

pp. 18-25.

3. Hirekurubar, B. M., Doddamani, V. S. &

Satyanarayana, T., 1991, Some physical

properties of vertisols derived from

different parent materials. J. Indian Soc.

Soil Sci., 39:242-245.

4. Jackson, M. L., 1973, Soil Chemical

Analysis. Prentice Hall of India Private

Limited, New Delhi.

5. Kannan, N. & Mathan, K. K., 1994, Iron,

manganese, zinc and copper content of

selected watershed in a hilly region of

Tamil Nadu, Madras Agric. J., 21(1):37-42.

6. Lindsay, W. L. & Norvell, W. A., 1978,

development of DTPA soil test for zinc,

iron, manganese and copper. Soil Sci. Soc.

Am. J. 42:421-428.

7. Piper, C. S., 1966, Soil and Plant Analysis.

Univ. Adelaide, Australia, p.362.

8. Rajkumar, G. R., 1994, Stidies on forms and

distribution of micronutrients in paddy

soils of Tungabhadra project- Karnataka.

IJAS 2014 • 164

Table 3: Correlation co-efficient (r) between physico-chemical properties and nutrients of soil and some of surface soil samples under different land use systems.

** Correlation is significant at 0.01 * Correlation is significant at 0.05


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

M.Sc., (Agri) Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci.,

Bangalore (India).

9. Sahu, G. C & Mishra, K. N., 1997,

Morphology, character is t ics and

classification of soils of an irrigated river

flood plain in the eastern coastal region. J.

Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 45(1): 152-156.

10. Sen, T. K., Nayak, D. C. & Chaterji, 2003,

Rationale for use effective cation

exchange capacity in characterizing

exchange properties of acid soils. J. Indian

Soc. Soil Sci., 51(4): 557-560.

11. Sharma, P. K., Anil Sood, Setia, R. K., Tur,

N. S., Deepak Mehara & Harpinder

Singh, 2008, Mapping of macronutrient in

soils of Amritsar district (Punjab) – A GIS

approach. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 56 (1):

34-41.

12. Sharma, S. S., Totawat, K. L. &

Shyampura, R. L., 1996, Characterization

and classif ication of soils in a

toposequence over Basaltic terrain. J.

Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 44 (3): 470-475.

13. Singh, G. & Ganeshmurthy, A. N., 1991,

Influence of changing land use on the

micronut r ient s ta tus o f middle

Andaman's. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 39:

363-364.

14. Subbaiah, B.V. & Asija, G., 1959, A rapid

procedure for the estimation of available

nitrogen in soils. Curr. Sci., 25: 259-260.

15. Walia, C. S. & Chamuah, G. S., 1992,

Influence of topography on catenary soils

in old flood plains of Assam. J. Indian Soc.

Soil Sci., 36: 825 – 827.

16. Walia, C. S. & Rao, Y. S., 1996, Genesis,

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d Ta xo n o m i c

classification of some red soils in

Bundlekhand region of Uttar Pradesh. J.

Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 44(3): 470-481.

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MEGA DIETARY FACTS FOR WEIGHT LOSS

Bandana Singh and Pragati

P.G. Department of Home Science, B.R.A.B.U. Muzaffarpur, BiharP.G. Department of Home Science, Patna University, Patna, Bihar

INTRODUCTIONDon't you wish you can just switch places with

those fabulously fit celebrities so you can have

that perfect body? It appears so unfair that lots

of Hollywood personalities have more beautiful

with age however when you look at yourself

within the mirror, all you see are the flaws

hanging around your tummy, your arms, and

your thighs. You cannot wish away body fat and

the excess weight; however with a weight loss

diet program that's perfect for you, you could

have that trim body you've always wanted, even

in the age of 40.

A very common notion about any diet program is

the fact that there are too many do and don't with

regards to eating the right food. You cannot eat too

much white bread, and you best skip on those

fatty meats and head directly on to the lean but

bland chicken. You cannot even have one measly

scoop of the favorite chocolate chip mint frozen

treats for desert. The list just continues and on,

and it just ends along with you giving up the diet

since you need to have nerves of steel to follow

along with every single rule. However, you aren't

that person, and a number of other people feel the

same manner, too.

ABSTRACT

Each and every person wants to look smart, and then diet plays an important role for

achieving this innocent goal. The key to an effective diet program is healthy eating, and

which means healthy portions and proportions. Vegetable juices are highly recommended

as part of our health promoting weight loss programme. You may add spices like ginger,

black salt, chat masala as per your requirements. Clear soups and salads can be consumed

in unlimited amounts as desired so that you are 3/4 full at the end of the meal. Recent

research now shows that including more dairy in your diet may make it easier to lose those

extra pounds and burn fat without cutting back too much on calories. One of the most

exciting findings of this new research is diets that are dairy-rich will help you almost

double the rate of weight loss as compared to dairy-poor diets. There are so many different

diets are in practice for weight loss, but it completely depends upon your's choices.

No. of Pages: 6 No. of Tables: 2 No. of Figs.: 3 References: 5

Keywords: Diet, Mega, Health, Facts, Weight loss, Dieting etc.


Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected]

Research Paper


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

The key to an effective diet program is healthy

eating. And which means healthy portions and

proportions. Restricting yourself from eating

certain foods just will not work because you

end up binging in it later on. And once you

start consuming more nutritious food, you

won't need to put your refrigerator under lock

and key since your body won't have a craving

for “junk” foods anymore.

Weight Loss DietI t ' s o k a y t o

consume r ea l

foods – proteins,

carbohydrates,

and fats – but

make sure to

know the right

kinds and comes

down to put in

your body. Dieting is really a term that shot to

popularity around the time that women

decided that thin was “in”. For probably the

most part it was heralded through the Twiggy

craze but much more likely had been a

significant concern since dresses started to rise

above the ankles. But dieting is not always

equated with weight loss, nor if it is. Dieting is a

term that invokes images of men and women

(but mostly women) who're denying

themselves the pleasures of chocolate, bread,

butter, dessert, soda, alcohol and any food that

remotely carries a lot more than 10 calories.

Dieting DietDieting can be a lifestyle choice. It's a time

when people feel they must be denied

something of enjoyment in exchange for fitting

in to the next dress size down. But it's not a

long term option for either weight loss or

overall health. It might appear like splitting

hairs but as humans all of us respond best to

what we should interpret as “best”. Due to the

connotation that 'dieting' is promoting over the

past several decades it's much better for those

who desire to lose several pounds to think

about a nutritional change that leads to

healthier eating habits[2].

For example, the South Beach diet advocates

eating plenty of protein and fat but no

carbohydrates. The proponents agree it isn't a

diet that should be followed actually -term

because of the abnormal metabolism it makes

in the body, altered pH and increased work on

the kidneys. So, when the individual has

dropped a few pounds they are supposed to

transition to a nutritionally balanced diet that's

lower in calories than their previous diet plan.

But, nowhere within the program have they

learned to consume a nutritionally balanced

diet.

Individuals now transition from the 'diet' to a

balanced diet that they're required to maintain

for the rest of their lives. Instead, just how

much better is it to carefully and easily

transition from poor nutritional habits to get

affordable ones that will help you slim down

and gain better overall health?

Using the South Beach diet because the

example again, our prime protein meals they

advocate in many cases are also high in

saturated animal fats. These nutrients are very

well known for the negative effects they've on

the cardiovascular system and long-term

problems with heart disease, peripheral

vascular disease and stroke. However, by

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easing right into a nutritionally balanced diet

plan which includes a variety of fruits and

vegetables, little bit of animal fat/protein and

high levels of water an individual can create a

plan that works for their lifestyle while

slimming down and improving their health.

Those people who are addicted to diets are

enticed through the promise of quick weight

loss however it can also lead to unhealthy diet

plan and usually only temporary success.

Using a diet that's too low in calories may cause

the metabolism to slow to some snail's pace

and will often even damage the system beyond

being able to repair itself to its former glory.

Eating a nutritionally balanced meal means

taking charge over what is put in our mouths.

This means learning that we must eat to reside

and not live to consume, and it means

recognizing the pitfalls within our everyday

lives like the extra sugar within the coffee, cake

with dinner and soda and donuts we snarf

down throughout the day at work.

By taking charge of our meals and the food we

eat, monitoring the foods that pass within the

lips and taking advantage of multiple little

weight loss secrets (such as the power of water)

we could move from a dieter to someone who

enjoys the foods they eat and the body they

wear.

Without starving by selecting some intelligent

diet like express diet which loses 3 kilos (6–7

pounds) very fast. These are as follows:

(I)Express DietThe Express Diet is ideal if you want to lose

quickly the extra kilos gained because of the fat

and sweets excess. If you have to lose 3–4

kilograms, the express formula is the ideal one.

It was conceived to help you lose weight

quickly but without starving. This diet's

principles are simple: three meals a day, no fats

or sweets, no alcohol, fat dairy products or

snacks.[1] In order to get the results you want,

you should respect rigorously the game's rule:

only three meals a day with a fix time for

breakfast and dinner. Entree made up of

vegetables salad with lemon and yogurt in

your diet.

(II) Zero DietI discovered the weight loss formula that I am

going to describe to you, by despair. I have

gained 14 kilos in a single year and although I

tried all known hypo-caloric diets, I didn't

manage to lose at least 5 grams. At that

moment, I imposed myself two days of total

fast and- guess what? - It worked!

So, I didn't eat anything for 2 days per week

(not consecutive, for example Monday and

Friday) but I took care to drink daily minimum

two liters of water or herbal tea (unsweetened,

of course). In the other 5 days I ate normally,

without restrictions or excesses. I only gave up

sweets, replaced sugar with honey and I

reduced (not eliminated) the quantity of

pastries and fats and I had dinner earlier,

around six o'clock. The mechanism is the

following: you lose in the first day of fast one

kilogram, in the second only half kilogram and

in the next five days of normal alimentation

you gain one kilogram. Thus, it result a half

kilogram difference. This is the weekly rhythm

of the weight loss program which should repeat

every time.

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The call the diet zero because it is based on total

fast, has some important advantages: the two

starving days helps us eliminate toxins and the

slow weight loss, beside the fact it has, as we

well know, long-lasting effects, it also helps us

avoid the ugly esthetic consequences as it gives

skin enough time to adapt to the new

dimensions. I lost nine kilograms in four months

and I am decided to get rid of another five

kilograms. If at the beginning of the summer I

was fastening the belt at the first hole, now I am

proud that I can fasten it at the seventh. I wish

the readers with the same problems to be as

successful as I was!

A diet plan for a human to quickly burn fatsDo not take in calorie-rich drinks. This means

that you simply must avoid drinks that has

calorie in it. Diet sodas, smoothies, fruit juices,

and anything that has artificial sweeteners and

sugars in it are the drinks not allowed for you.

You must only drink lots of cold water, coffee,

and brewed unsweetened green tea. Eat green

vegetables and it burn fats fast, you should take

in carbohydrates from a bulk of green vegetables

and some tips are given below:

IJAS 2014 • 170

l Do not take calorie rich diet.

l Eat green vegetables

l No white carbohydrates

l Prepare a protein rich breakfast

l Eat more regularly

lstored in your body.Drink water lowers the amount of fat

l Drink milk for loss more weight

This means that you simply must avoid drinks that have calories in it. Sodas, Smoothies, Fruit juices and anything that has artificial sweeteners and sugars in it are the drinks not allowed for you. You must only drink lots of cold water, coffee and brewed unsweetened green tea.[4]

To burn fats fast, you should take in carbohydrates from a bulk of green vegetables like collard green, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, spinach, kale, French bean etc.[3]

Avoid foods like breads, pasta, rice, tortilla, potatoes etc. This can radically decrease your fat burning rate.

If you are not used to eating early in the morning, then you might want to try drinking protein shake instead of breakfast.

It is much healthier and more beneficial to your diet if you eat healthy meals within three to four hours apart. This is to keep the blood sugar stable and regulating your metabolism.

Drink water lowers the amount of fat stored in your body. Your kidneys get lazy on the job and give most of the unfinished work to your liver. By not drinking water you put your liver in risk.

Including more dairy in your diet may make it easier to lose those extra pounds and burn fat without cutting back too much on calories.

Recent research now shows that including

more dairy in your in your diet may make it

easier to lose those extra pounds and burn fat

without cutting back too much on calories [5].

One of the most exciting findings of this new

research is diets that are dairy-rich will help


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

you almost double the rate of weight loss as

compared to dairy-poor diets. Researchers also

found that most of the body fat lost from these

diets was around the midsection. Some of the

minerals found in dairy products may enhance

calcium's beneficial effects on fat breakdown

CONCLUSIONSo lastly for weight losses eat till you are ½ or ¾

full. Do not overeat. Vegetable juices are highly

recommended as part of our health promoting

weight loss programme. You may add apices like

ginger, black salt, chaat masala as per your

requirements. Clear soups and salads can be

consumed in unlimited amounts as desired so

that you are 3/4th full at the end of the meal. You

can eat roasted channa when you feel hungry

within the cells and dairy products also contain

enough protein in them to help preserve muscle

and increase your metabolism. 3–4 servings of

dairy products each day like Milk, yogurt, and

cheese will do.

before meals or you can have these snacks at bed

time. In this way if one can follow above all

instructions of this paper then definitely one

can lose his/her weight within very short

period.

REFERENCES1. "Soybeans, mature seeds, raw and other

proteinous diet". NutritionData.com.

Retrieved August 28, 2012.

IJAS 2014 • 171

Table : Avoid List (To be avoided during the weight loss).

Cereals & Fruits & Milk & Fats & Sugar OthersPulses Products Vegetables Milk Products

Rice & Beetroot Chocolates Honey Tinned foodsRice products

Upma Chiku Cheese Butter Ketchup

Chole Coconut Sugar canned foods

Corn Yam cakes Mayonnaise Deep fried Food

Idli Mango Sweets Jaggery Fast Food

Maida and Grapes Pastries Ghee Junk FoodMaida products

Dosa Fruit juices Full cream milk Candy High Calorie Food

Rajmah Green peas Full Cream Curd Carbonated Drinks

Potato Unhealthy fatty foods

Arbi

Banana

Custard apple


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

2. " A m a r a n t h , u n c o o k e d f o o d " .

NutritionData.com. Retrieved August 28,

2012.

3. VR Young and PL Pellett (1994). "Plant

proteins in relation to human protein and

amino acid nutrition". Am. J. Clinical

Nutrition 59 (5 Suppl): 1203S–1212S.

PMID 8172124.

4. Iron by The Vegetarian Society of the

United Kingdom Limited.

5. "// Health Issues // Optimal Nutrition".

Goveg.com. Retrieved August 9, 2009.

IJAS 2014 • 172


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

SPIRULINA: A POTENT FOOD SOURCE

1 2 3Pragati , Bandana Singh , and Prem Shankar

1P.G. Deptt. of Home Science, Patna Uuniversity, Patna, Bihar

2P.G. Deptt. of Home Science, B.R.A. Bihar University, Muzaffarpur, Bihar

3Deptt. of Botany, L.S. College, MuzaffarpurB.R.A. Bihar University, Muzaffarpur, Bihar

INTRODUCTIONMalnutrition is a global problem and much

bigger than hunger and imposes enormous costs

on societies in terms of ill health, lives lost,

reduced economic productivity and poor

quality of life. Therefore for overcoming

ABSTRACT

Spirulina- a cyanobacteria has been used from centuries by different populations and only

rediscovered in recent years. Once classified as the blue green algae, it does not strictly

speaking belong to the algae, even through for convenience it continues to be referred too

in that way. It grows naturally in the alkaline waters of lakes in warm regions. Its

impressive protein content and its rapid growth in entirely mineral environments have

attracted the attention of both researcher and industrialists' alike. Spirulina may be called a

super food because it contains remarkable concentration of nutrient known in any food,

plant, grain or herb. It is composed of 60 percent highly digestible vegetable protein, has

extremely high concentrations of beta carotene, vitamin B12, iron and trace minerals. It has

a balanced spectrum of amino acids; several recent studies have demonstrated the immune

enhancing and cancer preventive properties of spirulina. So study was conducted in

Muzaffarpur district on supplementation. The effect of cereal supplementation with

spirulina has been estimated in rat because our human body never be an experimental

body, so for lab testing we were utilizing animals for that rat is much more suitable.

Ultimately by study it may be concluded that spirulina based algal supplement is beneficial

for our malnourished population because before supplementation Protein Efficiency Ratio

(PER) of Maize, Rice & Wheat are 1.23, 2.20 and1.15 but after algal supplementation PER is

going to be increased like 1.72, 2.40 and 1.90 respectively. So by incorporating innovation

in approaches and application, to generate a better value through enrichment of traditional

diet. An optimum mix of tradition with modernity through food fortification by Spirulina

would be the key to achieve food security and bridge the health divide.This is the reason

that in real sense discovery of spirulina is a potent food source for the future.


Keywords: Spirulina, Supplementation, Biofortification, Nutritional Security.



Research Paper


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

malnutrition Spirulina is the best future food

supplement. Spirulina is one of the foods that

environmentalists say could show mankind

the way out of the global food crisis. It can grow

in brackish water and poor soil. Also it

provides more nutrients per acre area than

most conventional crops. In the future,

biofortification hold promise as a sustainable

approach to improve micronutrient adequacy

in the diets of entire households in developing

countries.

Some research summarizes new developments

in food –based approaches, their advantages

and limitations and examines some of the

efficacy studies and programmes utilizing

f o o d – b a s e d s t r a t e g i e s t o a l l e v i a t e

micronutrient deficiencies (Rosalind S Gibson

2008). The poor quality of the habitual diet and

the lack of dietary diversity in much of the

developing world contribute to deficiencies of

micro & macronutrients (Shetty Prakash 2009).

The aim of this paper is to give an overall view

of the nutritional properties and health

benefits of spirulina. By these properties it

helps in eradication of hunger and

malnutrition from our state or nation. This

research definitely gives a different path for

nutritional security by using Spirulina as

future food supplements.

THE POTENTIAL OF SPIRULINAReferring here a review on spirulina (2011),

stated that “it appears today that spirulina

shows a significant potential for fighting

chronic malnutrition and for development. In

a report on spirulina, the FAO (2008) made two

recommendations in that regard, and which

are fully referenced in the review:

“International organization(s) working with

spirulina should consider preparing a

practical guide to small-scale spirulina

production. This small-scale production

should be orientated towards: (i) providing

nutritional supplements for widespread use in

rural and urban communities where the staple

diet is poor or inadequate; (ii) allowing

diversification from traditional crops in cases

where land or water resources are limited.”

“There is a role for both national governments

– as well as intergovernmental organizations –

to re-evaluate the potential of spirulina to fulfil

both their own food security needs as well as a

tool for their overseas development” The first

recommendation is widely followed today,

since the international organizations working

with spirulina continue their efforts for

development and humanitarian promotion. In

recent years, considerable progress has been

achieved in this domain in many countries and

on different aspects (technique, organization,

education, operation, studies).

The Uni ted Na t ions Wor ld Hea l th

Organisation (WHO) found Spirulina to be an

interesting food for multiple reasons, rich in

protein, iron and essential nutrients; and able

to be administered to children without any

risk. Scientific studies have explored its uses

to counter a wide array of pathologies

successfully that range from night blindness to

cancer; and the micro-algae has exhibited a

significant potential to be a panacea in many

cases such as in the victims of radiation

sickness in Belarus or patients or Bitot's spot in

Chennai.

Present forms of food aid by various agencies

focus on fighting hunger rather than treating

malnutrition especially in the context of the

needs of young children that are most at risk.

The access to food aid by people that suffer

because of malnutrition is also limited because

of the limited reach of the programmes. How

shall the international bodies and national

governments meet with their obligation

IJAS 2014 • 174


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

towards the peoples of the world in the mis-

match of processes and efficiency? The answer

is, by incorporating innovation in approaches

and application, to generate a better value

through enrichment of traditional diet. An

optimum mix of tradition with modernity

through food fortification by Spirulina would

be the key to achieve food security and bridge

the health divide.

It is now absolutely imperative that these

international organizations take a clear stance

on the use of spirulina in the fight against

malnutrition. Finally, there are many different

ways to incorporate spirulina into food

nowadays. In India, for instance, spirulina

biscuits and sweets have been locally

developed by Antenna Technologies and are

particularly enjoyed by thousands of children

(Heierli, 2007). The creation of new food

products that incorporate spirulina certainly

represents the best solution.

Nutritional attributes and health benefits of

Spirulina-In many ways, spirulina may be called a super

food. It contains the remarkable concentration

of nutrients known in any food, plant, grain, or

herb. It's composed of 60 percent highly

digestible vegetable protein and has extremely

high concentrations of beta carotene - Vitamin

B-12, iron and trace minerals. It has a balanced

spectrum of amino acids.

Several recent studies have demonstrated the

immune enhancing and cancer preventive

properties of spirulina. Scientists around the

world have been confirming spirulina's

cholesterol lowering benefits and its ability to

lower blood pressure. Studies with men in

Japan and India showed that several grams of

spirulina daily can reduce serum Low Density

Lipoprotein (LDL) and raise High Density

Lipoprotein (HDL). Spirulina has a high

protein concentration (60%-70% of it's a dry

weight). It is useful in human nutrition, due to

the high quality and quantity of its protein.

Quality of protein is judged by a) NPU (Net

Protein Utilization) and b) PER (Protein

Efficiency Ratio).

a) NPU (Net Protein Utilization)-The utilization of ingested protein is

determined by its digestibility, i.e. the

proportion of protein nitrogen absorbed and by

the amino acid composition (together with

other factors, such as age, sex and the

physiological status). The NPU value is

determined experimentally by calculating the

percentage of nitrogen retained (WHO 1973).

b) PER (Protein Efficiency Ration)-This is the weight gain of an individual,

divided by the weight of protein ingested.

Measurements are usually made on growing

rats. The PER value for spirulina determined in

growing rats is estimated between 1.80 and 2.6.

The sectrum of amino acids shows that the

biological value of proteins in spirulina is very

high, and that an optimum product could be

achieved by supplementation with a good

source of sulphur-containing amino acids and

possibly also lysine and or histidine. For

example cereals such as rice, wheat and millet

or certain oilseeds such as sesame should be

excellent supplements (Leonard- J & Compere-

P (1967).

Vitamins, minerals & trace elements: - It has

more than sufficient amount of vitamins,

minerals and trace elements which are as

shown by following Table 1and 2:-

The minerals of particular interest in spirulina

IJAS 2014 • 175


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

are Iron, Calcium, Phosphorus and Potassium.

The very high iron content should be double

stressed because iron deficiencies (anaemia) are

very widespread, particularly in pregnant

women and children and good sources in food

are rare. As a comparison, whole cereals, which

are ranked as one of the best sources of iron,

contain only 150-250 mg/kg. In addition iron

supplements given in the form of ferrous sulfate

can pose a toxicity problem and often cause

diarrhoea. Cereals meanwhile, are rich in phytic

acids and phosphatic polymers, which sharply

limits the bioavailability of the iron they

contain. In the case of spirulina, iron

IJAS 2014 • 176

Table 1: Vitamin content of spirulina and adult daily requirements ( Jacques Falquet1998).

Minerals and Trace elements

Table 2 : Typical analyses for dry spirulina (Jourdan J.P.1996)

Vitamin Content (mg/kg) Daily requirements (mg) (adult 20-25 years)

B1 34-50 1.50

B2 30-46 1.80

B6 5-8 2.00

B12 1.5-2.0 0.003

Niacin 130.00 20.00

Folate 0.50 0.40

Pantothenate 4.6-25 6-10

Biotin 0.05 0.1-0.3

Vitamin C Traces 15-30

Minerals Content in spirulina Required adult (mg/kg) daily dose (mg/kg)

Calcium 1300-14,000 1200

Phosphorus 6700-9000 1000

Magnesium 2000-2900 1000

Iron 580-1800 18

Zinc 21-40 15

Copper 8-10 1.5-3

Chrome 2.8 0.5-2

Manganese 25-37 5

Sodium 4500 500

Potassium 6400-15400 3500


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

bioavailability has been demonstrated both in

rats and in humans.

By keeping above all qualities of spirulina in

mind a study was conducted regarding

cultivation and supplementation in Botany and

Home science dept of Bihar University

Muzaffarpur, Bihar.

METHODOLOGYFirstly some strains of spirulina was selected

and grown in shallow race way ponds. A

method was developed properly cultivating a

pure strain. A pure strain must be obtained so

that the culture doesn't become contaminated

by other types of microalgae that contain toxins

or do not have the high nutritional content from

biomass as spirulina.

Table 3 shows that the growth rate of rats fed

with spirulina as the only source of protein is

higher than or equal to that of controls.

Moreover, after supplementation with essential

amino acids, rat fed with spirulina , for the same

amount of metabolic energy, fix greater or equal

Then after some spirulina were dried (either by

oven-drying or by sun-drying) and powdered

thoroughly. Fifty to seventy percent of the

algae's dry weight comes from protein, which is

significantly higher than other land plants.

Thus it was supplemented with cereals and fed

to rats because, our human body never be an

experimental body, so lab testing we were

utilizing animals, for that rat is much more

suitable.

RESULTS & DISCUSSIONThe effect of cereal supplementation with

spirulina has been estimated in rats, with the

following results and shown in Table-3.

quantities of protein as compared to controls.

These results indicate good metabolic use of the

amino acids in spirulina, which is confirmed by

the levels of free amino acids found in the blood

and muscle of test animals.

IJAS 2014 • 177

Table 3: Comparison of protein efficiency rations, showing the benefits of Supplementation.

Diet Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER)

Spirulina 1.90

Maize 1.23

Rice 2.20

Wheat 1.15

Rice + Spirulina (3:1) 2.35

Rice + Spirulina (1:1) 2.40

Wheat + Spirulina (3:1) 1.42

Wheat + Spirulina (1:1) 1.90

Maize + Spirulina (3:1) 1.80

Maize + Spirulina (1:1) 1.72

Maize + Oats + Spirulina (3:2:5) 1.90

Maize + Rice + Spirulina (2:2:1) 1.95


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

CONCLUSIONMicro algae Spirulina (Spirulina platensis) has

been a traditional food in many countries. A

small quantity of Spirulina, when mixed with

traditional foods, tremendously increases its

inherent nutritional value besides making the

food easily digestible that can be readily

assimilated by the human body. Spirulina is

being produced in over 22 countries and

consumed in over 77 countries across the world.

From above mentioned study it may be

concluded that if mildly and significantly

malnourished children were fed algal

supplements then definitely their condition

will improve, problem associated with

malnutrition will overcome and ultimately

nutritional security will come. Of course the

nutritional value of spirulina is said to be a

recent discovery to the modern world, but in

reality it a rediscovery of a future food

resource.

REFERENCES

1. Jacues Faluet., 1998. The Nutritional

Aspects of spirulina.

2. Jourdan J.P., 1996.' Cultives votre

spiruline” Antenna Technology (to be

published).

3. Leonard J. & Compere P. 1967. Spirulina

Platensis (Gom.) Geitler, algue bleue de

grande valeur alimentaire par sa richesse

en proteins,” Bull. Nat. Plantentuin Belg.

37 (1), Suppl. 23p.

4. Rosalind S Gibson. 2008. University of

Otago, Dunedin, Newzealand.

5. Shetty Prakash. 2009. University of

Southampton School of Medicine,

Southampton,UK.

6. World Health Organization. 1973. Energy

and Protein Requirement.” World Health

Org. technical. Report Serial, No. 522

Geneva.

7. Heierli. 2007. A review on culture,

production and use of spirulina as food for

humans and feeds for domestic animals

and fish.

IJAS 2014 • 178


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FRUIT-ROT OF RAMPHAL (ANNONA RETICULATA L.) AND THEIR CONTROL

*Ajeet Kumar Sharma and **R.B. Sharma

*Department of Botany, S.S.Jain Subodh Girls College, Sanganer, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India**Department of Botany, Saraswati (P.G.) College Hathras, Uttar Pradesh

INTRODUCTIONThe Little injury to the fruit invites the rot of

fruits is very common. The Ramphal (Annona

reticulata L.) are widely cultivated in western

part of uttarpradesh. Annoma reticulate L.

common commercial fruit in Uttarpradesh

which to used in Vegetables. A Survey to fruit

and Vegetable Market of Hatras, Kasganj, Etah

and Aligarh during 2012 to 13 about 18-24% of

Ramphal (Annoma reteculata L.) carred the rot

symptoms in fruit market. The infected fruit

patches were white, brown and black. The

severly infected ones showed Irrigular and

depression and excedation of the slimy

substance that emitted repulsive fermented

odour. The desease fruit were collected

separately in sterilized in Polythin bags and

brought to laboratory for carrying out the

preaent investigations. The pathogenic nature

isolates obtained was than tested on surface

sterilized healthy fruits by knife injury method

(Tondon & Mishra 1969). The amount of rot

(thind et. Al. 1976) differential symptoms

produced by pathogen in laboratory were

recorded. The Pathogen penic i l l ium

citrinum.thom was isolated from diseased part

ABSTRACT

Fruit rot of Annoma reticulate L. is found to the extent of 7-10% in the field and 18-24% in

market at Hathras, Kasganj, Etah and Aligarh during 2012 to 2013. Fruit of Ramphal

(Annona reteculata L.) infected patehes were white, brown and black. The severely infected

ones showed irregular and deperession and exudation of a smily substance that emitted

repulsive fermented odour penicillium cetrinum. Thom was isolated from diseased part of

lamphal (Annona reteculata L.)

The stuclies under taken present by show that the post harvest rot of fruit as caused by pencillium

citrinium them can be successfully prevented with 100 ppm concentration of bavistin and be

nomlyl. Which is an economically feasible proposition


Keywords: Penicillium citrinum, Thom, Ramphal fruit, black scurf, Pathogenicity tests.



Research Paper


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

of Ramphal fruit (Annona reteculata L.). Latest

work on fruit rot given here pre-harvest

vegetable and fruit ( singh and surbhi 2001)

occurance of vegetable in market. (Sharma

R.B. and kumar 2007). Vegetable rots in market

(Sharma et. Al. 2003). New market disease of

Ramphal. (Sharma. Ajeet K. and R.B. Sharma

2013). Pre Harvest rots of fruit and vegetables.

(Sharma Ajeet K. et. al 2013). A soft Rot of

zizipus Lamark caused by Chaetomium

globosoum. (RamKrishan, T.S. and C.K.

Sowamini 1954). Rhizame and Root rot of

turmeric caused by phythium aphani-

dermatum. Sub (Reddy, G.S. and P.G. Rao

1973). Storage rot in seed rhizome of turmeric

in andhra Pradesh. (Rao et. al. 1982) New

Market disease of Barhal fruit, (Saugadi Y. G.

simbli 1998) pre harvest lycobial population

on Indian Ziziphus maratiana and their

application in post-harvest Pathogenasis.

(Sharma R.B. et. al. 2013).

MARERIALS AND METHODSThe pathogenicity of the fungus was

established on surface sterilized healthy

Ramphal fruit followings the knife injury

method of Tandon & Mishra (1969). Intensity

of the fruit rotting was evaluated at 15,20,25,30

and 35º C temperature and 30,60 and 90

percent relative humidity. Thirty replicates

were used for experimentation, The formula

was applied on individual Fruit described by

Thind et al. (1976). W-wPercent rot= ------------------x100 WWhere,

W= the weight of Ramphal fruit before

inoculations.w= the weight of Ramphal fruit tuber after

removal of rotted portion.Fifteen chemicals were tested by the poisoned

food techniqre (Schmitz 1930) for their in vitro

efficacy against the fungus. The required

amount of each chemical was mixed thoroughly

in Czapek's medium before pouring in the

plates. Four concentrations viz., 100, 500, 1000

and 2000 ppm were employed in the present

experiment. Ten days old uniform culture of the

fungus raised on Czapek's medium was

transferred in the adulterated and control plates.

The radial growth of the fungus over them was

measured after 3, 5 and 7 days of incubation at

30±1ºC temperature.

The chemicals found most effective in invitro

tests were used for in-vivo control of the

present rot disease. Pre inoculation dip of the

healthy fruits in each chemical solution was

made for 10, 20 and 30 minutes. These tubes

were inoculated by the fungus after 24 hours of

the chemical treatment. The development of

rot was measured after 7, 14 and 21 days of

inoculation period in each case. Inoculated

tubers were earlier incubated under optimum

conditions (30±1ºC Temperature and 90%

relative humidity). The effective chemicals

were also tried in post inoculation tests. The

Chemical concentrations, mode of their

treatments and evaluation of the treatment

effect on rots remained the same as for the pre-

inoculation ones.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Effect of temperatureThe fungus Penicillium citrinum. Thom.

induced maximum amount of rotting at 30ºC

temperature (Table 1). With the decrease in

the incubation temperature, the extent of

rotting was progressively decreased. So much

so that no rotting was evident at 15-24ºC even

when stored for 21 days. Higher incubation

temperature (35ºC) also had retarding effect

but lesser than at 28ºC.Effect of relative humidity

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The development of the rot seems to be directly

related to the relative humidity of the

atmosphere (Table 2). Higher the humidity

greater was the amount of the rot produced at all

In-vitro efficiency of the chemicalsAll the tested chemicals inhibited in in-vitro

growth of the fungus at all the four

concentrations employed presently (Table 3). Of

them, Bavistin and Benomyl were the most

effective ones, as they inhibited the fugal

growth completely even at 100 ppm

concentration. Therefore, these two systemic

fungicides were selected for in-vitro control.

In-vivo control of the rot Both the selected chemicals (Bavistin and

Benomyl) completely eliminated the fungus in

in-vivo condition when applied 24 hrs after

inoculation period. No rottage was visibe even

up to 30 days of storage in this case. The

treatment was equally effective against rot

three stages of Observations. There was little or

no rotting was recorded under 30% relative

humidity, while it attained maximum level

under 90% humidity (Table 2).

caused by Penicillium citrinum.Thom.The

treatments given 24 hrs before inoculation was

also considerably effective in checking the fruit

rot. Bavistin was the most effective amongst

them as it was completely protected the fruit.

Benomyl was only slightly lesser effective in

this respect, as it allowed 1.7 to 4.0% rot when

the treatment duration was 10 minutes. No

rotting was however, evident when the

treatment time of this chemical was enhanced

to 20 to 30 minutes duration (Table 4).

fruit rots of seed turmeric caused by Pythium

aphanidermatum (Ramkrishnan & Sowmini,

1954) and Sclerotium rolfsii (Reddy & Rao 1973)

have been reported to be prevalent in Krishna

and Guntur districts of Andhra Pradesh (India).

IJAS 2014 • 181

Table 1 : Percent rot at different temperatures at room RH (55%)

Table 2 : Percent rot at different relative humidity and more than 30ºC temperature.

S. No.

S. No.

IncubationDays

IncubationDays

Average % / Rot at different temperatures

Average % / Rot at different temperatures

O15 C O O O O

20 C 25 C 30 C 35 C

30 60 90

1. 7 __ __ 2.8±0.03 13.9±0.19 8.2±0.32

2. 14 __ __ 5.4±0.04 20.1±0.19 10.0±0.08

3. 21 __ __ 8.3±0.12 38.3±0.10 20.0±0.02

1. 7 0.00±0.00 10.90±0.06 10.90±0.06

2. 14 20.30±0.02 20.30±0.64 30.00±0.34

3. 21 5.00±0.04 38.00±20.38 40.30±0.18


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

A. niger incited rot of fruits has been reported

from India (Roy et al. 1982, Saugdi & Simbli

1998, Bag et al. 2001, Pandey & Sharma 2004,

Sharma & Kumart 2012,Sharma et.al.2013). The

typical symptom includes the formation of

cavities in the heart of tubers. The cavity is

covered by white fluffy mycelia showing

luxuriant sporulation. Apenicillium citrinum

developed greater amount of rot at 30ºC

probably because of shriveling and cracks that

developed in fruits at this temperature was

utilized by this fungus as avenues for infection.

Such a situation can be visualized to occur in

large scale storage during which, a temperature

range of 30-32ºC prevail in market fruits heaps

in contrast to wide variation in open

atmosphere (25-38ºC) with the advent of rainy

season. There was sudden spurts in percent

rotting in market, mainly because in addition to

optimum temperature (nearly to 30ºC), the

fungus is now getting optimum relative

humidity (85-100 %) as well, which enable it to

manifest maximum rotting potential (Table2).

IJAS 2014 • 182

Table 3 : In vitro screening of the chemicals against the radial growth of Penicillium citrinum.

Bivistin - - - - - - - - - - - -

Benomyl - - - - - - - - - - - -

Blitane 1.4±0.2 2.4±0.05 3.5±0.08 1.2±0.2 2.0±0.16 3.4±0.06 0.7±0.02 1.9±0.03 2.8±0.02 0.5±0.06 1.4±0.01 2.1±0.02

Difolaton 1.4±0.04 1.7±0.02 2.7±0.02 0.6±0.01 1.4±0.04 1.7±0.02 - - - - - -

Elosal 1.5±0.01 3.2±0.01 4.6±0.01 1.2±0.01 2.7±0.01 3.5±0.04 1.0±0.01 1.4±0.11 2.7±0.0 1.7±0.01 1.1±0.00 2.3±0.04

Manel 3.5±0.01 4.2±0.04 5.5±0.06 2.8±0.01 3.7±0.02 5.1±0.03 2.0±0.03 2.6±0.01 3.6±0.09 1.0±0.01 1.8±0.00 2.4±0.02

Microsul 2.4±0.07 4.6±0.01 5.7±0.01 2.1±0.00 3.5±0.02 4.3±0.02 1.8±0.01 2.7±0.01 3.8±0.02 1.2±0.00 1.7±0.04 2.3±0.01

Plantvex 2.7±0.02 3.7±0.00 4.5±0.05 1.8±0.00 2.8±0.02 3.7±0.01 1.1±0.01 2.1±0.02 2.8±0.01 0.8±0.01 1.8±0.00 2.1±0.03

Sulfex 2.9±0.01 3.8±0.01 4.6±0.03 2.4±0.02 3.4±0.02 3.9±0.02 1.9±0.00 2.7±0.02 3.5±0.01 1.4±0.01 1.9±0.02 2.5±0.01

Thiran 2.8±0.01 4.4±0.02 5.5±0.03 2.3±0.02 4.0±0.02 4.5±0.01 1.5±0.11 2.8±0.01 3.4±0.01 1.2±0.01 1.7±0.02 2.7±0.02

Vitavex 2.7±0.02 3.7±0.02 4.5±0.01 2.1±0.01 3.0±0.02 4.3±0.01 1.8±0.01 2.8±0.01 3.4±0.02 1.1±0.02 1.4±0.01 2.3±0.02

Zineb 2.9±0.01 3.6±0.02 4.3±0.01 2.1±0.01 3.4±0.03 4.3±0.05 1.8±0.01 3.0±0.00 3.6±0.04 1.1±0.02 2.0±0.01 3.0±0.01

Antibiotic 1.5±0.14 2.9±0.01 3.7±0.02 1.1±0.00 2.4±0.02 2.7±0.02 0.8±0.01 1.6±0.02 2.0±0.01 —— 2.8±0.01 1.2±0.01Nystatin

O.T.C. 1.3±0.01 2.1±0.01 3.6±0.05 1.1±0.01 1.5±0.00 2.5±0.01 0.7±0.01 1.0±0.01 1.4±0.01 0.5±0.02 0.7±0.01 1.1±0.01

Streptomycin 0.7±0.00 1.5±0.00 2.9±0.06 0.6±0.03 1.4±0.01 0.8±0.02 0.3±0.01 0.5±0.01 0.8±0.01 —- —- 0.3±0.01

Control 3.5±0.01 4.8±0.01 6.7±0.02 3.7±0.01 4.8±0.01 6.7±0.02 3.5±0.01 4.8±0.01 4.8±0.01 3.5±0.01 4.8±0.01 6.7±0.00

Name of

ChemicalName of Chemical

100 ppm 500 ppm 1000 ppm 2000 ppm

3

days

3

days

3

days

3

days

5

days

5

days

5

days

5

days

7

days

7

days

7

days

7

days


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

The studies undertaken presently show that the

post harvest rot of Ramphal (annona reteculata

L.) fruits as caused by Penicillium citrinum.

Thom can be successfully prevented and

controlled by pre-inoculation treatment with

100 ppm concentration of Bavistin and

Benomly 1, which is an economically feasible

proposition

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors are grateful to Dr. A. N. Roy, Head,

Department of Botany, Agra Collage, Agra, for

providing laboratory facilities and University

Grant Commission (UGC) for financial

assistance.

REFERENCESth

1. Agrios, G.N. 1997. Plant Pathology, 4 Ed.

Academic Press, San Diego, CA,USA.

2. Bag, M.K.,S. Pan & D.K. Agrawal. 2001.

Etiology and management of storage rot of

gingew in Himachal Pradesh. Indian

Phytopath.,54(1):49-54.

3. Grosch, R.,F. Faltin, J. Lottmann, A. Kofoet

& G. Berg 2005. Effectiveness of 3

antagonistic bacterial isolates to control

Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn on lettuce and

potato. Canadian J. Microbial.,51:345-353.

4. Han, J. S., Cheng, T.M. Yoon, J. Song, A.

Rajkarnikar, W.G. Kim, I. D. Yoo, Y.Y.

Yang & J.W. Suh. 2005. Biological control

agent of common scab disease by

antagonistic strain Bacillus sp. Sunjua. J.

Appl. Microbiol., 99: 213-221.

5. Pandey, R.K. & R.B. Sharma. 2004. Fruit

rot of barhal and their control. Current

Bioscience, 2(2): 1-5.

6. Ramkrishan, T.S. & C.K. Sowamini. 1954.

Rhizome and root rot of turmeric caused

by Phythium aphanidermatum Sub.

Indian Phytopath, 7: 152-158.

7. Reddy, G.S. & P.G. Rao 1973. Storage rot in

seed rhizomes of turmeric in Andhra

Pradesh. Indian Phytopath., XXVI, 24.

8. Roy, A. N., R. B. Sharma & B.P. Sinha.

1982. New market disease of Barhal fruit.

Cur, Sci., 51(3): 143.

9. Saugdi, Y. & G. Simbli. 1998. Pre-harvest

lycobial population on Indian Ziziphus

maritiana and their application in post-

IJAS 2014 • 183

Table 4 : Pre-inoculation treatment (RH-90%,Temp.30±1°C) with 100 ppm concentration

1. Bavistin 10 - - -

20 - - -

30 - - -

2. Benomy1 10 1.7±0.03 2.6±0.03 4.0±0.02

20 - - -

30 - - -

3. Control 30 17.1±0.23 33.9±0.24 39.3±0.14

Sl. No. Chemical Treatment

Time

(in Minutes) 7 14 21

Incubation


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

harvest pathogenesis. Mycopathologia

142:77-80.

10. Schmitz, H. 1930. Poisoned food

technique. Indust. Engin, Chem. Analyst.

Ed. 2 Pp. 361-363.

11. Sharma , R. B. & S. Kumar 2012. Post

harvest diseases of Ashgourd. Bioscience

Guardian, 2 (11): 181-182.

12. Sharma, R.B.,Pooja Sharma and Afsha

Khan. 2013, Rot of Potato and thuir

control. Journal of the Kalash Science,

1(1) 43-48.

13. Tondon, R.N. & A.N. Mishra. 1969.

Pathogencity by knife injury method.

Indian Phytopath.,22:334.

14. Thind, T.S., S.B. Saxena and S. C.

Agarwal. 1979. Effect of temperature in

control of soft rot of apple fruits caused

by Clathoridium corticola. Indian

Phytopath., 29(3): 250-258.

15. Sharma. Ajeet. K. , R.B. Sharma and A.K.

Sharma. 2013. A soft rot of Zizipus

Jumba Lamk caused by ctiaeromium

globosoum. International Journal of

Research in plant Science XX: YY.

A v a i l a b l e o n l i n e a t

http/www.urpjournals.com.

16. Sharma. Ajeet.K. and Sharma. 2013. pre

Harvest Rot of fruit and vegetables.

International Journal of Research in

Botany. XXX: YYY. Available on line at

http\\www.urp Journals.com

17. Wharton, P. & W. Kirk. 2007. Fusarium

Dry Rot. http://www.potatodiseases.

Org.contact. html.

18. Yao, M.K., R.J. Tweddell & H. Desilets 2002.

Effect of two vesicular- arbuscualr

mycorrhizal fungi on the growth of

micropropagated potato plantlests and on

the extent of disease caused by Rhizoctonia

solani. Mycorrhiza, 12:235-342.

IJAS 2014 • 184


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

EXTENSION & DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES FOR ENHANCING THE ADOPTION OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM) TECHNOLOGIES AMONG CHILLI GROWERS IN KARNATAKA

Kumara N., Jnanesh A.C., Sachidananda S.N., Hanumanthe Gowda B. and Manoj R.

Devarahally, Lakshmisagara Post, SiraTaluk, Tumkur District-572139, Karnataka

INTRODUCTIONVegetables constitute about 55 per cent of

horticultural crop production in the country

with a total production of 85 million tonnes

which is estimated to cross 100 million tonnes

in near future. Successful cultivation of

vegetables is hampered due to the incidence of

several insect pests. Cultivation of hybrids,

improved varieties, intensive agronomic

practices, off season cultivation and

indiscriminate use of insecticides has changed

the pest complex in these crops.

Chilli is considered as one of the commercial

spice crops. It is the most widely used universal

spice, named as wonder spice. Different varieties

are cultivated for varied uses like vegetable,

pickles, spice and condiments. In daily life,

chilies are integral and the most important

ingredient in many different cuisines around the

world as it adds pungency, taste, flavor and color

to the dishes. Indian chilli is considered to be the

world famous for two important commercial

qualities its colour and pungency level.

The largest producer of chillies in the world is

India accounting for 11 lakh tons of production

annually followed by China with a production

ABSTRACT

The study was conducted in Chickmagalore and Kadur taluks of Chickmagalore District of

Karnataka state. Integrated Pest Management Practices in Chilli during 2013 and 2014.Study

reveals that use of drip irrigation, fertigation technology, and management of pests &

Diseases, Drying & grading for marketing and use of foliar nutrition in Chilli brought the

benefit cost ratio for Chilli IPM farmers compared to farmers' of traditional practice, from

1.47 to 1.83. Whereas increasing yield in farmers who were under Extention & Development

Activities Team was 810 Kg of Red Chilli per acre compared to 750 Kg of red Chilli in non-

IPM farmers. Adoption of IPM technologies was increased to 65.42 percent among the

farmers who were under Extention & Development Activities.


Keywords: Pest, Chilli, Development, Extension.



Research Paper


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

of around 4 lakh tons. Mexico and Pakistan

produces 3 lakhs tonnes each of chili every

year.In India, Chilli was grown on an area of

8.82 Lakh ha and annual production of 11.0 lakh

tones and with an average productivity of 1200

kg/ha (Anon., 2002). Among Chilli producing

states in the country Andhra Pradesh stands

first in the list of leading chilli-producing states

in India and also constitutes the maximum

acreage for chilli cultivation in the country. It

occupies 49% share in the Indian total

production and produces around 2.7 lakh tons

of chillies followed by Orissa (18%), Karnataka

(15%), Maharashtra (6%), West Bengal (5%),

Rajasthan (4%) and Tamil Nadu (3%)

(www.ikisan.com).

Karnataka state stands 3rd in contribution of

Chilli production to country. We have different

chilli varieties such as Byadagikaddi,

Byadagidabbi, Guntur (G-4), Pusa jwala, KDSC-

1, etc. are cultivated by farmers, however

Byadagi & Guntur varieties has been

recommended for cultivation. These varieties

gaining the popularity among the farmers of the

state also, because of chillies are famous for red

colour because of the pigment 'capsanthin,'

others are known for biting pungency attributed

to 'capsaicin.

IJAS 2014 • 186

Per acre cost of cultivation of chilli (Units/Acre) (Rajur, B.C., B.L. Patil and Basavraj, 2008.

Economics of chilli production in Karnataka, Karnataka J. Agric. Sci., 21(2): 237-240).

Sr. Particulars Units Quantity Total cost % of No. Total cost

1 Hired human labour 1 Male Days 10.40 1040.00 2.572 female Days 108.37 7585.90 18.71

2 Bullock labour Pair Days 3.46 1038.00 3.40

3 Seeds / Seedlings Kg /No 0.60/6000 1380.00 3.40

4 Manure Quintal 4.37 437.50 1.08

5 Fertilizers

N Kg 81.92 996.97 2.46

P Kg 72.64 1725.20 4.25

K Kg 38.17 330.55 0.81

6 Irrigation No 16 5600.00 13.81

7 Plant Protection chemicals No 8 2544.58 6.28

8 Machineries & implements - - 833.33 2.05

9 Land revenue and other cesses - - 42.52 0.11

10 Depreciation - - 558.53 1.38

11 Interest on working capital - - 1410.72 3.48@12% for 6 m

Cost ‘A’ 25523.80 62.95


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 187

...contd from previous page

12 Rental value of land 9936.02 24.51(1/6thG.V.P.– L.R.)

13 Interest on fixed 693.50 1.71capital@10% p.a

Cost ‘B’ 36153.32 89.17

14 Family human labour

1) Male labour days Days 22.24 2224.00 5.49

2) Female labour Days Days 30.92 2164.40 5.34

Cost ‘C’ 40541.72 100

Economics of chilli production per Acre

Sr. No. Particulars Rs Per Acre

1 Average Yield Per Quintal

1) Green Chilli 41.83

2) Red Chilli 7.92

2 Average price received per quintal

1) Green chilli 803.33

2) Dry chilli 3316.66

3 Gross returns (Rs.) 59871.24

4 Cost of cultivations (Rs.)

Cost ‘A’ 25523.80

Cost ‘B’ 36153.32

Cost ‘C’ 40541.72

5 Net returns over cost (Rs.)

Cost ‘A’ 34347.44

Cost ‘B’ 23717.92

Cost ‘C’ 19329.52

6 Input-output ratio at

Cost ‘A’ 1:2.34

Cost ‘B’ 1:1.66

Cost ‘C’ 1:1.48

7 Cost of production Rs./Qtl

Cost ‘A’ 347.21

Cost ‘B’ 491.81

Cost ‘C’ 551.51


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

The viral diseases as well as ravages caused by insect pests are significant ones in the chilli crop(Gundannavaret al2007). The pest spectrum in chilli is complex with more than 293 insects and mite species debilitating the crop in the field as well as in storage (Anon, 1987).. A total of 39 and 57 insect pests were recorded in chillies in Karnataka on nursery and field crops, respectively (Reddy and Puttaswamy, 1983 and 1984). During the last two decades insecticidal control of chilli pests in general and especially in irrigated crop characterised by high pesticides usage, has posed problems of residues in the fruits (Nandihalli 1979 and Joiaet al 2001). Besides pest resurgence, insecticide resistance and destruction of natural enemies (Mallikarjuna Rao and Ahmed, 1986), both domestic consumption and export of chilli necessitate production of quality chillies devoid of contamination of pesticides, industrial chemicals and aflatoxins. The pesticide consumption is in down trend in cotton with the introduction of Bt cotton but not the case of chilli. Many instances the dry chilli exports from Indian market were rejected because of pesticide residue problem. Hence, the need of the popularization of IPM technology in Chilli is felt. The project was started with the special objective of educating chilli farmers of nine selected villages in Chickmagalore & Kadur Taluks of Chickmagalore district of Karnataka

on rational use of crop protection chemicals in an integrated pest management approach and thereby reduces the problem of pesticide residues in the harvested produce.

Research MethodologyA study on enhancing IPM technology in Chilli was conducted in Chickmagalore and Kadur taluks of chickmagalore District in Karnataka where Byadagikaddi chilli variety grown predominantly. The Training programmes and field advisory visits on IPM in Chilli was conducted in 9 villages of the two Taluks with help of 50 Chilli farmers. The selected farmers were briefed about, the IPM technology and its importance in initial group meetings with the selected farmers. Continuous field visits was done by the Extention team. Regular feedback on progress of the crop, pest and disease incidence was collected from the field. Regular interaction meetings were conducted with farmers to integrate appropriate IPM technologies into their existing cultivation practices.

Details of Training programmes & Field Advisory done by Extention Team.On 06-11-2013 training programme conducted at Chikkangla village kadur Taluk around 25 Farmers attended. Mr Lingaraju AHO Kadur, Mr Muhammad Shafi, Scintific Officer, ICRISAT and Extention team were present.

IJAS 2014 • 188


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

On 25th Nov., 2013, 2nd training programme was organised at Uddeboranhalli Chick-magalore. The programme was chaired by AHO Mr. Kumar, & Mr. N. Kumar, ICRISAT's Mr. Muhammad Shafi and Mr. Jaysingh representative of the chilli processing company (Paprica Oleos India Pvt. Ltd.) were present.

IJAS 2014 • 189

Field Advisory on IPM in Chilli BY N Kumara & Extention Team

Field Visits BY N Kumara & Extention Team


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 190

IPM technology for Chili: The schedule for

Integrated Pest Management in Chilli has been

standardized at International Crops Research

Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT)

Hyderabad. By following the IPM, the disease

and insect pest incidence were reduced. The

number of sprays of pesticides was reduced to

about 4 (botanical+ chemical) as compared to 6

chemical sprays in non-IPM plots. Among

various insect pests, thrips, aphids, mites and

fruit borers in chilli, are of prime importance.

Thrips;Thrips are in minute and soft bodied

insects are polyphagous, cosmopolitan, and

occur throughout the year. Both nymphs and

adults lacerate the leaf tissues and feed on the

oozing sap. Usually young leaves are preferred,

but buds and flowers also get infested. The

infested leaves become shortened, curl

upwards, and crinkle. Under severe infested

conditions the leaves shed and hence plant

growth is affected. Buds, when infested, become

brittle, petals of the flowers become brown and

drop off. Infested fruit have light brown scars.

M a n a g e m e n t : S e e d t r e a t m e n t w i t h

imidacloprid (Gaucho) @ 5 grams per kg seed.

In the field, spray with imidacloprid @ 1 ml in

3-4 liters of water or fipronil @ 2 ml per liter

Mites; These are tiny insects that live on tender

foliage, buds and fruits by sucking the plant sap.

These are found mostly on the lower surface of

leaves in a protective web. Under severe

infestation of chillies the leaves curve

downwards and fruit turns brownish with

hardened skin.

Management: Spray with miticides such as

dicofol @ 5 ml per liter or wettable sulphur 3

grams per liter or Pegasis @ 1 gm per liter or

Vertemic @ 0.5 ml per liter. Use overhead

irrigation with sprinklers for effective

management of mites wherever possible.

Aphids; These tiny insects can infest the crops

at any time during the growing season. They

look like minute dark specks and tend to gather

around the shoot tips, flower buds and all over

young foliage. Aphids also leave sticky excreta

on leaves that they have been feeding on, which

could help in the development of fungal molds.

Aphid infestation results in stunted or

deformed growth.

Management: An easy solution is to spray a very

weak soap solution. This works well, although

frequent application may affect crop growth.

Ladybird beetles and hover flies are natural

predators of aphids. Trying to attract them into

these fields is the best way to naturally control

the pests. Planting bright flowers such as

marigolds around the chilli plots is a novel way

to attract these natural enemies. In case of

severe infestation, application of dimethoate @

2 ml or acephate @ 1 gram per liter or


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 191

imidacloprid @ 1 ml in 3-4 liters can effectively

manage aphids.

Fruit borers: Fruit borers are highly

polyphagous and cosmopolitan in distribution.

These normally start infesting chilli crop

around flowering time. Young larvae feed on

leaves by scraping chlorophyll, while grown- up

larvae feed on leaves and fruits resulting in

holes. Well grown Spodoptera larvae are

nocturnal in habit and hide in the soil during

the day time.

Management: Installation of pheromone traps

for Spodoptera litura and Helicoverpa armigera

are of immense value in monitoring this pest.

Planting sunflower along the borders can attract

ovipositing moths, thereby saving the main crop

from infestation. Use of poison baits (8:1:1 bran,

jaggery and chloripyriphos) and placing them

close to the plants proved effective in

cont ro l l ing immigra t ing Spodopte ra

caterpillars (25 kg bait is sufficient for one ha).

Foliar spray with Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) at

recommended. application of indoxacarb @ 1

ml per liter or spinosad @ 0.3 ml per liter will be

effective. Also, for Spodoptera and Helicoverpa,

application of nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV)

@ 500 LE per ha at the early stage of the pest

infestation proved to be an effective control.

ICRISAT, Hyderabad -IPM module

Activity

Seed treatment

Management of sucking pests

Sowing trap crops

Installation of pheromone traps and bird perches

Management of thrips in main crop

Management of mites

Management of fruit borers

Stage of crop

Sowing time

Nursery

At the time of transplanting

At the time of transplanting

Transplanting to one month before harvest

In the nursery and main crop

Flowering stage

Management option

Imidacloprid (Gaucho) @ 5 grams per kg seed

Imidacloprid @ 1 ml in 3-4 liters of water or fipronil @2 ml per liter.

Sunflower and marigold as border crop .

Two traps per location for each species About 25 perches/ha

Overhead irrigation with sprinklers wherever possible .Imidacloprid @ 1 ml in 3-4 liters of water or fipronil @ per Ltr of Water

Overhead irrigation with sprinklers wherever possible. Spray one of these chemicals once in the nursery and second time in the main crop - dicofol @ 5 ml per liter or wettable sulphur 3 grams per liter or Pegasis @ 1 gm per liter or Vertemic @ 0.5 ml per liter

Application of neem fruit powder extract @ 25 kg ha-1 NPV @ 500 LE/ha, Bt 4 ml per liter.


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

A. Selection of the Respondents:50 farmers from nine villages having

175.74 Acre cultivable land & growing

Byadagikaddi variety of Chilli in 111.03

Acre were selected.

B. Data collection tools and procedures:A questionnaire was developed for the

purpose was used for the survey. The

questions were asked in Kannada and were

used for collecting responses from the

IJAS 2014 • 192

Management of pod borers

Arresting immigrating Spodoptera

Management of pod borers

Anthracnose

Powdery mildew

Fruiting stage

Crop maturity stage

During crop maturity

Green fruit stage

Flowering and fruiting Stage

Setting poison baits for Spodoptera Spray indoxacarb @ 1 ml per liter or spinosad @ 0.3 ml per liter

Erecting polythene fence around the field (4 inches above ground)

NPV @ 500 LE/ha, Bt (dipel @ 4 ml per liter) or spinosad @ 0.3 ml per liter

Thiophonate methyl 1 g per liter /Mancozeb 2.5 g per liter / Tilt 1ml per liter / Antrcol 2g per liter

Dinocap 1 ml per liter/ wettable sulfur 3g per liter

A. Sampling area: Total Nine villages (Five Villages from Chickmagalore Taluk & Four Villages from Kadur Taluk) in Chickmagalore district where the project activities carried were purposively selected.

Sr. No. Village / Taluk Taluk Number of Total ChilliFarmers Cultivable Area

Are (Acre)

1 Kunnalu Chickmahalore 10 20.50 17

2 Sirabidagi Chickmahalore 5 22.98 14

3 Uddeboranahally Chickmahalore 5 15.35 9.20

4 Karisiddanahally Chickmahalore 5 13.71 9.33

5 Kenganahally Chickmahalore 5 11.36 7.30

6 Govindapura Kadur 5 14.20 10

7 Chikkangla Kadur 5 28.34 16

8 Shakunipura Kadur 5 22 11

9 Yammedhoddi Kadur 5 27.30 17.20

Total 9 50 175.74 111.03


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 193

project farmers. The data were collected

from the respondents through personal

interview with the help of interview

schedule. Necessary precautions were taken

to ensure that the questions in the schedule

were unambiguous, clear, concise,

complete, and comprehensive. The

respondents were contacted in person

mostly at the common place in the village.

C. Statistical Analysis:The data collected for the study was

tabulated, processed and analysed using

simple statistical tools like frequency and

percentage.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONTable 1 indicates that a majority of farmers

(78%) started using drip irrigation for the

improvement of yield when compared to only

24% before the implementation of the project.

Also a considerable improvement where

noticed in the fertilization technology,

management of pests & Diseases at various

stages, drying & grading of Red Chilli for

marketing were improved over the 'before

implementation' of the project. The use of NPV

for control of fruit borer showed 38 per cent

adoption compared to 12 % before the project.

Technology like mulching in Chilli was adopted

by 14% o f the f a rmers be fo re the

implementation of the project. But a drastic

improvement (48%) has been achieved in

adoption of mulching technology through IPM

technology project once the farmers realized its

importance in water, weed, and labor and pest

management. This achievement could be

possible because of the Extention &

Development Activities of Extention Team

Table 1: Enhance in adoption of IPM technologies. (N= 50).

Sr. No. Technology components Enhance in Adoption of technology

Before project After one year implementation of project implementation

Freq (n) Percent Freq (n) Percentadoption adoption

1. Mulching in Chilli 14 28 24 48

2 Use of drip for irrigation 24 48 39 78

3 Fertigation technology 26 52 37 74

4 Use of NPV for control 6 12 19 38of fruit borer

5 Management of pests & 28 56 38 76diseases at various stages

6 Preparation on 23 46 33 66enriched FYM

7 Drying & Grading 27 54 39 78of fruits for marketing

It is implied from Table 2 that the 78% of the

farmers attended more than two training

programmes conducted by the Extention Team

on IPM in Chilli with extension agents and

scientists was good. This is because extension

agents and scientists showed the importance of


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 194

the technologies, and its timely application in

the field to achieve more economic returns. It

has been realized by the farmers that regular

contact with scientists will definitely paves the

way for gaining a lot from them.

Table 2: Farmers Participation in Trainings of IPM on Chilli (N=50).

Sl. No.

1.

1-2 times

Freq (n)

12

Freq (n)

39

%

24

%

78

More than 2 times

It is evident from the table 3 the components of

IPM technologies like reduction in chemical

sprays, considerably reduction in the

environmental pollution, health hazards and

improves the marketability of the Red chilli

achieving higher economic returns. Reduction

in usage of chemicals, frequency of sprays and

unnecessary usages of chemicals has been

thoroughly communicated to the farmers to

achieve more economic returns. Accordingly

project area farmers could get Rs 1.83 for every

rupee invested compared to only Rs 1.47 in case

of farmers earlier practices. A considerable

improvement in economic returns as well as

awareness regarding hazardous chemicals

among the farmers has been achieved in this

project. This in turn a lesson for fellow farmers

of same villages as well as neighboring district

Chilli farmers. chilli are without chemical

residues(Analysis report from Spices Board,

Ministry of commerce Govt of India Kochi India

enclosed) and preferred by the consumers in the

market.

Table 3: Economic improvement in Chilli cultivation through IPM

Sl. No Particulars Non IPM farmer IPM farmer

1 No. of plant protection chemical sprays 06 4

2 Reduction in no. of chemical sprays - 2

3 No. of biological sprays 0 1

4 No. of micronutrient sprays 0 1

5 Yield Kg per acre 750 810

6 Cost of plant protection chemicals/acre Rs 2544 Rs 1696

7 Rate obtained per kg of Red Chilli Rs 80 Rs 90

8 Total Revenue per acre Rs 60000 Rs 72900

9 Total cost per acre Rs 40541 Rs 39693

10 Net profit Rs 13459 Rs 24709

11 Benefit cost ratio 1.47 1.83

• Specific for the Red Chilli Kaddi variety grown during August 13 to April 2014,• Economics have been worked out for the district of Chickmagalore


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IJAS 2014 • 195

CONCLUSIONFrom the findings it can be concluded that an

Extention & Development activities are must for

enhancement of adoption of IPM technologies

among the farmers. The important components

like management of pests & Diseases in various

stages, fertigation and irrigation technologies,

mulching, Drying & grading for marketing etc

were effectively passed on to farmers by the

Extention Team in convincing manner and in

turn 65.42 % of the farmers were adopted IPM

technologies in chilli Crop.

REFERENCES

1. Bentley, J.W.. 2009. Impact of IPM Extension for small holder farmers in the tropics. In “Integrated Pest Management: dissemination and impact”. Pub. Springer, Chapter 8, pp 333-346.

2. George, S., Hegde, M.R. and Doijode, S.D. 2012. Adoption of integrated Pest management practices in vegetable crops in Karnataka. Pest management in horticultural ecosystems, Vol. 18 (1):118-119.

3. Rajur, B.C., B.L. Patil and Basavraj, 2008. Economics of chilli production in Karnataka, Karnataka J. Agric. Sci., 21(2): 237-240.

4. Singh, A and Singh, L. 2004. Yield gap assessment of Lentil under front line demonstration Uttar Pradesh. Indian J. of Extn. Education. 4 (1&2): 58-59.

5. Tiwary, K.B and Saxena, A. 2001. Economic analysis of FLD of oilseeds in C h i n d w a r a . B h a r a t h i y a K r i s h i Anusandhan Patrika, 16 (36/4): 185-188.


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ISSN NO. 0976-450X

FLOWER MIDGE AND ASSOCIATED PARASITOID ON COTTON IN RAICHUR DISTRICTS

*Bheemanna, M ., Geetha, S and Vanitha, B. K.

Department of Agricultural EntomologyUniversity of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur-584104, Karnataka

INTRODUCTIONIn recent days the flower midge or gall midge

becoming a major pest in Raichur, Bellary,

Belgaum, Haveri, Gulburga and Dharwad

district and several districts of north Karnataka.

The pest has been recorded during survey.

Damage starts from initiation of flower bud and

continue up to the presence of the flower

buds.In a single plant so many infested flower

buds can see and in a single bud about 5 to 30

maggots are present. The maggots remain inside

the flower and multiplies faster. This pest

causes more damage to flower buds and

eventually the net returns of the yield get

reduced about 60% loss in yield can be noticed.

It was difficult to manage this pest by the

farmers even with 3-4 sprays. About this pest

there was no study conducted but Dr.Udikeri

and his colleagues reported the presence of this

pest.

History of the pest /previous reportsD a s i n e u r a g o s s y p i i Fe l t ( D i p t e r a :

Cecidomyiidae) has been reported on Bt Cotton

by Dr Udikeri and his colleagues and wrongly

mentioned as Dasineuragossypii "Fletcher".

This species was first collected from

Coimbatore on cotton and reported as

Contarinia sp. by Fletcher in Some south Indian

insects (pages 363-364, fig. 223) along with

diagrams of male and female. Felt (1916)

described the species as Dasineuragossypii.

ABSTRACT

Flower midge Dasineuragossypii Felt (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) is a new emerging pest on

cotton and it is now becoming major pest in Bellary and Raichur districts and its associated

parasitoidEcrizotomorpha sp.(Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) is also noticed and identifiedon

cotton flower midge for the first time.Minimum 18% to 60% damage is recorded with the

average of 33% of damage is recorded in Raichur district and in bellary more than 60%

damage is recorded in this year.In case of number of parasitoids present in single infested

flower varies from 3 to 13 with the average of 8.05.

No. of Pages: 5 No. of Tables: 2 No. of Plates: 1 References: 1

Keywords: Cotton flower midge, Parasitoid, Damaging symptoms.



Research Paper


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This species should not be confused with

another species described by Felt earlier from

t h e P h i l i i p p i n e s u n d e r t h e n a m e

Contariniagossypii. In 2009 Udikeriet al.,

reported Dasineuragossypiihas seen as a major

pest in India.

IdentificationThe flower midge lays eggs inside the tip of the

flower buds,the eggs are cylindrical in shape

and pale white in colour. There are 5 to 30 eggs

are layed on single flower bud. First instar

larvae pale white in colour; after each moult the

colour of the maggot changes to orange colour. If

we pluck the infested flower and if we disturb

the maggots all maggots will come out from the

flower bud.The pupation takes place inside

dried flowers by making a silken cocoon.Adults

are small having orange colour body with all the

three pairs of legs longer and fast flyer and it is

having a pair of moniliform antennae and

protruded ovipositor.

Nature of damageThe maggots are damaging stages. They feed on

anthers and staminal column, degradation /

decaying of anthers and staminal column. The

infested flower buds fail to grow properly.

Flowers will not open as the petals as well as

tissue inside dries.Flower drying through organ

degradation and death.In general square formed

will not turn into a boll, due to death at

flowering stage. Tissue drying and/or death

unevenly lead twisted or contorted stamenal

column/ anthers. In some cases, where

fertilization is not affected, the boll formation is

affected. The size remains smaller. The tissue

degradation is prominent on boll rind also. The

bolls will not reach normal size and No proper

filling with fibre.

Damage estimationMinimum 18% to 60% damage is recorded with

the average of 33% of damage is recorded in

Raichur district and in Bellary more than 60%

damage is recordedin this year.

Parasitoid associatedWhere the flower midge infested buds are

available there we can also get the parasitoid

E c r i z o t o m o r p h a s p . ( H y m e n o p t e r a :

Pteromalidae). We can say this is another

symptom of identification of flower midge

infestation. Minimum 3 to 15 parasitoidscould

be seen on that flower midge infested bud.

Identification ofEcrizotomorpha sp.: small black

coloured flies with round head which can be

visible by bare eyes only.

MATERIALS AND METHODThe observations were taken at University of

Agricultural Sciences, Main Agricultural

Research Station, Raichur in cotton field. For

the observation randomly 20 plants were

selected and counted total number of flower

bud present in single plant. Then the number of

flower midge infested flower bud in that total

flower bud were observed and recoded the

observation. then randomly 20 flower bud were

collected from that field and brought to

laboratory and counted for the total number of

flower midge maggots present in single flower

bud along with the number of parasitoid present

Ecrizotomorpha sp. (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae)


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Table 1: Percent infestation along with the number of parasitoids present in single flower

SI.No Total no. of flower buds/plant flowers buds

1 38 12 34.29

2 35 6 17.14

3 27 8 29.63

4 50 16 32.00

5 55 13 23.64

6 63 20 31.75

7 48 22 44.00

8 30 10 33.33

9 33 9 27.27

10 20 6 30.00

11 45 13 28.89

12 39 15 38.46

13 50 22 44.00

14 53 20 37.74

15 39 15 38.46

16 43 11 25.58

17 50 20 40.00

18 35 12 34.29

19 29 10 34.48

20 15 9 60.00

average 34.20

Number of infested % infestation

in single flower bud along with the flower midge

maggot.

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONThere was no earlier reportson the number of

flower buds present in single plant and infested

flower buds and the parasitoid associated with

flower midge maggot. Minimum per cent of

infestation is 17.14% and maximum 60% with

the average of 34.20% (Table 1) whereas in case

of number of flower midge present in single

flower bud varies from 5 to 30 numbers with

average of 17.85 and in case of number of

parasitoids present in single infested flower

varies from 3 to 13 with the average of 8.05

(Table 2).


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Table 2: Number of flower midges per flower bud and number of parasitoids present in single flower bud

SI.No No. of flower No. of parasitoids/infested midge/flower bud flower bud

1 17 5

2 5 3

3 12 8

4 14 12

5 8 7

6 17 10

7 19 8

8 23 12

9 26 10

10 12 6

11 11 4

12 15 7

13 13 5

14 20 10

15 25 9

16 29 4

17 19 11

18 22 9

19 20 8

20 30 13

average 17.85 8.05


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSDr. C.A. Viraktamath. UAS, Bengaluru and Dr.

Poorani. NBAII, Bengaluru are acknowledged

for taxonomic services.

REFERENCE 1. U d i ke r i . S . S . , K r a n t h i . K . R . , Pa t i l .

S.B.andKhadi.B.M., “Emerging Pests of Bt

Cotton and Dynamics of Insect Pests in

Different Events of Bt Cotton” published by

CICR, Nagpur.

Life stages of cotton flower midge


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ISSN NO. 0976-450X

PESTICIDAL ACTIVITES OF COMMERCIAL BLEACHING POWDER IN PISCICULTURE

1 2 3Mamata Kumari , Rashmi Prabha and Navin Kumar

1Ram Dayalu Singh College, Muzaffarpur, Bihar

2Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Angul, Odisha

3Fisheries Extension Officer, Muzaffarpur, Bihar

INTRODUCTIONThe presence of predatory and weed fishes in culture pond is a serious threat for culturing commercially important fishes. These fishes adversely affect the cultured fish population in culture pond by sharing food and habitat of major cultivated fishes. The predatory fishes engulf the fingerlings of cultured fishes at several stages of their rearing (Jhingran, 1975) and thus adversely affect the aquaculture production which put a great loss to the fish farmers. Unwanted fishes enter aquaculture farms through water supplies or along with seed brought into the fish farm.

In this experiment Authors evaluated the

efficacy of Bleaching powder (both synthetic and plant origin) as piscicides which may solve the problems facing by the farmers for sustainable aquaculture management. Therefore, the main objective of the present work is to study on specific piscicide for sustainable aquaculture management.

MATERIALS AND METHODFingerlings of catfish, Pangassius sutchi, (Fowler, 1937) was selected as the test organism in this study as it is an exotic fish unofficially introduced in some areas of the country. This causes lot of negative impact on present aquaculture system. It is omnivorous and occasionally feeds at the surface. It possess an accessory respiratory organ,

ABSTRACT

The piscicidal activities of commercial Bleaching Powder (30% chlorine) to the fingerlings

of Pangassius sutchi and their impacts on some hydrological parameter of test water were

carried out in controlled laboratory conditions following the standard methods (APHA,

2002). Residual toxicity of all the toxicants were also tested using the most sensitive

fingerlings of rohu (Labeo rohita) in same laboratory conditions. Bleaching powder

[Ca(OCl)Cl] may also be used as piscicide as an alternative to MOC. But some residual

chlorine may retain for several days. It might be non-lethal to fish but may lethal to other

fish food organisms.

No. of Pages: 8 No. of Tables: 4 No. of Figs.: 4 References: 16

Keywords: Mortality, Pangassius sutchi, Physiochemical characteristics, Toxicity.



Research Paper


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which is highly vascularised absorb oxygen directly from the atmosphere. Since the air chamber communicates directly with the pharynx and the gill-chamber, this accessory air breathing organ enables them to tolerate adverse aquatic conditions where other cultured fish species can not survive.

Experiments were conducted on fingerlings, based on the fact that fingerlings are more sensitive to environmental changes, easy to maintain and cost effective.

Bleaching Powder (BP)Commercially available bleaching powder [Ca(OCl)Cl] of Diviaiz Chemioil Pvt. Ltd, (30% Chlorine) was used in the present studies. It is generally applied in pond water to oxidize organic matter for reducing biological oxygen demand (BOD) of water and to destroy the pathogenic organisms.

Fishes were maintained in the laboratory for a minimum period of two weeks during which they were fed with commercial pelleted feed (size 2 mm). The 20% of the water was replaced daily. Mortality during the period of acclimatization was less than 2%. The toxicity bioassays of MOC, TLD alone and TLD with QL (1:1), BP and PP were conducted in controlled laboratory conditions. The toxicity bioassays of MOC, BP and PP were conducted separately for

2h, 3h, and 4 h of exposures to the fingerlings of Pangassius sutchi .

The toxicity bioassays of TLD alone and TLD with QL (1:1) were conducted for 1h only as it is very effective within 1h of exposure. The mortality percentage of the test organisms were recorded after every one hour of exposure. The impact of these toxicants on the different physiochemical characteristics of water were also recorded after every 1h of interval.

The range finding bioassays of each toxicant were carried out in the controlled laboratory conditions in 5 liters of rectangular glass aquaria in triplicate filled with 3 liters of pond water as stated above. Three numbers of test fish were kept in each aquarium to observe their lethal response during different time of intervals following the Complete Randomized Design (CRD) for laboratory (Gomez and Gomez, 1984). A control (without toxicant) was also maintained through out the experiment. All the organisms were acclimatized in the test condition for 48 hrs before experiment. The fish were not feed 24 hours prior to and during the experimental period.

The different concentrations used for the lethal toxicity bioassays of each toxicant at different time intervals are tabulated below (Tables 1-3).

Table 1 : Concentrations of MOC, PP and BP used for 2 h lethal toxicity bioassays.

Mohua Oil Cake Potassium Permanganate Bleaching Powder (MOC) (PP) (BP)

175 25 48178 28 50180 30 52185 42 55200 45 58

50 60556065

Concentrations (mg/l)


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Residual toxicity bioassays of each selected

toxicant were conducted following the method

of APHA (2002). The experimental set up was

alike with the lethal toxicity bioassay. Here,

fingerlings of rohu were introduced regularly in

the pre-treated (LC 95 concentration of each

toxicant) aquarium after different time intervals

to observe the persistence of each toxicant and

stopped when 100% survival of the fingerlings

was achieved. The different concentrations of

toxicant used for the residual toxicity bioassays

are presented in Table 4.

Table 2: Concentrations of MOC, PP and BP used for 3 h lethal toxicity bioassays.

Table 3: Concentrations of MOC, PP and BP used for 4 h lethal toxicity bioassays.


175 25 48

145 16 45

148 18 48

150 20 50

155 22 52

175 25 54

28

30

42

45

50


140 16 42

142 18 45

145 20 48

148 22 50

150 25 52

155 28 54

30




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Experimental protocol was designed following

standard methods of APHA (2002) with some

medications as per the objective of the

experiment. Lethal concentrations of each

toxicants at which the test organisms died (LC 5

to LC ) was calculated by the method of Probit 95

Analysis (Finney, 1971) using EPA Probit

Analysis Program (Version 1.5). The residual

toxicity bioassays were also designed following

the method of APHA (2002).

RESULTSPiscicidal Activity of Bleaching Powder (BP)The toxicity of bleaching powder [Ca(OCl)Cl)]

to Pangassius sutchi significantly (P<0.05)

increased from 2 h to 4 h exposure periods. The

mortality of the tested fish also increased

significantly (P<0.05) with the increase in the

concentration of bleaching powder. The 5%

(LC5), 50% (LC50) and 95% (LC95) mortality

were recorded at 45 mg/l (41-47 mg/l), 52 mg/l

(51-54 mg/l) and 61 mg/l (59-66 mg/l) of

bleaching powder after 2 h of exposure.

Similarly the lethal concentrations of bleaching

powder significantly increased the percentage

of the mortality of the test fish at 3h and 4h of

exposures (fig 1).

Table 4 : Comparative Concentrations of MOC, TLD, TLD with QL, BP and PP used for residual

toxicity bioassays.

Fig. 1: Lethal concentrations of bleaching powder to the fingerlings of Pangassius sutchi at 2h, 3h and 4h of exposures.

LC95 (1h)(mg/l) LC95 (2h)(mg/l) LC95 (3h)(mg/l) LC95 (4h)(mg/l)

MOC - 204 182 160

TLD 92 - - -

TLD+QL 57 - - -

BP - 61 57 55

PP - 113 47 33


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Impacts of Bleaching Powder (BP) on Hydrological ParametersThe pH increased significantly (P<0.05) from control in all the lethal concentrations. After 2h, 3h and 4h of exposures (Fig. 2). But no significant variations (P>0.05) were recorded in between LC50 and LC95 concentrations of bleaching powder at 2h of exposure. Bleaching powder also influenced the conductivity of the water (Fig. 3). Initially the conductivity decreased significantly (P<0.05) from control in LC5 and LC50 concentrations during 2h and 3h of exposures. But it increased gradually and significantly from control to LC5, LC50 and LC95 concentrations of BP after 4h of exposure.

But it was not found during 2h and 3h of exposures. After 2h, bleaching powder treatment significantly influenced DO concentration of water which significantly increased (P<0.05) with the increase in the concentrations of BP. But it was comparable (P>0.05) in between the concentrations (LC5, LC50 and LC95) after 3h and 4 h of exposure p e r i o d s ( Fi g . 4 ) . D i s s o l v e d ox y g e n concentration of test water significantly increased (P<0.05) from control in all the treatments at all the exposure periods. During the experment, the temperature did not vary significantlly.

Fig. 2 : Impacts of different concentrations of bleaching powder on pH of the test water at different exposure periods.

Fig. 3 : Impacts of different concentrations of bleaching powder on conductivity of the test water at different exposure periods.


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Residual Toxicity of Bleaching Powder (BP)Residual toxicity of bleaching powder was

evaluated. The toxic action of 57 mg/l (B2: LC95

for 3h to Pangassius sutchi) and 55 mg/l (B3:

LC95 for 4 h to Pangassius sutchi) of BP also

gradually reduced and were almost non-lethal

(0% mortality) after 60h of exposure.

DISCUSSIONSeveral kinds of chemicals are used in nurseries

for controlling undesirable fishes. Among

those, plant derivative, Mohua oil cake (MOC) is

most suitable. Mohua oil cake contain 4-6%

saponin (Homechaudhuri and Banerjee, 1991.)

which is an active ingredient for killing the fish

due to it haemolytic properties and its effect will

retain for 2-8 days depending on the dose used

(ICAAE, 2003). At least 10 days must be allowed

for toxicity to be eliminating before stocking

(aquaculture Authority, 1999). But its toxicity

depends on the sensitivity of the fish species.

In the present study, we have used the the

fingerlings of a most popular, hardy and

carnivorous fish Pangassius sutchi to examine

the piscicidal activities of MOC on it. It was

observed that almost all fingerlings were died at

159 mg/l, 127 mg/l and 120 mg/l after 2h, 3h and

4h respectively. The piscicidal activities were

studies only for four hours, because within this

short period the dead fishes were removed for

consumption or other purposes without

deteriorating the aquatic environment through

decomposed and semi-decomposed fishes.

In the prevailing environmental conditions, the

bleaching powder produced hypochlorous acid

(HOCl) instantly. In the aquatic ecosystem

combined residual chlorine (CRC) or

chloramines are formed with the operation of

oxidation-reduction process in presence of

HOCl. However, the rate of chloramine

formation largely depends upon the pH of the

system (Mattice, 1987). Free residual chlorine -(FRC), i.e., HOCl + OCl ion is primarily

responsible for fish kill when chlorine related

compounds are employed in the aquatic

environment. In the present investigation, it has

been observed that almost all the fishes died at

45-61 mg/l bleaching powder within 2-4 hours.

The piscicidal effects at higher concentration of

BP may be due to the free residual chlorine. It

was reported that 25-30 mg/l commercial

bleaching powder (30% chlorine) killed all the

fishes within 3-4 hours and toxicity retained for

7-8 days (Kalita, 2006). It can kill all the aquatic

organisms including planktons, benthos,

Fig. 4 : Impacts of different concentrations of bleaching powder on DO of the test water at different exposure periods.


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molluscs, crabs and weed and predatory fishes

at 50 ppm (Tripathy et al., 1980). The present

result is strongly supported by the previous

works carried out in different places in spite of

some deviations of the concentration of BP. This

might be due to hardly nature of experimental

fish P. sutchi as well as quality of commerical

bleaching poweder used.

The pH of test water increased after bleaching

powder treatment due to its strong oxidizing

capacity. This is also supported by various

researchers (Ram et al., 1988; Mohanty et al.,

1993). Bleaching power influence the

conductivity of water due its neutralizing

capacity of ions available in water. The potency of

BP slowly decreased with the increaseing

exposure periods because of its decreasing

capacity of oxidation. In addition, its disinfecting

capacity killed the micro-organisms of the

aquatic environment decresed. The biological

decomposition processes and the major oxygen

consuming process in the aquatic environment. It

also accelerates chemical oxidation process with

the help of chlorine of bleaching powder.

In our present investigation the residual toxicity

of bleaching powder to the fingerlings of Labeo

rohita retained up to 2-3 days which is not

comparable with the previous data (Kalita, 2006).

It may be due to the condition of the aquatic

environment and the quality of the organisms.

The safe period for stocking of fry and fingerlings

for aquaculture after BP application is 7-8 days.

The slight increase in residual chlorine

concentration may harm to the early stages of fish

and different planktonic and benthic live food

organisms of the fish, which in turn may

seriously hampere the aquaculture production.

The main beneficial role of BP is its disinfectant

property against pathogens in addition to

piscicidal activity. So, the health of the cultured

fishes will be safe after application of BP as

piscicide during short culture period. However,

the main constraint of its application is its ability

to penetrate cells and react with cell enzyme.

Many freshwater and estuarine phytoplankton

species are sensitive to chlorine, with an adverse

effect to TRC concentrations as low as 0.05 mg/l

(Ho and Robert, 1986). Again its toxicity largely

depends upon pH and temperature. If the pH of

water decreases, the toxicity of bleaching powder

increases appreciably. However, the application

of commercial bleaching powder for eradication

of unwanted fishes may be encouraged for

commercial aquaculture because of its dual

action like piscicide and disinfectant. In addition,

it is very cheap and easily available in the door

steps of farmers. But, precaution may be taken by

adopting frequent assessment of the water quality

parameters. Reduction of its toxicity also very

simple as the residual chlorine may be removed

from water through vigorous aeration.

CONCLUSIONBleaching Powder [Ca(OCl)Cl]About 55-61 mg/l of commercial bleaching

powder (30% chlorine) killed almost 95% of the

fingerlings of Pangassius sutchi within 2-4

hours.

The pH, DO and conductivity of the water

increased after the application of bleaching

powder (30% chlorine).

The toxicity of bleaching powder retained

maximum up to 60-72 hours to the fingerlings of

rohu.

The minimum safe period for stocking of fry and

fingerlings of fishes would be 8-10 days after its

application.

REFERENCES

1. APHA, AWWA, WPCF, 2002. Standard

Methods for Examination of Water and

Waste Water. American Public Health

Association, Inc., Washington D.C., USA.


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2. Bhatia, H.L., 1970. Use of mahua oil cake in

fishery management. Indian Farming.

20(4), 39-40.

3. Bhuyan, B.R., 1967. Eradication of

unwanted fish from ponds by using

indigenous plant fish poisons. Sci. Cul.

33(2), 82-83.

4. Chakraborty, P.S., Das, A., Banerjee, S.,

1987. Evaluation of efficiency of mahua oil

cake as fish poison in relation to hardness

of water. Environ. Ecol. 5(1), 165-167.

5. CIFRI, 1968. Annual Report. Central Inland

Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore,

India, pp.93.

6. Gomez, K.A., and Gomez, A.A. 1984.

Statistical procedure for agricultural

research. 2nd edn. Wiley Inter Science,

New York.

7. Finney, D.J., 1971. Statistical methods in

biological assay, 2nd Ed. Hafner Publishing

Company, New York; N. Y. Cambridge

University Press, London, England, pp. 68.

8. Hinton, M.J., Eversole, A.G., 1978. Toxicity

of ten commonly used chemicals to

American eel. Proc. Annu. Conf. Southeast

Assoc. Fish Wildl. Agencies. 32, 599-604.

9. Istvan, U., 2000. Semi-natural products

and related substances as alleged botanical

pesticides. Pest Management Sci. 56(8),

703-705.

10. Jhingran, V.G., 1975. Fish and Fisheries of

India. Hindustan Publishing Corporation,

Delhi, India. pp.954.

11. K u m a r i , M . , 2 0 1 2 . E f f e c t o f

organophosphate Pesticide Abate on the

ovary of the Cat Fish, Heteropneustes

Fossilis (Bloch). Bangladesh J. Zool.

40(2):pp 207-212.

12. Kumar, N., Prabha, R., Kumari, M., 2013.

Role of Mahua Oil Cake (MOC) in fish

Production. International journal of

Biological Science (Issue1 ). pp 95-100

13. Kalita, K., 2006. A Training Manual on

Polyculture and Integrated Fish Farming.

Assam Agricultural Competitiveness

Project (AACP), Govt. of Assam and College

of Fisher ies , Assam Agricul tural

University, Raha, Assam, India.pp.27.

14. Mohanty, A.N., Chatterjee, D.K., Giri, B.S.,

1993. Effective combination of urea and

bleaching powder as a piscicide in

aquaculture operations. J. Aquacul. Tropics

8(2), 249–254.

15. Ram, K.J., Rao, G.R.M., Ayyappan, S.,

Purushothaman, C.S., Saha, P.K., Pani, K.C.,

Muduli, H.K., 1988. A combination of

commercial bleaching powder and urea as a

potential piscicide. Aquaculture 72, 287-

293.

16. Tripathy, N.K., Radheyshyam, Satpathy,

B.B., Khan, H.A., 1980. Preliminary

observations on the use of bleaching

powder as fish toxicant for preparation of

nursery ponds. Proc. Symp. On Utilization

of Animal Resources of Orissa, Zool. Soc. of

Orissa, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar,

pp.13.


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

EFFECT OF NEWER MOLECULE INSECTICIDES AGAINST CHICKPEA SEED PROPERTIES

Vidyashree, A. S., Thirumalaraju, G. T., Kavya M. K. and Adarsha S.K.*

Department of Entomology, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore, Karnataka*Department of Entomology, UAHS, Shimoga, Karnataka

INTRODUCTIONPulses are an important group among staple

crops, next only to cereals for human diet,

especially for the vegetarian population across

the world. It is a well established fact that

various legumes such as chickpeas vary quite

significantly in their inherent resistance or

susceptibility to field infestation and post-

harvest insect attack in storage by the common

grain storage insects. Chickpea is grown in more

than 70 per cent area of the country as rainfed

crop and is highly sensitive to change in

weather conditions.

Pulse beetle (Callosobruchus maculatus

Coleoptera: Bruchidae) is a major pest of

leguminous stored seeds. The beetle exhibits a

high degree of specificity for its growth and

development towards various legumes. As a result,

full yield potential of the chickpea crop is seldom

realized due to the interaction of many factors of

which post harvest insect infestation and

consequent damage is one of the most important.

MATERIAL AND METHODSA laboratory experiment was carried out to know

the efficacy of newer insecticide molecules at All

India Co-ordinated Research Project on Seed

Technology, National Seed Project, University of

Agricultural Sciences, Gandhi Krishi Vignan

Kendra, Bangalore during 2012-13. One kg of

freshly harvested certified seeds with initial

germination of 98 per cent and 9 per cent of

moisture content were taken. The experiment

was conducted in completely randomized design

(CRD) with nine treatments and three

ABSTRACT

Pulse beetle (Callosobruchus maculatus Fab. Coleoptera: Bruchidae) is a major pest of

leguminous stored seeds. The beetle exhibits a high degree of specificity for its growth and

development towards various legumes. New insecticide molecules were tested against C.

maculatus on chickpea. Spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm and emamectin benzoate 5 SG @ 2 ppm

were found effective in controlling the pulse beetle without affecting the germination,

moisture content and vigour of the seeds.


Keywords: C. maculatus, Spinosad, Emamectin benzoate, Vigour, Germination.



Research Paper


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replications. Different quantities of insecticides

were diluted in 5 ml water to treat one kg of seed

for proper coating. After treatment, seeds were

dried under shade and packed in 2 kg capacity

gunny bag and kept for storage under ambient

condition. Similarly, control was maintained

without any treatment for comparison. The

observations on the parameters viz.,

germination, moisture content and vigour index-I

and vigour index-II were recorded at tri-monthly

interval up to nine months and then data were

subjected to statistical analysis.

The germination test was conducted with 100

seeds from each treatment in four replications

following between paper (BP) method as

prescribed by ISTA Rules (Anon., 2010).

Moisture content of seed was done by oven

drying method. Five grams of chickpea seeds

were taken from each replication and treatment.

The seeds were grinded and kept in oven for 17

hours and final weight was recorded. The

moisture content of the seed was calculated by

using following formula.

W -W2 3

Moisture content (%) = ----------------- X 100 W -W2 1

Where:

W = Weight of empty cup with lid (g)1

W = weight of cup with seed samples before 2

drying

W = weight of cup with seed sample after 3

drying

The root length and shoot length often normal

seedlings was measured and average is

expressed in centimetres. Seedling vigour index

(SVI) was calculated by adopting the method

suggested by Abdul-Baki and Anderson (1973)

and expressed as an index number.

SVI=Germination X Mean seedling length (cm)

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTSResults on germination revealed significant

differences among treatments at three, six and

nine months after treatment imposition (Table

1). At nine months after treatment imposition,

the highest germination (86.67 ± 1.15 %) was

recorded in spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm, which

was on par with emamectin benzoate 5 SG @ 2

ppm (85.33±2.31 %), rynaxypyr 20 SC @ 2 ppm

(84.00 ± 2.00 %) and indoxacarb 14.5 SC @ 2

ppm (83.67 ± 2.31 %).

Significant differences were not observed

among the treatments with respect to moisture

content at three months after treatment

imposition (Table 1). At nine months after

treatment imposition, the least moisture

content (10.33±0.16 %) was in spinosad 45 SC

@ 2 ppm treated seeds, which differed

significantly with all other treatments. The next

treatment was deltamethrin 2.8 EC @ 1 ppm

(10.65±0.14 %), which also differed

significantly with other treatments. The highest

moisture content (13.31±0.32 %) was observed

in untreated control and was significantly

inferior to remaining treatments.

With respect to vigour index-I the results

revealed, significant differences among

treatments at three, six and nine months after

treatment imposition (Table 2). At nine months

after treatment imposition, the highest vigour

index-I was recorded in spinosad 45 SC @ 2

ppm (2008±22) treated seeds, which differed

significantly with all other treatments. Among

the insecticides least vigour index (1065±13)

was in novaluron 10 EC @ 2 ppm, however,

untreated control (418±55) was significantly

inferior to all the treatments.

Observations on vigour index-II revealed, at

nine months after treatment imposition, the

highest vigour index II was recorded in

spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm (30±1) which was on

par with emamectin benzoate (27±2) 5 SG @ 2


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

3 MAT 6 MAT 9 MAT 3 MAT 6 MAT 9 MAT

ppm and differed significantly with other

treatments. The next best treatment was

deltamethrin (27±3) 2.8 EC @ 1 ppm, was on

par with indoxacarb 14.5 SC @ 2 ppm and

novaluron 10 EC @ 5 ppm and differed

significantly with remaining treatments.

DISCUSSIONThe results indicated that, most of the new

Table 1: Effect of insecticide seed treatment on moisture content and germination percentage of chickpea at different storage period

bcd cd a ab aT =Emamectin benzoate 5 9.23±0.36 10.39±0.10 10.87±0.15 93.67±0.58 89.67±0.58 85.33±2.311

SG@2 ppm

a a a a aT =Spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm 9.13±0.14 10.08±0.03 10.33±0.16 94.33±0.58 90.67±0.58 86.67±1.152

d cd a ab abT =Indoxacarb 14.5 SC @ 2 ppm 9.23±0.28 10.61±0.22 10.84±0.06 93.67±0.58 89.67±0.58 83.67±2.313

cd d a ab abT =Rynaxypyr 20 SC @ 2 ppm 9.26±0.30 10.53±0.23 10.93±0.16 93.67±0.58 89.33±0.58 84.00±2.004

abc c a ab cT =Chlorfenapyr 10 EC @ 2 ppm 9.21±0.28 10.29±0.21 10.79±0.07 94.33±0.58 89.67±0.58 78.67±1.155

ab e b c dT =Novaluron 10 EC @ 2 ppm 9.23±0.20 10.14±0.19 11.15±0.18 91.00±1.00 84.33±0.58 64.33±3.216

ab c a b bcT =Novaluron 10 EC @ 5 ppm 9.01±0.29 10.15±0.15 10.83±0.07 93.67±0.58 88.67±0.58 81.33±0.587

a b a ab abT =Deltamethrin 2.8 EC @ 1 ppm 8.99±0.25 10.08±0.08 10.65±0.14 93.67±0.58 89.33±1.15 83.00±2.008

e f c d eT =Untreated control 9.82±0.60 11.24±0.22 13.31±0.32 86.33±0.58 65.33±2.31 28.67±3.219

SEm± 0.18 0.09 0.05 0.36 0.58 1.25

CD at (p=0.05) 0.55 0.29 0.13 1.09 1.71 3.72

CV (%) 3.5 1.67 1.44 0.69 1.15 2.89

Means followed by same alphabet in column do not differ significantly; MAT: Months after treatment.

Moisture content (%) Germination (%)

3 MAT 6 MAT 9 MAT 3 MAT 6 MAT 9 MAT

Table 2. Effect of insecticide treatment on vigour index-I and vigour index-II of chickpea at different storage period

ab b b bc bc abT =Emamectin benzoate 5 SG@2 ppm 2230±46 2022±15 1846±30 36±1 31±1 27±21

a a a a a aT =Spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm 2367±114 2128±39 2008±22 38±1 34±1 30±12

bc b c bc bc bcdT =Indoxacarb 14.5 SC @ 2 ppm 2136±71 2010±33 1625±78 35±1 31±1 25±13

bc b cd c c dT =Rynaxypyr 20 SC @ 2 ppm 2144±127 1983±34 1604±90 34±2 30±2 23±14

ab b de ab ab dT =Chlorfenapyr 10 EC @ 2 ppm 2247±21 2005±45 1483±149 36±2 32±1 23±25

d d f d d eT =Novaluron 10 EC @ 2 ppm 1732±69 1547±20 1065±13 27±1 22±1 13±26

c c e c c cdT =Novaluron 10 EC @ 5 ppm 2058±104 1642±47 1443±34 34±1 29±2 24±27

bc b bc bc bc bcT =Deltamethrin 2.8 EC @ 1 ppm 2114±79 1992±29 1727±68 34±2 30±2 27±38

e e g e e fT =Untreated control 1534±74 1067±20 418±55 23±2 13±1 5±19

SEm± 46.49 19.16 41.59 0.78 0.76 0.97

CD at (p=0.05) 138.15 56.94 123.58 2.33 2.24 2.87

CV (%) 3.90 1.82 4.90 4.05 4.59 7.52

Means followed by same alphabet in column do not differ significantly; MAT: Months after treatment.

Vigour index-I Vigour index-IITreatments

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IJAS 2014 • 214

insecticide molecules did not affect the

germination at different storage periods, clearly

indicating the effectiveness of these molecules

except novaluron 10 EC @ 2 ppm in managing

the C. maculatus. The reduction in germination

was observed only in untreated control. The

present results were in confirmation with the

results obtained by Bareth and Guptha (1989);

Sinha (1993), they revealed the germination of

seed was not affected up to 15 months of storage.No significant differences were observed

between the treatments with respect to moisture

content up to 3 months but significant

differences were observed at six and nine

months after treatment imposition. Least

moisture content was recorded in spinosad 45

SC @ 2 ppm (10.33 %) and highest in untreated

control (12.77±0.5 %) at nine months after

treatment imposition. These observations were

supported by Patil et al. (1994) reported that

pigeon pea seeds treated with deltamethrin 2.8

EC @ 2 ppm (12.5 ppm) was the most effective

treatment against C. maculatus by recording

greater adult mortality and no loss in seed

weight up to 12 weeks.

Both vigour indexes I and II affected at three, six

and nine months after treatment imposition.

Spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm recorded highest

mean vigour index-I (2367, 2128 and 2008) and

least in untreated control (1534, 1067 and 418),

similarly with respect to vigour index-II highest

(38, 34 and 30) was recorded in spinosad 45 SC

@ 2 ppm and least (23, 13 and 5) in untreated

control. No reviews were available regarding

these aspects. This clearly indicating that

spinosad 45 SC @ 2 ppm does not affect the

vigour index of the seed and helps to get

vigorous seedlings. Finally the insect damage

causes reduction in germination as well as

increase in moisture content which again not

beneficial for seed growers as well as seed

industries. Green insecticides are safer in the

management of C. maculatus on chickpea

without affecting the germination, moisture

content and vigour index of the seeds.

REFERENCES

1. BARETH, S. S. AND GUPTHA, H. C., 1989,

Efficacy of gunny bag and seed treatment

on the natural infestation on Rhyzopertha

dominica (Fab.) on stored wheat. Seed Res.,

17(2): 178-181.

2. ISTA, 2010, International rules for seed

testing, Zurich, Switzerland.

3. PATIL, R. K., NAWALE, R. N. AND MOTE,

U. N., 1994, Efficacy of synthetic

pyrethroids as seed protectants of

p igeonpea against pulse beet le ,

Callosobruchus maculatus Fab. Indian J.

Entomol., 56(1): 51-57.

4. SINHA, S. N., 1993, Seed health test:

detection of insects and nematodes and

plant parasites In: Hand Book of Seed

Testing, P.K. Agarwal (ed.). India. pp. 131-

137.

5. ABDUL-BAKI, A. A. AND ANDERSON, J.

D., 1973, Vigour determination in soybean

seed by multiple criteria. Crop Sci. 13: 630-

633.


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL: AN ECOFRIENDLY APPROACH FOR ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE MANAGEMENT IN TOMATO

Hemlata Pant and Gopal Pandey

Society of Biological Sciences and Rural Development10/96, Gola Bazar, New Jhusi, Allahabad-211019, U.P.

INTRODUCTIONTomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), is an

important vegetable crop is seriously affected

by root-knot nematode. (Sasser and Carter,

1985). Bio-control agents particularly nematode

destroying fungi are common and abundant in

both natural and agricultural soil (Jatata, 1986

and Pandey, et al., 2003). Bio-control agents

have got some inherent advantages of being

safe, host specific efficacious, environmental

friendly and long lasting. Despite the significant

advantages of biopesticide there are some other

factors which have reduced their practical

effectiveness and commercial exploitation

(Ganguli et al., 1994). A number of bio-control

agents have been found effective against

nematodes. Mankau (1990), Alam (1990),

Pandey (2002). The present investigation were

carried out with the objective to explore the

possibilities of using Trichoderma viride,

Beauveria bassiana and spent compost of oyster

mushroom as a bio-control for the management

of root-knot nematode.

MATERIALS AND METHODSExperiment was conducted in National

Academy of Biological Sciences and Rural

Development (Research wing of SBSRD), Jhusi,

Allahabad, (U.P.) during 2013-14. Sixteen pots

were taken for experimental purpose. The six

inch earthen pots were sterilized with formlin

and filled with sterilized soil. Seven days old

seedlings of tomato variety 'Kanchan' were

planted and after seven days 1000 newly

ABSTRACT

Two biocontrol agents viz. Trichoderma viride and Beauveria bassiana and one organic

matter viz. spent compost of oyster mushroom were taken for the management of root-knot

nematode (Meloidogyne incognita). The result revealed that Trichoderma viride was very

effective for management of root-knot nematode followed by spent compost of oyster

mushroom (Pleurotus sajor caju) and Beauveria bassiana respectively. Better growth

parameters and number of fruits were noted in T. Viride, followed by B. bassiana and spent

compost of oyster mushroom respectively.


Keywords: Root-Knot nematode, tomato, management, bio-control.



Research Paper


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 216

hatched larva from egg masses of Meloidolyne

incognita (extracted from tomato plants) were

pipetted and inoculated into three inch deep

hole near the base of the plant in each pot and

5000 spores of T. viride and B. bassiana were

also inoculated with the help of pipet in plant

zone. Twenty gram spent compost was amended

in sterilized soil 15 days before inoculation of

M. incognita and bio-control agents in pots.

Plants were irrigated normally. At senescence

stage of the crop observation was taken viz.

shoot length, root length; fresh shoot weight,

fresh root weight, number of fruits and root-

knot.

T. viride and B. bassiana were isolated from the

local soil condition and maintained on potato

dextrose agar slant. T. viride and B. bassiana 0were multiplied in nutrient broth at 27±2 C for

15 days under stationary conditions. Fungal met

along with culture filtrate was sterilized and

500 ml sterile distilled water was added to make

Reduction of nematode galls and increase in

plant growth parameters may due to the

presence of high concentration of some toxic

chemicals such as 'viridin' in T. viride and

them suspension. The suspension was used

inoculation in tomato plant. pH and moiture

were observed by pH meter and moisture meter

respectively. Data of observation was computed

as per the analysis of variance test of completely

Randomized Block Design.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONObservations revealed that all treatments viz. T.

viride, B. bassiana, spent compost of oyster

mushroom increase plant growth characters of

tomato plant and reduce number of root-knot

galls. T. viride was found to be the most effective

among all the treatments. Maximum reduction

of root-knot was found in application of T.viride

followed by spent compost of oyster mushroom

and B. bassiana respectively. Higher plant

growth parameters were recorded in

application of T. viride followed by B. bassiana

and spent compost of oyster mushroom

respectively.

'Beauverin' in B.bassiana. Oyster mushroom

mycelium is carnivorous, it eats nematodes, it

Table 1: Effect of T. viride, B. bassiana and spent compost of oyster mushroom on the growth parameters, number of fruits, number of galls, pH and moisture on tomato plant.

Treatment Shoot Fresh Fresh No. of No. of pH Moisturelength length Root shoot fruits Root-(cm) (cm) weight weight galls

(g) (g)

Tricoderma viride 58.25 19.75 15.37 2.37 2.25 17.25 7.14 8.26

B. bassiana 53.00 13.00 11.75 2.12 1.75 24.50 7.30 8.20

Spent compost 49.75 8.75 9.25 1.25 1.50 18.50 7.30 7.34oyster mushroom

Control 38.50 11.00 11.12 0.87 1.00 55.00 8.33 5.08

C.D. (p=0.05) 7.78 7.27 — 1.072 - 16.64 - 1.569

F% (p=0.05) S S NS S NS S NS S

Root


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IJAS 2014 • 217

Maximum plant growth were recorded in T.

viride followed by B. bassiana and spent

compost of mushroom due to quick metabolism

of spent compost, release of nutrient which

accelerate rapid root development and overall

plant growth of tomato plant. Trichoderma sp.

produces volatile and non volatile antibiotics

and release enzyme during the decomposition

in tomato plant. B. bassiana was reduce root-

galls and increase plant growth due to

inhibitory effects was found on the growth of

nematode in the roots. These finding favours

the work of Dannis and Websters (1971) and

Pant and Pandey (2011). pH and moisture were

ranged between 7.14 to 8.33 and 8.26 to 5.08%

respectively.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTAuthors are thankful to Department of Science

and Technology, Govt. of India, New Delhi for

providing financial assistance (project No.-

WOSB/SEED/DISHA/019/2012).

REFERENCES

1. Alam, M.M. 1990. Nematode destroying

fungi, In: Nematode bio-control aspects

and prospects (Eds) Jairajpuri et, al, CBS

publ. and Dist Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp-57-

69.

2. Barberchek, M.E. and Kaya H.K. 1991.

Competitive interaction between nematode

and Beauveria bassiana in soil borne larvae

of Spodoptera exigua. Environ. Entomol,

20:707-712.

3. Barron, G.L., and Thorn, R.G. 1986.

Destruction of nematodes by species of

Pleurotus. "Can. J. Bot. 55: 3054-3062.

4. Dennis, C. and Webster, J. 1971.

Antagonistic properties of species groups

of Trichodermal. Production of non volatile

antibiotics. Trans. Br. Mycol Soc. 57:25-39

5. Ganguli, A.K. Somasekhar, N. and

Dasgupta , D .R . 1994 . Molecular

approaches for management of nematode

diseases of crop plant, current nematol,

5(1): 83-108.

6. Jatata, P. 1986. Bio-control of plant

parasitic nematodes. Ann Rev. Phytopathol,

24: 453-489.

7. Mankau, R. 1990. Biological control of

nematode pest by natural enemic, Ann,

Rev. Phytopathol, 18: 415-440.

8. Pandey, G. Pandey, R.K. and Pant Hemlata

2003. Effect of different levels of T. viride

against root-knot nematode in chick-pea,

Ann pl. prot sci, vol 11(2): 409-410.

9. Pandey, G. 2002. Development, production

and demonstration of bio-control agents for

the management of root-knot nematode

disease under IPM of chick-pea, project

report submitted in DST, New Delhi (PN-

Sp/ws/028/2000) page no.1-30.

10. PANT, Hemlata and Pandey, G. 2011. Effect

of different concentration of spent matter

(wheat straw) of oyster mushroom (P. sajor

caju) on the growth of tomato plant. J. Env.

Bio Sci., Vol. 25(1), 1-2.

11. Sasser, J.N. and Carter. C.C. 1985. An

advanced treatise on Meloidogyne Vol. (1).

biology and control. North carolina, plant

pathology, N.C. state University and

U.S.A.I.D. pp-422.


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IJAS 2014 • 218

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ROLE OF SOIL ORGANIC MATTER IN SOIL HEALTH SUSTAINABILITY

A. K. Singh, R. K. Chauhan and J. S. Bisen

Darjeeling Tea Research and Development CentreTea Board, Kurseong, Darjeeling 734203, West Bengal, India

INTRODUCTIONSoil (S- Soul, O- Of, I- Infinite, L- Life) is a living

and dynamic system which supports all kind of

life on this planet. Sustainability of the soil is the

need of today's agriculture. Sustainable farming

is the successful management of resources for

agricultural production to satisfy the human

needs while maintaining or enhancing the

quality of environment and conserving natural

ecosystem. A farming system can be considered

sustainable, if it ensures that “today's

development is not at the expense of tomorrow's

development prospects” (World commission on

environment and development 1987). In fact, soil

must not be assaulted by slapdash and greedy

agricultural methods. No system of farming will

be sustainable unless the soil which forms its

pivot being the most important natural resource

is managed scientifically to meet the present and

future needs, its productivity and quality are

maintained continuously and there is no

reduction of output with inputs (Kanwar, 2002).

There are some soil parameters which can be

used as indicators of soil sustainability like soil

ABSTRACT

Soil health deterioration is a big challenge for every stakeholders of agriculture. For this

menace loss of organic matter from soil is one of the important factors. The soil organic

matter (SOM) consists of whole series of products which range from unrecompensed plants

and animal tissues to fairly amorphous brown to black material bearing no trace of the

distinctive anatomical structure of the material that is normally defined as the soil humus.

SOM is an important component of soil and a tool to achieve soil sustainability because it

influences the chemical, physical and biological properties of soil and nutrient availability

to the plants. Maintaining optimum level of soil organic matter by applying appropriate

organic manures in the soil could ensure adequate supply of essential plant nutrients to the

plant and also to combat the global warming. Hence, sustainability in the soil health,

productivity and environmental safety could be achieved by improving the soil organic

matter content in the soils.

No. of Pages: 9 References: 34

Keywords: Soil, Soil Health, Sustainability, Organic Matter.


Corresponding author: Email: [email protected]

Research Paper


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IJAS 2014 • 220

chemical, physical, biological properties, soil

fertility and soil erosion status. Any system of

farming which creates adverse effect on these

parameters of soil is undesirable and thus

unsustainable. Soil organic matter is an

important component of soil and can be a tool to

achieve soil sustainability because it influences

the chemical, physical, biological properties and

nutrient availability to the plants (Reeves, 1997).

Soil health is defined as the continued capacity of

soil to function as a vital living system, by

recognizing that it contains biological elements

that are key to ecosystem function with in land-

use boundaries (Doran and Zeiss, 2000). Some

important roles of soil organic matter are

summarized here which enable us to understand

how long term sustainability could achieved

through soil organic matter management.

1. Role of soil organic matter in maintenance of

soil chemical properties:Soil buffering capacity may be defined as to

resistance to a change in pH. The power to resist a

change in pH is called “buffer action”. Buffer

solution contains reserve acidity and alkalinity

and does not change pH with small addition of

acids or alkalis. Among the various factors which

affect the buffering capacity of the soil, the

organic matter content is one of the important

factor. Soil containing large amounts of clay and

organic matter is said to be highly buffered

(Curtin et al., 1996). In this way, organic matter

content of soil helps to keep the pH within level

which affects nutrient availability (Vermeer,

1996). Owing to such buffering effects of organic

matter, plant root does not suffer from excessive

acids, alkali or salts.

Cation exchange capacity is defined as the sum

total of the exchangeable cations that a soil can

adsorbs (Lax et al., 1986). Next to the

photosynthesis, cation exchange capacity is the

most important phenomena in nature. In

general, cation exchange capacity increases

with organic matter content of soil (Kirchmann

et al., 2007). Humus micelle is negatively

charged and is capable of holding nutrient ions.

Soil containing high amount of organic colloids

have high ion exchange properties because of its

high surface charge density that affects ion

exchange phenomena. The contribution of soil

organic matter to CEC can vary between 25-90%

(Stevenson, 1994).

Soil organic matter acts as a chelate (Bocanegra

et al., 2006). The chelate is an organic

compound that can bind to a metal like Fe, Zn,

Cu, Mn etc. by more than one bond and form a

ring or a cyclic structure by such bonding. The

soluble chelates probably help to mobilize these

micro-nutrients by increasing their availability

to plants and mobility in soils.

2. Soil organic matter and physical properties

of soil:Bulk density may be defined as the mass of soil

per unit volume of dry soil (Brady and Weil,

2002). Bulk density affects plant root penetration,

water and air–filled pore space, biological

activity, hydraulic conductivity of water through

soil profile, drainage condition etc. Soil having

high organic matter content possessed lower bulk

density value. Low bulk density is desirable for

good soil physical condition.

Soil structure controls various physical

properties like porosity, temperature,

consistence and color. Granular and crumby

types of soil structure provide most suitable soil

physical properties. Soil organic matter

improves the formation of granular type

aggregates in soil. Decomposition of soil organic

matters produces different organic compounds

having sticky, cementing and binding

properties which bind the soil separates

together forming soil aggregates (Tisdall and

Oades, 1982).

Soils containing high amount of organic matter

possesses high porosity because of good


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

aggregate formation (Carter and Stewart, 1996).

High porosity facilitates good aeration in soil. In

the decomposition process of organic matter in

soil, CO is generated which consequently 2

increases the concentration of CO in soil. There 2

is a positive co-relation between CO 2

concentration in soil and microbial activity.

High microbial activity may increase the

availability of nutrients to plants. Soils having

high amount of organic matter show the colour

variation from black to dark brown (Peverill et

al., 1999). Soil color directly modifies the soil

temperature e.g. dark colored soils absorb more

heat than light colored soil (Baldock and

Nelson, 1999). In the hills, where temperature

is very low for mineralization of nutrient, the

black color could helps in mineralization

process by increasing the soil temperature.

Soil organic matter plays an important role in

the retention of capillary water in soil (Mapa

and de Silva, 1994). The capillary water is only

the available water for plant. The presence of

organic matter in soil increases the percentage

of pore spaces and consequently increases the

capillary water holding capacity of a soil

(Khaleel et al., 1981; Haynes and Naidu, 1998).

Organic matter influences the aggregation as

well as formation of soil structure which affects

the amount of capillary water. Humus, a

decomposed product of organic matter, has a

greater capacity for holding water especially

capillary water. Organic matter also helps to

maintain a high proportion of macropores in

soils which increases the saturated flow of

water. Soil water losses through percolation and

evaporation can also be minimized by using

mulch of organic matter.

Soil organic matter exhibits an interesting effect

upon soil plasticity. Organic matter has a high

adsorption capacity for water. Thus, the

addition of organic matter to soil may be

expected to extend the zone of friability to fairly

high moisture contents. Organic matter also

reduces cohesion, stickiness in soil containing

higher amounts of clay. Soil temperature is the

most important environmental factor

influencing the biological processes and

microbial activity. Those soils which contains

high amount of mineral matter get heated very

easily than those have higher amount of organic

matter. In a dark color soil where color is caused

by large amounts of humus, the larger amount of

water held by the humus, may affect the

increased heat absorption due to dark color.

3. Effect of soil organic matter on biological

properties of soil: The number of soil microbes like bacteria, fungi

and actinomycetes in soil may be a good

indicator of soil biological properties. Both

population and activity of soil microorganism

depend upon the source of energy rich materials

(Ingham, 2000). The soil organic matter is the

energy source for most of the soi l

microorganisms Baldock and Nelson (1999).

The absence of such material in soil not only

reduces the microbial activity but also reduces

their population. Unavailable form of nutrient

made available to the plants by soil

microorganism. The soil microorganisms are

agents in a number of biological transformations

in soil through various types of biochemical

reactions viz. hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction

etc (Brady, 2005). These reactions are catalyzed

by enzymes which are known as soil enzymes,

produced as a result of activities of

microorganism. Increasing the amount of

microorganism, microbial population and its

activity enhances the production of soil

enzymes which will ultimately increase the

biochemical reaction and also improve the

availability of nutrients to the plants. Soil

organic matter also supplies polysaccharides

(long chain sugar) which help in the genesis of

good soil structure (Elliot and Lynch, 1984).

IJAS 2014 • 221


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4. Effect of soil organic matter on soil fertility:Macronutrient: Soil fertility is defined as the ability of soil to

supply nutrients for plant growth. The effect of

soil organic matter on availability of various

essential nutrients is described herein. Nitrogen

is stand alone nutrient for all plants which play

role in the formation of protein, enzyme, nucleic

acid, RNA and DNA. Organic matter is the main

source of soil nitrogen. A major portion of

nitrogen (more than 95-99 % of total) in soils

occurs in organic combination (Duxbury et al.,

1989; Baldock and Nelson, 1999). Soil organic

matter contains about 5% nitrogen and during a

single growing season 1-4% of organic nitrogen

is mineralized to inorganic nitrogen. Hence, soil

and crop management practices that conserve or

increase soil organic matter can make greater

contribution of mineralizable nitrogen and

nitrogen availability to crops. Nitrogen

mineralization is the conversion of organic

nitrogen (unavailable forms) to inorganic

ni t rogen (avai lable forms) . Nitrogen

mineralization is highly influenced by C/N ratio

of organic matter. A C/N ratio of organic matter of

approximately 20:1 is the dividing line between

immobilization and mineralization. Organic

matter which have C/N ratio >20:1, is

detrimental as high C/N ratio means less of

nitrogen availability to plants even if they are

present in organic matter conversely when C/N

ratio<20:1, mineralization will take place and

more N will be available for plant. Hence, use of

organic matter having lower C/N ratio for

quicker availability of nitrogen to plants, is

essential and in fact, understanding C/N ratio of

organic matter is important as it determines

quality of organic matter.

Phosphorus is the second most important

nutrient for proper plant growth and

development after N. A good supply of

phosphorus is associated with increased root

growth. A major proportion of P (20-75% of

total) in soils occurs in organic compounds

(Baldock and Nelson, 1999). The phosphorus

content of soil organic matter ranges from 1.0-

3.0%. The quantity of organic phosphorus in

soils generally increases with increasing organic

carbon. In general, phosphorus mineralization

and immobilization are similar to those of

nitrogen. The C/P ratio of the organic matter

regulates the predominance of phosphorus

mineralization over immobilization. C/P ratio

when <200:1, net mineralization of organic

phosphorus occurs but when it is >300:1, net

immobilization of inorganic phosphorus occurs.

No gain or loss of inorganic phosphorus at C/P

ratio 200-300. During decomposition of organic

matter, various organic acids are produced

which solubilize phosphates and other

phosphate bearing minerals and thereby lower

phosphate fixation. Organic compounds in soils

increase phosphorus availability by (1) the

formation of organophosphate complexes that

are easily assimilated by plants, (2) anion

replacement of H PO - on adsorption sites, (3) 2 4

the coating of Fe/Al oxides by humus to form a

protective cover and reduce adsorption and (4)

increasing the quantity of organic P mineralized

to inorganic phosphorus.

Potassium does not participate directly in

formation of organic compound present in plant

but it plays important role in photosynthesis,

respiration, chlorophyll development, water

balance in plant body and inorganic catalyst in

various processes. Potassium in organic waste

(manures and sewage sludge) occurs

predominantly as soluble inorganic K.

Therefore, waste material can supply sufficient

quantities of plant available K. Although organic

matter is not directly related with availability of

K to plants but it can improve the K availability

by conserving soil moisture, increasing soil

temperature, soil aeration and by optimizing soil

pH by buffering capacity of organic matter. 2+ 2+ +

Cations such as Ca , Mg and K are produced

during decomposition ((Brady and Weil, 2005)

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Ca is essential for cell elongation & division and

calcium deficiency manifests itself in the failure

of terminal buds of shoots and apical tips of roots

to develop which inhibits plant growth. In

acidic soil, calcium is not readily available to

plant at low saturation. In this situation, animal

and municipal wastes can become an excellent

source of calcium. Magnesium plays an

important role in the synthesis of chlorophyll

molecules as it is core element of chlorophyll.

Increasing soil organic matter concentrations

increases the exchangeable cation capacity and

improves the magnesium supply available for

plant uptake (Mayland and Wilkinson,

1989).The organically complexed magnesium is

an important source of magnesium in some soils

(Mathan and Rao, 1982) Mg content in animal

and municipal wastes is similar to S content and

can therefore be used to supply sufficient

magnesium. Sulphur is the fourth most

important nutrient. It is essential for the

synthesis of the sulphur containing amino acids

cystine, cystiene, methionine which is essential

compounds of protein. The major source of

sulphur under natural condition is the organic

matter. In temperate region more than 95.0 % of

the total sulphur in soil is present in the organic

matter. Most animal and municipal wastes

contain sufficient quantities of plant available

sulphur. Similar to nitrogen and phosphorus,

sulphur mineralization is also affected by C/S

ratio. A C/S ratio at or below 200:1 is suitable for

S mineralization and above than this,

immobilization of sulphur takes place. Hence,

narrow C/S ratio is essential for rapid

mineralization of S otherwise temporary S

deficiency may occur.

MicronutrientsIron is essential component of all those enzymes

in which haem group is present. Addition of

organic matter to well drained soils can improve

Fe availability. Organic materials such as

manure, may supply chelation agents that add in

maintaining the solubility of micronutrients.

Improved structure of fine textured soil

resulting from applications of organic manures

should also increase Fe availability because of

better soil aeration. Zn is involved in the

production of auxins which are growth

regulating substances in plant. Organic matter is

the major source/reservoir of plant available

zinc. Application of organic manure could

provide sufficient plant available Zn. The

primary benefit of organic matter application is

increased natural chelation properties that

increase Zn concentration in soil solution and

plant availability. The amount of organic matter

found in soils affects the bioavailability of Zn

(Del Castilho et al., 1993).

Copper controls the water relation in plant.

Copper ion forms strong coordination

complexes with organic matter (Stevenson,

1991). Hence, Cu is often predominantly found

bound to the organic matter fraction in the soil

and soil organic matter can be the most

important soil factor in determining Cu

bioavailability.

Availability of Mn can be strongly influenced by

reaction with organic matter. Application of

natural organic materials such as peat moss,

compost and wheat clover straw has increased

the solution and available Mn. Manganese tends

to form weak coordination complexes with

organic matter (McBride, 1982).

Boron is considered as an essential element for

plant growth and development (Waqar et al.,

2009 and Marschner, 1995). Boron is one of the

most important micronutrient for tea plant

because its deficiency directly affects the

economic part (growing tip) of the tea. Boron is

required by plants for proper development and

differentiation of tissues, particularly the

growing tips. It also enhances cellular activity

such as cell division, differentiation and

maturation. The greater availability of B in

IJAS 2014 • 223


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

surface soils compared with subsurface soil is

related to the presence of greater quantities of

soil organic matter in surface soil. Boron added

to soils remains soluble and up to 85% could be

leached from sandy soils having low-organic

matter content. Such losses could be checked by

application of organic matter because

association of boron with organic matter

prevents its leaching and results in its

accumulation in the surface soils. Molybdenum

is an essential constituent of enzyme

nitrogenase. Molybdenum availability also

positively affected by organic matter

application. Average applications rates of

organic matter will provide sufficient plant

available molybdenum.

5. Effect of soil organic matter on soil erosion: Soil conservation is essential for long term

sustainability. Organic matter increases the

ability of soil to resist erosion. Soil erosion

simply refers to detachment and transportation

of soil particles from one place to another place.

There are various type of soil erosion namely

water erosion, wind erosion and wave erosion.

Among erosions, water erosion is a serious

problem in Darjeeling conditions. Soil erosion

may be called as “creeping death”. It causes loss

of soil, change of soil texture, loss of nutrients,

silting up of reservoirs, frequent flooding, loss of

crops and soil pollution. Soil erosion can be

controlled by using organic matter, covering of

soil during rainy season Debarba and Amado

(1997). Such organic mulches help to control

soil erosion by two ways, first is by prevention of

direct fall of raindrops on soil surface and

second by improving the physical properties of

soil after decomposition of organic matter (FAO,

1995). Crop residue mulches are economical,

effective and widely used. Other than organic

matter not a single material is available which

can nourish the soil in such broad way.

6. Soil and soil organic matter management

strategies for improving soil health

sustainability: l Soil samples should be collected and

analyzed as per recognized soil fertility

analytical procedures to have accurate soil

fertility information for each field

management unit.

l Estimate yield potential for each field based on

soil productivity and intended management

and then fixed up the yield target.

l Work out the plant nutrient needs to achieve

the pre-set yield target. Nutrient uptake and

removal data for common crops are

available from various sources. It is

important to distinguish between nutrient

removal/uptake by the target crop, or the

physical displacement of the nutrients from

the field through the crop harvest.

l Determine the amount of the nutrients to be

supplied through organics. The best method

is to sample the manures to be used in the

field. Determine accurately the nutrient

contents of the manure and the nutrient

release patterns.

l Decide the doses of the nutrients to be

supplied through fertilizers considering

indigenous nutrient supply. Keep record of

the nutrient sources, their rate, method and

time of application.

l Use plants residues as complimentary

source of plant nutrients.

l Grow suitable green manure crops like

Guatemala, Crotalaria and Stylosanthes etc.

in the vacant spaces of the tea field.

l Ensure retention of pruning litters and

shade tree droppings in the field which after

decomposition provides considerable

amount of essential nutrients to the plants.

l Use both bulky and concentrated organic

manure which help to maintain C: N ratio of

soil organic matter.

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l Using suitable biofertilizers to improve

availability of the soil locked nutrients.

l Utilization of industrial wastes with proper

treatment to convert them into organic

manures.

l Use leguminous crops for green manuring

because it requires less amount of water and

also add nitrogen by symbiotic nitrogen

fixation and by biomass production as

compared to non-leguminous crops.

l Keep the soil always covered to avoid the

direct exposure of the soil to radiation

which induces the loss of soil moisture and

accelerate the decomposition of added as

well as native soil organic matter.

l Oil cakes should be well- powered before

application, so that they can be spread

evenly and are easily decomposed by

microorganism.

l Do not broadcast the organic manures, apply

through ring placement method.

l Fertilizer recommendations should be

followed, but always taking into account the

actual condition of the crop.

l Where inorganic fertilizer is required,

carefully placed compound fertilizer under

the tea canopy is likely to give the most

efficient utilization by the growing crop.

l Use leguminous species shade trees which

will help to improve biological Nitrogen

fixation and availability to the plant.

l Avoid application of fertilizer in heavy rainy

season.

l Since tea cultivation in Darjeeling is mostly

depending on rainfall, no irrigation facilities

are available hence; water harvesting and

conservation of soil moisture practices

should be followed.

l Maintain permanent soil covering

particularly in monsoon season to avoid soil

and nutrient losses.

l Minimize water loss by drainage.

l Avoid green manure or intercropping crops

with high water requirements in a low water

availability region like Darjeeling.

l Follow scientific recommendation for

drainage construction.

l Harvest water in situ by digging catch pits,

crescent bunds across the slope.

l Soil erosion is one of the major reasons for

decline in agricultural productivity

especially in high rainfall and high slope

areas like Darjeeling.

l High slope tea soil is particularly vulnerable

to soil and nutrient erosion at the time of

replanting and after pruning. Hence, special

care should be taken during replanting and

in pruning years.

l Use mulches of tea pruning and other

mulches, including litter from Guatemala

and crotalaria etc to avoid soil erosion.

l Soil for nursery should be taken from areas

to be planted so that soil is returned to the

field during planting.

l Construct drains to avoid rapid flows which

cause erosion, using stones at vulnerable

corners and planting grass along the sides to

hold the soil.

CONCLUSIONKeeping these immense roles of soil organic

matter in the improvement/nourishment of

chemical, physical and biological properties of

the soil and plant in view it is suggested to

maintain optimum level of soil organic matter

by applying appropriate organic manures in the

soil to ensure adequate supply of essential plant

nutrients to the tea plant and also to combat the

global warming. Hence, sustainability in the

soil health, productivity and environmental

safety could be achieved by maintaining the soil

organic matter content in the soils.

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REFERENCES1. Annonymous. 2008. Field Management in

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VARIABILITY AMONG THE Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. ISOLATES FROM SOUTHERNKARNATAKA

Jabbar Sab, A. Nagaraja, Mallikarjun and Manu T. G.

Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-560065

INTRODUCTIONSclerotium rolfsiiis a devastating soil-borne

plant pathogenic fungus with a wide host range

(Aycock 1966, Punja 1988). The fungus was

placed in the form genus Sclerotium by

Saccardo (Saccardo 1913), as it forms

differentiated sclerotia and sterile mycelia.

Although there are several other Sclerotium

producing fungi, the fungi characterized by

small tan to dark-brown or black spherical

sclerotia with internally differentiated rind,

cortex, and medulla were placed in the form

genus Sclerotium (Punja and Rahe 1992).

However, the teleomorphic state was

discovered later (Punja 1988), confirming that

the fungus was a basidiomycete. Sclerotium

rolfsiiusually causes collar rot, but spotted leaf

rot with a single tiny Sclerotium in the center

has also been reported (Singh and Pavgi 1965).

Geographical variability among S. rolfsii

populations was demonstrated by earlier

workers (Harltonet al. 1995, Nalimet al. 1995,

Okabe et al. 1998). Studies of variability within

the population in a geographical region are

important because these also document the

changes occurring in the population. The

purpose of the present study was to understand

the morphological variability of Sclerotium in

southern Karnataka.

ABSTRACT

Thirteen isolates of Sclerotium rolfsii were collected from different districts in southern

Karnataka. The morphological variability among the isolates varied colony diameter ranged

from 1.35 (SrMR) to 2.72 cm (SrHC and SrBSn) at 24 h, 4.42 (SrMR) to 6.77 cm (SrHC and

SrBSn) at 48 h and 8.83 (SrDF) to 9cm at 72 h.The colony colour varied from pure white to

dull white and the topography was fluffy to flat type. Concentric circles in colonies were thpresent in case of three isolates. Sclerotial initiation also varied significantly from 5 day

th13 day, the shape of sclerotia was round in shape except two isolates. Sclerotial number

among the isolates varied from 81(SrBSn) to 459 (SrBR), diameter of sclerotia varied from

1.05 mm (SrBR) to 2.11 mm (SrMW), test weight of sclerotia was more in SrBSn(136 mg).

Among the liquid media, carrot broth showed maximum dry mycelial weight (429 mg),

sclerotial production was more in oat meal extract broth (627).

No. of Pages: 8 No. of Tables : 4 No. of Plates: 1 References: 17

Keywords: Variability, Sclerotiumrolfsii, Morphology.



Research Paper


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

MATERIALS AND METHODS Sclerotium rolfsii infected specimens were

collected from 13 different crops and regions.

The host species were ragi from Bangalore,

Mandya and Tumkur; chickpea from Bangalore

and Hiriyur; groundnut and sunflower from

Bangalore; tomato, onion and Cyperus from

Hiriyur; wheat from Mandya; soybean and field

bean from Dharwad. From these specimens the

causal organism was isolated by following

standard tissue isolation method and was

designated as shown in table 1.

Isolation of the fungusThe part of collar region showing typical

symptoms of the disease was cut into small

pieces. Then these pieces were surface

sterilized with 1% sodium hypochlorite

solution for one minute. Such pieces were

washed thoroughly in sterile distilled water

three times to remove the traces of sodium

hypochlorite solution, and then aseptically

transferred to sterilized potato dextrose agar

(PDA) plates. They were incubated at 27±1°C

for three days for growth of the fungus.

Morphological variabilityThe experiment was conducted in order to

study the variation in the morphological

characters of different isolates of S. rolfsii. For

this, 15 ml of potato dextrose agar was poured

into Petri plates. Mycelial disc from seven day

old culture of the respective isolates was placed

at the center of the plate. Three replications

were maintained at room temperature (27±1°C)

for three days and colony characters like

diameter, pigmentation, radial growth and

concentric rings were recorded. To get matured

sclerotial bodies, the cultures were further

incubated up to thirty days. For each isolate,

diameter of ten sclerotial bodies per replication

was recorded with the help of MOTIC IMAGES

software and observations were statistically

analyzed. The total number of sclerotia

Table 1: Isolates of Sclerotiumrolfsii and designations used for them.

Place Host Designation of isolates

Bangalore Ragi SrBR

Bangalore Chickpea SrBC

Bangalore Groundnut SrBG

Mandya Ragi SrMR

Mandya Wheat SrMW

Hiriyur Chickpea SrHC

Hiriyur Onion SrHO

Hiriyur Tomato SrHT

Hiriyur Cyperus SrHCr

Dharwad Soybean SrDS

Dharwad field bean SrDF

Tumkur Ragi SrTR

Bangalore Sunflower SrBSn

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produced per plate, test weight of 100 sclerotia

and shape of sclerotia of individual isolate were

also recorded and analyzed statistically.

Cultural variabilityThe growth characters of S. rolfsiiwere studied

on ten liquid media viz.,

1. Basal broth

2. Carrot broth

3. Corn meal broth

4. Host leaf extract broth

5. Malt extract broth

6. Oat meal extract broth

7. Potato dextrose broth

8. Rose Bengal broth

9. Sabouraud's broth

10. Yeast extract broth

Twenty ml of each of the medium was poured in

100 ml conical flasks. Such flasks were

inoculated with 5 mm disc cut from the

periphery of actively growing culture and

incubated at 27±1°C. Each treatment was

replicated thrice. Observations were taken 10

days after inoculation. The dry mycelial weight

was recorded by averaging the mycelial weight

of three replications.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONMorphological characters of 13 different

isolates of S. rolfsiiwere studied on potato

dextrose agar and observations were recorded.

The characters like radial growth, colony

colour, mycelial characteristics, shape and

number of sclerotial bodies per plate and test

weight of sclerotial bodies were recorded.

Variation in colony diameter was observed

(Table 3) that was significantly increased from

24 to 72 hours of incubation.

IJAS 2014 • 231

Table 2: Morphological characters of Sclerotiumrolfsii isolates on PDA.

Sl. Isolate Mycelia Growth Growth Distribution Days to ColonyNo. colour pattern rhythms of mycelia sclerotia diameter

growth initiation at 48 hover PDA

1 SrBR Pure white Fluffy Absent Irregular 5th day 5.50

2 SrBC Pure white Fluffy Present Thin 7th day 6.27

3 SrBG Pure white Fluffy Present Thick 13th day 5.47

4 SrMR Dull white Flat Absent Irregular 5th day 4.42

5 SrMW Dull white Fluffy Absent Thin 5th day 6.45

6 SrHC Pure white Fluffy Absent Thick 5th day 6.77

7 SrHO Cottony Cottony Absent Irregular 8th day 6.28white white

8 SrHT Pure white Fluffy Absent Irregular 7th day 5.98

9 SrHCr Pinkish white Fluffy Absent Thick 7th day 5.25

10 SrDS Dull white Fluffy Absent Irregular 5th day 6.53

11 SrDF Pure white Fluffy Present Thin 10th day 5.15

12 SrTR Pure white Fluffy Absent Thick 6th day 5.95

13 SrBSn Pure white Fluffy Absent Thin 9th day 6.77


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IJAS 2014 • 232

At 48 h the maximum colony diameter was 6.77

cm in SrBSn and SrHC isolates followed SrDS

(6.53cm), SrMW (6.45cm), SrHO (6.28cm),

SrBC (6.27cm), SrHT (5.98cm) and SrTR

(5.95cm) that were on par with each other.

Minimum colony diameter was recorded in

SrMR (4.42 cm) followed by SrDF (5.15 cm) and

SrHCr (5.25cm) that were on par with each other

however, SrBR (5.50cm) and SrBG (5.47cm)

isolate fell in between others. Initially the

growth of S. rolfsii was slow but significantly

increased after 24 hours of incubation and

maximum colony diameter reached after 72

hours of incubation.

Variation was also found with respect to colour

of the mycelium, eight isolates viz.,SrBC, SrBR,

SrBG, SrHC, SrHT, SrDF, SrTR and SrBSn

showed pure white colour, but SrMR, SrMW

and SrDS appeared dull white. Isolate SrHO

showed cottony white colony, whereas SrHCr

appeared pinkish white in colour (Table 3).

Table 3: Sclerotial characters of Sclerotium rolfsii isolates.

Sl. Isolate Distribution Shape Colour No. per Test weight Diameter ofNo. over PDA plate of 100 sclerotia

sclerotia (mm) (mg)

1 SrBC All over Round Brown 342 45 1.05

2 SrHT Periphery Round Dark brown 205 66 1.85

3 SrBSn All over Irregular Light brown 81 136 1.12

4 SrHC Periphery Round Brown 238 90 1.10

5 SrBG All over Round Brown 173 108 2.11

6 SrTR All over Round Brown 313 44 1.11

7 SrDS Periphery Round Brown 319 47 1.91

8 SrDF All over Round Brown 255 74 1.22

9 SrBR All over Round Dark brown 459 67 1.44

10 SrHCr All over Round Brown 308 37 1.11

11 SrMR All over Round Brown 375 78 1.35

12 SrMW Periphery Round Dark brown 221 58 1.34

13 SrHO All over Irregular Light brown 282 80 1.73

SEm+ 0.02

CD(P 0.01) 0.07

CV (%) 2.00

Distribution of mycelium on Petri plates was

also varied. Isolates SrBC, SrMW, SrDF and

SrBSn had thin colony distribution, whereas

other four isolates viz., SrBG, SrHC, SrTR and

SrHCr had thick colony distribution. Isolates

SrBR, SrHT, SrDS, SrMR and SrHO showed

irregular colony distribution.

For characters like growth pattern, the isolates

SrBC, SrBR, SrBG, SrHT, SrHCr, SrDS, SrDF,

SrTR, SrBSn, SrMW and SrHC showed fluffy

colony, isolate SrMR appeared flat and SrHO

showed cottony white growth. With respect to

production of growth rhythms, SrBG and SrDF

showed presence of concentric circle and all

other isolates didn't exhibit concentric circles.


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 233

The period of sclerotial initiation was also

different. The isolates SrBR, SrMR, SrMW, SrDS thand SrHC initiated sclerotia on 5 day after

thincubation whereas SrTR started on 6 day.

Isolates SrHCr, SrBC and SrHT started forming thsclerotia on 7 day after incubation and the

isolate SrHO started forming sclerotial bodies a thday later (8 day after incubation). SrBSn isolate

thshowed initiation of sclerotial bodies on 9 day

whereas; SrDF and SrBG isolates started it on th th

10 and 13 day of incubation respectively.

With respect to colour of the sclerotia, the

isolates viz.,SrBC, SrBG, SrMR, SrHC, SrHCr,

SrDS, SrDF and SrTR produced brown colored

sclerotia whereas isolates SrBR, SrMW and

SrHT produced dark brown sclerotia. The

isolates SrBSn and SrHO produced light brown

colouredsclerotia.

Plate 1: Growth of Sclerotiumrolfsii isolates on PDALegend:SrMR: Mandyaragi SrDS: Dharwad soybeanSrBR: Bangalore ragi SrBSn: Bangalore sunflower SrDF: Dharwad field bean SrBG: Bangalore groundnutSrHO: Hiriyur onion SrHC: Hiriyur chickpeaSrMW: Mandya wheat SrBC: Bangalore chickpeaSrHCr: HiriyurCyperus SrTR: TumkurragiSrHT: Hiriyur tomato


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

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Number of sclerotia produced per plate was also

varied. While the isolates SrBR produced the

highest number (459), the least number of

sclerotia were produced by SrBSn (81) isolate

on PDA. Other isolates SrMR (375), SrBC (342),

SrDS (319), SrTR (313), SrHCr (308), SrHO

(282), SrDF (255), SrHC (238), SrMW (221),

SrHT (205) and SrBG (173) fell in between.

As regards the distribution of sclerotia over the

plate, the isolates SrMW, SrHT and SrDS formed

the sclerotial bodies at the periphery of the Petri

plate and all the other isolates viz.,SrBR, SrBC,

SrBG, SrMR, SrHCSrHO, SrHCr, SrDF and SrTR

formed sclerotial bodies all over the plate.

With respect to shape of sclerotia, all the isolates

viz.,SrBR, SrBC, SrBG, SrHT, SrMR, SrHC,

SrHCrSrDF, SrTR and SrMW produced round

sclerotia, except SrHO and SrBSn which

produced sclerotia of irregular shape (Table 4). With respect to the diameter of sclerotia, the

isolate SrMW produced bigger sclerotia

(2.11mm) whereas smaller sized sclerotia were

produced by SrBR (1.05 mm) followed by

SrMR(1.10), SrDS (1.11mm) and SrHC

(1.11mm) which were on par with each other.

Isolates SrHO (1.91mm), SrBC (1.85mm),

SrBSn (1.73mm), SrHCr (1.44mm), SrDF

(1.35mm), SrTR (1.34mm), SrHT (1.22) and

SrBG (1.12mm) which fell in between(1.12-1.91

mm) were significantly different in their

sclerotial diameter.

Cultural variabilityThe experiment was conducted as explained in

'Material and Methods' in order to find out the

best liquid medium for mycelial growth of the

fungus (SrBC). The average mycelial weight of

the fungus after 10 days of incubation was taken.

Results in the table 8 indicate that the maximum

dry mycelial weight was found in carrot broth

(429 mg), followed by potato dextrose broth (365

mg) and oat meal extract broth (301mg) and they

were on par with one another and significantly

superior over the rest of the liquid media. While

basal and rose Bengal broth did not support the

pathogen growth, in host leaf extract broth (110

mg), followed by Sabouraud's broth (176 mg),

yeast extract broth (185 mg), malt extract broth

(230 mg) and corn meal broth (237 mg) the

growth was minimal and was on par each other.

With respect to number of sclerotia, oat meal extract broth was found to produce more number of sclerotial bodies (627) followed by malt extract broth (596), potato dextrose broth (573), host leaf extract broth (466) and yeast extract broth (241), which were on par with one other. While corn meal broth (223), carrot broth (151) and Sabouraud's broth (37) produced lesser number of sclerotia, basal broth and rose Bengal broth Sclerotiumrolfsii doesn't grow at all.

The colour of sclerotial bodies did not vary much in different media and it was uniformly dark brown in all the media excepting corn meal broth that produced light colouredsclerotial bodies.

Sulladmathet al. (1977), Manjappa (1979), Prabhu (2003), Jyothi (2006), Kulkarni (2007) and Manu (2012) have all reported variation among the isolates of Sclerotiumrolfsii, suggesting that, the variation among isolates depends on soil type, host crop and the environmental factors. However in the present study also as the isolates were collected from different crop hosts across diverse climatic regions of Karnataka the differences were obvious. Several other workers have also documented such variations among the isolates.

The variations among isolates were attributed mainly due to the nutritional status of culture medium (Heniset al., 1965). However as the present studies were carried out on single medium (PDA), the variations in their cultural characters states that, the isolates from different agro climatic regions and crop plants were acclimatized for their natural habitat (Epps et al., 1951; Heniset al., 1965).


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IJAS 2014 • 235

The sclerotial number and colour also varied significantly among the different liquid media. Sclerotial number in different media ranged from 0 (Basal broth and rose Bengal broth) to 627 (oat meal broth). Sulladmathet al. (1977), Manjappa (1979), Prabhu (2003), Basamma (2008) and Manu (2012) have reported the sclerotial number variation in different media, suggesting that, the sclerotial number depends on nutritional factors of the media.

Manu (2012) observed colour variation in

different media as in the present study which

varied from light brown to dark brown.

However in most of the media dark brown

colouredsclerotial bodies were observed. The

sclerotialcolour variation that occurred among

the isolates suggests the effect of nutritional

factors.

Table 3: Sclerotial characters of Sclerotium rolfsii isolates.

Sl. No. Name of the broth Dry mycelial No. of weight (mg) sclerotia/ flask sclerotia

1 Basal broth 0 0 No sclerotia

2 Carrot broth 429 151 Dark brown

3 Corn meal broth 237 223 Light brown

4 Host leaf extract broth 110 466 Dark brown

5 Malt extract broth 230 596 Dark brown

6 Oat meal extract broth 301 627 Dark brown

7 Potato dextrose broth 365 573 Dark brown

8 Rose bengal broth 0 0 No sclerotia

9 Sabouraud’s broth 176 37 Dark brown

10 Yeast extract broth 185 241 Dark brown

SEm+ 47 139

CD (P0.01) 97 395

Colour of

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTThe authors thankful to the PC unit Small

millets and department of plant pathology UAS,

GKVK, Bangalore for their help in various

aspects of my research work and financial

support, is gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES1. Aycock, R. 1966. Stem rot and other diseases

caused by Sclerotium rolfsii. North Carolina

Agri. Exp. St. Tech. Bull 174: 202.

2. Basamma, 2008. Integrated management

of Sclerotium wilt of potato caused by

Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. M.Sc. (Agri.)

Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad, 113pp.

3. Epps, W. M., Patterson, J. C and Freeman,

I. E. 1951. Physiology and parasitism of

Sclerotium rolfsii. Phytopathology 41: 245-

255.

4. Harlton C. E, Le´vesque C. A, Punja Z. K.

1995. Genetic diversity in Sclerotium

( A t h e l i a ) r o l f s i i a n d r e l a t e d

species.Phytopathology 85:1269–1281.

5. Henis, Y., Chet, I. and Hershenzon, Z. A.

1965. Nutritional and mechanical factors


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 236

involved in mycelial growth and

production of sclerotia by Sclerotium

rolfsii in artificial medium and amended

soil. Phytopathology 55: 87-91.

6. Jyothi, K. C. 2006. Morphological and

molecular variability among the isolates of

Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. from different host

plants. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ. Agric.

Sci., Dharwad 77pp.

7. Kulkarni, V. R. 2007. Epidemiology and

integrated management of potato wilt

caused by Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. Ph.D.

Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad 191pp.

8. Manjappa, B. H. 1979. Studies on the

survival and variation in Sclerotium rolfsii

Sacc. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci.,

Bangalore 140 pp.

9. Manu, T. G . 2012 . S tud ies on

Sclerotiumrolfsii (Sacc.) causing foot rot

disease on finger millet M.Sc. (Agri) Thesis,

Univ. Agric. Sci., Bangalore 1-76 pp.

10. Nalim F. A, Starr JL, Woodard K. E, Segner,

S. , Keller N. P. 1995. Mycel ial

compatibility groups in Texas peanut field

populations of Sclerotium rolfsii .

Phytopathology 85:1507–1512.

11. Okabe I, Morikawa C, Matsumoto N,

Yokoyama K. 1998. Variation in

Sclerotium rolfsii isolates in Japan.

Mycoscience 39:399–407.

12. Prabhu, H. V. 2003. Studies on collar rot of

soybean caused Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc.

M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci.,

Dharwad.

13. Punja, Z. K. 1988. Sclerotium (Athelia)

rolfsii, a pathogen of many plant species.

In: Sidhu GS, ed. Genetics of plant

pathogenic fungi. London:Academic Press

6:523–534.

14. Punja, Z. K. and Rahe, J. E. 1992.

Sclerotium. In: Singleton, LL, Mihail JD,

Rush CM, eds. Methods for research on

soil borne phytopathogenic fungi. St. Paul:

APS Press 166–170 pp.

15. Saccardo P. A. 1913. Sclerotium rolfsii.

Sylloge Fungorum XXII. Pavia, Italy

1500pp.

16. Singh, U. P. and Pavgi, M. S. 1965. Spotted

leaf rot of plants, a new sclerotial disease.

Plant Disease, Reptr 49:58-59.

17. Sulladmath, V. V., Hiremath, P. C. and

Anilkumar, T. B. 1977.Studies on

variation in Sclerotium rolfsii. Mysore J.

Agri. Sci11: 374-380.


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

SCOPE, POTENTIAL AND IMPORTANCE OF CARBON SEQUESTRATION THROUGH AGRO-FORESTRY

1 1 1Paramesh, V. , ArunKumar, P. , Akhilesh, K.S. ,

2 2Suresha C.N. and Parameshwar Naik.

1Division of Agronomy, IARI, PUSA, New Delhi

1Department of Dairy Extension, NDRI, Karnal, Haryana1Department of Agricultural Economics, Hisar, Haryana

1Department of Dairy Economics, NDRI, Karnal, Haryana1Department of Dairy Extension, NDRI, Karnal, Haryana

Concept of Carbon sequestration Increasing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide

(CO ) and associated global warming have 2

moved to the center stage of climate change

discussion in the past two decades. While many

dispute the global warming hypothesis,

projected doubling of atmospheric CO by the 2

latter half of the Twenty-first century raises

concerns for everyone. Significant reductions in

the atmospheric CO concentrations can only be 2

achieved with substantial additional costs and

major changes in living standards. Therefore,

adoption of CO reduction strategies are widely 2

debated, not well received, and not agreed upon

ABSTRACT

Agroforestry, the purposeful growing of trees and crops in interacting combinations, began

to attain prominence in the late 1970s, According to the Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change, agroforestry system offer important opportunities of creating synergies

between both adaptation and mitigation actions with a technical mitigation potential of

1.1–2.2 Pg C in terrestrial ecosystems over the next 50 years. Additionally, 630 million ha of

unproductive croplands and grasslands could be converted to agroforestry representing a C

sequestration potential of 0.586 Tg C/yr by 2040 (1 Tg = 1 million tons). The total C storage

in the aboveground and belowground biomass in an AFS is generally much higher than that

in land use without trees (i.e. tree-less croplands) under comparable conditions. Various

agroforestry practices such as alley cropping, silvopasture, riparian buffers, parklands,

forest farming, homegardens, and woodlots, and other similar land use patterns have thus

raised considerable expectations as a C sequestration strategy in both industrialized and

developing countries.

No. of Pages: 7 No. of Tables : 2 References: 9

Keywords: Carbon sequestration, Agroforestry, soil organic carbon, global warming.



Research Paper


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 238

by all nations. The world needs carbon (C)

sequestration techniques that provide social,

environmental, and economic benefits while

reducing atmospheric CO concentration. 2

Carbon sequestrations is the capture and secure

storage of carbon that would otherwise be

emmitted to or remain in the atmosphere. The

idea is to remove carbon in the atmosphere by

various means and storing it in the soil. Soil

Carbon sequestration is thus the process of

transfering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

into the soil through crop residues and other

organic soilids, and in a form that is not

immedietly reemitted. This sequestring of

carbon helps off-set emmissions from fossil fuel

combustion and other carbon emmitting

activities while enhancing soil quality and long

term agronomic productivity.

Maintenance of agricultural systems to

sequester C has been accepted as a partial [4]

solution to climate change . Establishing and

maintaining perennial vegetation to enhance C

sequestration is less costly compared to most

other techniques, and these practices have

minimal environmental and health risks.

Perennial vegetation is more efficient than

annual vegetation as it allocates a higher

percentage of C to below-ground and often [4]

extends the growing season , therefore

enhancing C sequestration potential of

agricultural systems.

Globally, climate negotiations have highlighted

the importance of land use sectors in mitigating

the climate change. Agriculture alone accounts

for 10-12% of the total global anthropogenic

emissions of GHGs with an estimated non-

CO GHG emission of 5120-6116 MtCO eq/yr 2 2

in 2005. Since agricultural lands are often

intensively managed, they offer many

opportunities to improve agronomic

practices, nutrient and water management, land

use practices to fit the land managers

objectives of carbon sequestration. The total

carbon sequestration potential of global

croplands is about 0.75-1Pg/yr or about 50%

of the 1.6-1.8 Pg/yr lost due to deforestation [2]and other agricultural activities .

There is a growing interest in the role of

different types of land use systems in

stabilizing the atmospheric CO 2

concentration and reducing the CO emissions 2

or on increasing the carbon sink of forestry and

agroforestry systems. Forestry has been

recognized as a means to reduce CO emissions 2

as well as enhancing carbon sinks. The role of

forests (or trees) in carbon cycles is well

recognized and forests are a large sink of carbon.

There is considerable interest to increase the

carbon storage capacity of terrestrial vegetation

through land-use pract ices such as

afforestation, reforestation, and natural

regeneration of forests, silvicultural systems

and agroforestry. Agroforestry systems are very

important given the area currently under

agriculture, the number of people who depend

on land for their livelihoods, and the need for

i n t e g r a t i n g f o o d p r o d u c t i o n w i t h

environmental services.

Scope of Agroforestry in carbon sequestrationAgroforestry practices have the potential to

store carbon and remove atmospheric carbon

dioxide through enhanced growth of trees and

shrubs. It has been demonstrated to be a

promising mechanism of carbon sequestration

in India, Mexico, the former Soviet Union,

Canada and sub-Saharan Africa among others.

Carbon sequestration in Indian agroforests −1

varies from 19.56 t C ha per year in north

Indian state of UP to a carbon pool of −1 23.46–47.36 t C ha in tree-bearing arid

agroecosystems of Rajasthan. Average

sequestration potential in agroforestry has been −1estimated to be 25 t C ha over 96 million ha of

land in India. Estimates for global potential for

mit iga t ion act ion through improved


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 239

management have been projected to be between

400 Mha in agroforestry and 1300 Mha in crop

lands to a gross 1895 million ha in Asia, Africa

and Latin America. In general, agroforestry can

sequester carbon at time-averaged rates of –10.2–3.1 t C ha per year. In temperate areas, the

potential carbon storage with agroforestry −1

ranges from 15 to 198 t C ha , with a modal −1

value of 34 t C ha .

Agroforestry offers a cost-effective mitigation

option available in developing countries, such

as India and China, which have large potential

to sequester carbon and provide products and

services to the people. The estimated cost of

mitigation via agroforestry ranges from US$ 1.6 −1 −1

(t C) in India to US$ 16.3 (t C) in China. It

must be noted that these estimates do not

include the opportunity costs of the land, costs

of continuous management of a complex

system, rising wage rates in the tropics, etc.

Taking into consideration all these factors the

private cost of carbon sequestration may be as −1high US$ 100 (t C) . However, compared to

energy alternative (renewable energy, energy

saving and effi ciency, and fuel switch) tree-

growing is still a cost-effective option because of

the secondary social and environmental

benefi ts. Costs vary within the forestry sector for

different region—costliest in developed

countries and least costly in developing [7]countries .

Carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry

systemsAgroforestry, the practice of introducing trees

in farming has played a significant role in

enhancing land productivity and improving

livelihoods in both developed and

developing countries. Although carbon

sequestration through afforestation and

reforestation of degraded natural forests has

long been considered useful in climate

change mitigation, agroforestry offers some

distinct advantages. The planting of trees

along with crops improves soil fertility, controls

and prevents soil erosion; controls water

l o g g i n g , c h e c k s a c i d i f i c a t i o n a n d

eutrophication of streams and rivers, increases

local biodiversity, decreases pressure on natural

forests for fuel and provides fodder for

livestock. It also has the ability to enhance

the resilience of the system for coping with the

adverse impacts of climate change. The

effectiveness of agroforestry systems in storing

carbon depends on both environmental and

socio-economic factors; in humid tropics,

agroforestry systems have the potential to

sequester over 70 Mg/ha in the top 20 cm of

the soil. The carbon storage capacity in

agroforestry varies across species and

geography. Further, the amount of carbon in any

agroforestry system depends on the structure

and function of different components within

the systems put into practice.

The fact that agroforestry systems can function

as both source and sink of carbon and the type of

agroforestry system greatly influences the

source or sink role of the trees. For example,

agrisilvicultural systems where trees and crops

are grown together are net sinks. Practices like

tillage, controlled burning, manuring,

application of chemical fertilizers and frequent

soil disturbance can lead to significant

emissions of GHGs. According to the IPCC

agroforestry systems offer important

opportunities of creating synergies between

both adaptation and mitigation actions with

a technical mitigation potential of 1.1-2.2 PgC

in terrestrial ecosystems over the next 50 years.

Additionally, 630 Mha of unproductive

croplands and grasslands could be converted

to agroforestry representing a carbon

sequestration potential of 391,000 MgC/yr by

2010 and 586,000 MgC/yr by 2040 . The

carbon in the aboveground and belowground

biomass in an agroforestry system is generally

much higher than the equivalent land use

without trees (i.e. crop land without any trees).


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 240

The estimates of potential for carbon storage

in different kinds of agroforestry systems are [5]

provided in Table 1 . In Southeast Asia,

agrisilvicultural systems have the capacity to

store 12-228 MgC/ha in humid tropical lands

and 68-81 MgC/ha in dry lowlands. Highest

potential for carbon storage can be observed

for North American silvipastoral systems with

a range of 90-198 MgC/ha. The potential to

sequester carbon in aboveground components

in agroforestry systems is estimated to be 9 -1 9 2.1×10 MgCyear in tropical and 1.9×10

-1 MgCyear in temperate biomes. Agroforestry

systems can have indirect effects on carbon

sequestration as it helps decrease pressure on

natural forests that are the largest sinks of

terrestrial carbon; they also conserve soils and

thus enhance carbon storage in trees and soils.

Effects of agroforestry practices on the soil carbon

pool indicated a rate of increase by 2-3 MgC/ha/yr.

Estimations of carbon sequestration potential in

various studies report an estimated potential of

6.3GtC and 0.7-1.6 GtC.

Table 1: Carbon storage potential of agroforestry systems in different eco-regions of the world.

Continent Eco region System Potential-1(Mg Cha )

Africa Humid tropical high Agrisilvicultural 29-53

S. America Humid tropical low dry lowlands 39-102, 39-195

S. Asia Humid tropical dry lowlands 12-228, 68-81

Australia Humid tropical low Silvipastoral 28-51

N.America Humid tropical high humid 133-154, 104-198, tropical low dry lowlands 90-175

N. Asia Humid tropical low 15-18

Carbon Stocks in Agroforestry

Systems in IndiaCarbon sequestration in different

agroforestry systems occurs both

belowground, in the form of enhancement

of soil carbon plus root biomass and

aboveground as carbon stored in standing

biomass. Some of the earliest studies of

potential carbon storage in agroforestry systems

and alternative land use systems for India

had estimated a sequestration potential of

68-228 MgC/ha, 25tC/ha over 96 Mha of land.

But this value varies in different regions

depending on the biomass production. Studies

showed that agroforestry could store nearly 83.6

t C/ha up to 30 cm soil depth, 26% more carbon

compared to cultivation in Haryana plains.

However, the magn i tude o f ca rbon

sequestration from forestry activities would

depend on the scale of operation and the final [1]use of wood .

Agrisilvicultural systemsCarbon sequestration in tree biomass: The

estimated species wise annual carbon

sequestration potential of planted tree species

on abandoned agricultural land (3.9 t/ha/yr) and [3]

degraded forest land (1.79 t/ha/yr) . The

highest carbon sequestration was found for

Alnus nepaliensis 0.256 t C/ha/yr and Dalbergia

sissoo0.141 tC/ha/yr intercropped with wheat

and paddy. In a 6 year old Gmelina arborea

based agri-silvicultural system 31.37 t C/ha was

sequestered. In another study the carbon

sequestration in monocropping of trees and

food crops were 40% and 84% less than agri-


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 241

silviculture indicating that agroforestry systems

have more potential to sequester carbon. In an

agri-silvicultural system, Dalbergia sissoo at age

11 years was able to accumulate 48-52 t/ha of

biomass. Carbon dynamics involving different

pruning treatments were studied in an agri-

silvicultural system where tree biomass was

23.61 to 34.49 t C/ha with black gram-mustard.

In a study on poplar based agri-silvicultural

system, total biomass in the system was 25.2

t/ha, 113.6 % higher than sole wheat cultivation,

where net carbon storage was 34.61 t C/ha

compared to 18.74 t C/ha in sole wheat

cultivation. In a system comprising Albizia and

mixed tree species like Mandarin accumulated

1.3 t biomass/ha storing 6939 kg/ha in tree and

crop biomass was reported.

Soil organic carbon enhancement: In a

study conducted on intercropping of trees

with crops, showed an enhancement in SOC

by 33.3 to 83.3% for Populus deltoides and

Eucalyptus hybrid with Cymbopogon sp., with

a greater increase in SOC under Populus

deltoids plantation. Soil organic carbon has

been reported to have improved for agroforestry

plantations ranging in age from 6 years to 20

years. In a Poplar based agroforestry system,

trees could sequester higher soil organic

carbon up to 30cm depth during the first

year of plantation (6.07 t/ha/yr) than in

subsequent years (1.95-2.63 t/ha/yr) with

greater soil carbon storage in sandy clays than

loamy sand. Traditional Prosopis cineraria

based systems lead to a 50% increase in SOC

largely due to leaf litter. An increase in soil

organic carbon status of surface soil by 0.39 to

0.52% under Acacia nilotica+Sacchram munja

a n d 0 . 4 4 t o 0 . 5 5 % u n d e r A c a c i a

nilotica+Eulaliopsis binata after 5 years.

Silvipastoral systemsCarbon sequestration in tree biomass:

Comparative studies shows that biomass

production from natural grassland and

silvipastoral system comprising Albizia

amara, Dichrostachys cinerea and Leucaena

leucocephala as woody perennials with

Chrysopogan fulvus as grass and Stylosanthes

hamata and S. scabra as legume revealed that

in 8 years, rate of biomass carbon stored in

silvipastoral system was 6.72 tC/ha/yr, two

times more than 3.14 tC/ha/yr from natural [6]

grassland . The estimated the total carbon

sequestered in farm forestry with species

such as Eucalyptus sp., Populus deltoides,

Tectona grandis, Anthocephalus chinensis trees [9]to be around 16,400 t/yr . The study shows the

effect of introducing a silvipastoral system in a

natural grassland in semi arid Uttar Pradesh,

where introduced species of Albizia procera,

Eucalyptus tereticornis, Albizia lebbeck,

Embilica officinalis and Dalbergia sissoo

accumulated 8.6, 6.92, 6.52, 6.25 and 5.41

t/ha/yr of biomass. Here, the carbon storage in

the system was 1.89-3.45 tC/ha in

silvipasture and 3.94 tC/ha in pure pasture.

An increase in organic carbon of 1.7 to 2.3 times

in a silvipastoral system involving Leucaenea

l eucocephala , Cenchrus c i l iar i s and

Stylosanthes hamata compared to a control.

Similar studies have reported higher organic

carbon levels in dry sub-humid and arid

ecosystems when grass species are intercropped

with annual crops in a silvipastoral system with

no increase in organic carbon with grasses in an

arid ecosystem. In a silvipastoral system,

carbon flux in net primary productivity

increased due to the integration of Prosopis [8]

juliflora and Dalbergia sissoo with grasses .

CONCLUSIONAgroforestry systems show significant carbon

accumulation in living biomass, as well as soil

carbon, demonstrating the potential to offer the

environmental service of carbon sequestration.

Furthermore, agroforestry systems can

contribute to reducing CO emissions by 2

avoiding burning of forest-based fuel wood and

conserving soil. Besides the potential of


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agroforestry system to accumulate and

sequester carbon, these systems could evolve

into a technological alternative for reducing

deforestation rates in tropical zones while also

offering a wide variety of products and services

to rural communities.

Table 2: Total C storage under agro-forestry systems in different regions of the country.

Region Agroforestry system andComponents Total C storage(t C / ha)

Silvi-pastoral system (age 5 years)

Acacia nilotica + natural pasture

A. nilotica + established pasture

Dalbergia sissoo + natural pasture

D. sissoo + establed pasture

Hardwickia binata + natural pasture

H. binata + established pasture

Silvipastoral system (age 6 years)

Acacia/ Dalbergia/ Prosopis + Desmostacya

Acacia/ Dalbergia / Prosopis + Sporobolus

Block plantation (age 6 years) Emelina arborea

Agri- silvicultural system ( age 8 years)

Emblica officinalis + Vigna radiate

Hardwickia binata + vigna radiate

Colophospermum mopane + Vigna radiata

Agri-silvicultural system (age 11years)

Dalbergia sissoo + crop

Silvi-pastoral system

Agri- horti- pastoral

Horti –pastoral

9.5-17.0

19.7

12.4

17.2

16.2

17.0

6.8-18.5

1.5-12.3

24.1-31.1

12.7 -13.0

8.6 - 8.8

4.7 - 5.3

26.0

2.17

1.15

1.08

Semi- arid region

North- westernIndia

Central India

Arid region(Rajasthan)

Semi–aridRegion

North-western

Himalayas

REFERENCES 1. Jha, M. N., Gupta, M. K. and Raina, A. K.

2001. Carbon Sequestration: Forest soil and

land use management. Annals of Forestry 9:

249-256.

2. Lal, R. And Bruce, J. 2009. The Potential of

World Cropland to Sequester C and Mitigate

the Greenhouse Effect. Environment Science

and Policy. 12: 177-185.

3. Maikhuri, R. K., Semwa, R. L., Rao, K. S.,

Singh, K. and Saxena, K. G. 2004. Growth

and ecological impacts of traditional

agroforestry tree species in Central

Himalaya, India. Agroforestry Systems. 48:

257-272.

4. Morgan, J. A., Follett, R. F., Allen, L. H.,

Grosso, S. D., Derner, J.D., Dijkstra, F.,


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IJAS 2014 • 243

Franzluebbers, A., Fry, R., Paustian, K. and

Schoeneberger, M. M. 2010. Carbon

sequestration in agricultural land of the

United States. Journal of Soil Water

Conservation 65:6–13.

5. Murthy, I. K., Gupta, M., Tomar, S., Munsi,

M., Tiwari, R. 2013. Carbon Sequestration

Potential of Agroforestry Systems in India.

Journal of Earth Science and Climate

Change 4 (1):131-138.

6. NRCAF. 2007. Perspective Plan Vision

2025 National Research Centre for

Agroforestry, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh.

7. Pandey, D.N. 2004. Carbon sequestration

in agroforestry systems, Climate Policy,

4(4): 367-377.

8. Rai, P., Ajit, Chaturvedi, P. O., Singh, R.,

Singh, U. P. 2009. Biomass production in

multipurpose tree species in natural

grasslands under semi arid conditions.

Journal of Tropical forestry. 25: 11-16.

9. Singh, T. P. 2003. Potential of Farm Forestry

in Carbon Sequestration. Indian Forester.

129: 839-843.


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 244

ISSN NO. 0976-450X

MANAGEMENT OF DODDER (CUSCUTA SP.) IN TRANSPLANTED ONION

M B Patil, S S Nooli, A K Guggari and S Y Wali

College of Agriculture, UAS, Dharwad, Bijapur campus, Karnataka

INTRODUCTIONOnion (Allium cepa) is one of the major bulb

crops of India. It is the single most important

vegetable in the world after tomatoes and is

considered as top most export commodity

among vegetables. It is consumed in raw form

and salads regularly in small quantities

comparable with that of hot pepper. The good

ABSTRACT

An experiment was conducted on farmer's field at Muttagi village of Bagewadi Taluka, Bijapur district during rabi 2012-13 and 2013-14 to evaluate the efficacy of pendimethalin and oxadiargyl as a pre-emergence herbicides followed by oxyfluorfen as a post emergence to control the dodder, a parasitic weed in transplanted onion. There were nine treatments consisting of six treatments with pre and post emergence herbicides and were compared with the recommended practice, weedy check and weed free check. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design with three replications. Herbicidal treatments had significant effect on dodder population dynamics and onion bulb yield. Mean results of two years (2012-13 and 2013-14) revealed that, application of pendimethalin 30% EC at 1.0 kg ai/ha followed by sequential application of oxyfluorfen @ 0.25kg ai/ha at 5, 7 and 8 weeks after transplanting has given significantly higher onion bulb weight, bulb yield, weed (dodder) control efficiency (WCE), weed (dodder) control efficiency (WCE), and lower

2dodder population per m , lower % infestation and weed index compared to other treatments except pendimethalin 30% EC at 1.0 kg ai/ha followed by sequential application of oxyfluorfen @ 0.25kg ai/ha at 5 and 7 weeks after transplanting of onion. Application of pendimethalin at 1.0 kg ai/ha followed by sequential application of oxyfluorfen at 0.25 kg ai/ha at 5,7, 8 and 5 & 7 weeks after transplanting were on par with weed free check with regard to WCE and onion bulb yield. Percent area covered by cuscuta at the time of onion harvest was higher in weedy check (52% of the plot) followed by pendimethalin 30EC @ 1 kg a.i./ha as pre-emergence (PE) + one hand weeding at 40 days after transplanting (14.2 %). The least area coverage by cuscuta infestation was in the plots where application of pendimethalin at 1.0 kg ai/ha followed by sequential application of oxyfluorfen at 0.25 kg ai/ha at 5,7, 8 and 5 & 7 weeks after transplanting was accomplished.


Keywords: Dodder, Herbicides, Oxyfluorfen, Sequential, Transplanted onion, Weed Management.



Research Paper


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

storage of dry onion has facilitated the world

wide trade and is always in demand even in the

smallest local markets. Among many causes of

low productivity, onion exhibits greater

susceptibility to weed competition as compared

to other crops due to its inherent characteristics

such as slow growth in the initial stages, short

stature, non-branching habit, sparse foliage and

shallow root system. This favours quick and fast

growth of weeds in the initial stages and

competition thus tends to be severe. Moreover,

use of liberal dose of FYM, fertilizers and

frequent irrigations creates favorable

conditions for weed growth (Rajendra Singh et

al., 1986). Cuscuta chinensis commonly known

as dodder is an obnoxious parasitic weed that

attaches itself to stems and leaves of varieties of

host plant species. After emergence, the

seedlings twine around the leaf or stem of

suitable host plant and through haustoria draw

nutrients from host plants causing drastic

reduction in growth and yield. In recent years,

farmers of northern dry zone of Karnataka who

are growing onion are reporting the incidence of

dodder and difficulty in managing the same.

Hence, to address the problem encountered by

the farmers, an experiment was conducted in

the farmer's field where the incidence was

severe, to evaluate the efficiency of

pendimethalin and oxadiargyl as a pre-

emergence herbicides followed by oxyfluorfen

as a post emergence to control the dodder in

transplanted onion at Muttagi village of

Bagewadi Taluka, Bijapur district during rabi

2012-13 and 2013-14.

MATERIALS AND METHODSAn experiment was conducted on farmer's field

of Muttagi village of Basavan Bagewadi taluka,

Bijapur district during rabi 2012-13 and 2013-

14. The experiment consisted of nine

treatments laid out in a randomized complete

block design (RCBD) with three replications.

The gross plot size was 10.0 m x 5.6 m. Onion

variety - Telgi red was used for experimentation

and 45 days old seedlings were transplanted in

the main experimental field at spacing of 15 cm

x 5 cm the usual practice adopted by the farmers

on raised beds with drip irrigation. Basal dose

of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium were

applied at the rate of 62.5:50:120 kg/ha and top

dressing with urea @ 62.5 kg was done at 6

weeks after transplanting. Pre-emergence

herbicides viz., pendimethalin and oxadiargyl

were sprayed uniformly to each treatment plot

area one day after transplanting of onion. The

post emergence herbicide viz., oxyfluorfen was

applied uniformly after transplanting of onion

as per the treatments. Common cultural and

plant protection measures were taken

uniformly for all the treatments as and when

required. Observations were recorded in each

plot in respect of bulb yield, bulb weight, weed 2index, number of dodder plants / m and %

dodder infestat ion (area covered by 2

dodder/plot). The quadrate of 0.5 m was used to

count the weeds. The data were transformed

and expressed in per square meter. The weed

control efficiency (WCE) was estimated by the

formula given by Mani et al. (1973).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONWeed (dodder) densityAll the weed control treatments significantly

reduced the density of dodder during both the

years compared to weedy check. Significantly

lower weed density was recorded with weed

free check compared to all the treatments.

Among the herbicidal treatments, lower dodder

density was recorded with the application of of

pendimethalin 30% EC at 1.0 kg a.i./ha followed

by sequential application of oxyfluorfen @

0.25kg ai/ha at 5, 7 and 8 or 5 and 7 weeks after

transplanting (WAT) of onion. Sequential

application of oxyfluorfen disturbed the

mitosis, cytokinensis and production of

microtubules on shoot tips and effectively

controlled the dodder (Cuscuta) in onion. 2Significantly higher dodder density 16.7 per m

2 and 169.9 per m was recorded with weedy

IJAS 2014 • 246


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

check at 30 and 60 days after transplanting

respectively compared to all other treatments

(Table 2). Lower infestation of dodder in the

weed management treatments is due to higher

efficacy of pendimethalin when applied as pre

emergence coupled with sequential post

emergence application of oxyfluorfen at 5, 7

and/or 8 weeks after transplanting of onion

which effectively controlled the dodder by

thwarting the germination and emergence of

dodder, that is before the development of

haustoria in the early stages of crop growth.

Dodder grew very vigorously making a mat like

cover over the onion in weedy check resulting in

poor onion bulb yield.

Weed (dodder) control efficiency Weed control efficiency at 30 and 60 days after

transplanting was significantly influenced by

dodder management treatments, where all the

weed management treatments resulted in

increased weed control efficiency over the

weedy check. Significantly higher weed control

efficiency (100%) was recorded with the

application of pendimethalin 30% EC at 1.0 kg

ai/ha followed by sequential application of

oxyfluorfen @ 0.25 kg ai/ha at 5, 7 and 8 weeks

or 5 and 7 weeks after transplanting of onion

which was on par with weed free check (100 %).

The lowest weed control efficiency was

observed with weedy check (Table 1).

IJAS 2014 • 247

Table 1: Weed index and weed control efficiency in Cuscuta at 60 30 and 60 90 DAT as influenced by different weed management practices in transplanted onion.

T Pendimethalin 30% EC @ 1.00 kg a.i. ha-1 1

as pre-emergence (PE) +one hand weeding at 40 days after transplanting (DAT)

T Oxadiargyl 80% WP @ 0.4 kg a.i. ha-1 as 2

pre-emergence (PE) fol lowed by Oxyfluorfen 23.5% EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5 and 7 weeks after transplanting ( WAT)


as pre-emergence (PE) followed by Oxyfluorfen 23.5% EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5 weeks after transplanting ( WAT)


pre emergence (PE) followed by Oxyfluorfen 23.% EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5 weeks after transplanting


as pre-emergence (PE) followed by Oxyfluorfen 23.5%EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5, 7 and 8 weeks after transplanting ( WAT)


pre emergence (PE) followed by

6.5 15.5 11 82 61 72 98 98 98

6.2 12.5 9 62 63 63 97 99 98

4.6 11.6 8 85 83 84 98 98 98

5.2 16.9 11 78 81 80 96 96 96

0.0 1.4 1 83 83 83 100 100 100

7.2 14.7 11 72 74 73 98 98 98

Weed control efficiency (%)

TreatmentsTr. No.

30 DAT

2012 2012 20122013 2013 2013Poo-led

Poo-led

Poo-led

60 DAT


Weed index (%)

ISSN NO. 0976-450X

Weed indexWeed index differed significantly due to

different weed management practices.

Significantly lower weed index was recorded in

weed free check compared to all other weed

management treatments (Table-1). Among the

herbicidal treatments, pendimethalin at 1.0 kg

ai/ha followed by sequential application of

oxyfluorfen at 0.25 kg ai/ha at 5,7 and 8 weeks

after transplanting of onion recorded

significantly lower weed index (1.0%) than

weedy check, and it was comparable with

pendimethalin at 1.0 kg ai/ha followed by

sequential application of oxyfluorfen at 0.25 kg

ai/ha at 5 & 7 weeks after transplanting. Weedy

check recorded significantly higher weed index

(29.0%) compared to all other treatments.

Onion bulb yield and weight The bulb yield of onion was significantly higher

(35.83 t/ha) in weed free check over other

treatments (Table 3). The weedy check recorded

significantly lower bulb yield (25.78 t/ha). The

reduction in bulb yield is due to the presence of

weeds throughout the crop growth period & it

was to the tune of 28.0%. Similarly, Khurana et

al. (1985) noticed 54 per cent yield reduction

and Singh et al. (1985) noticed 40.2 to 74.9 per

cent reduction in bulb yield due to uncontrolled

weed growth. Among the different herbicidal

weed management practices, significantly

higher onion bulb yield (35.74 t/ha) was

recorded in pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha (PE)

fb oxyfluorfen @0.25 kg a.i./ha (POE) at 5,7 and

8 WAT compared to other treatments and

weedy check, however, it was on par with

pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha (PE) fb

oxyfluorfen @0.25 kg a.i./ha (POE) at 5 and 7

WAT (33.77 t/ha). The increase in bulb yield in

pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg a.i. /ha (PE) fb

oxyfluorfen @ 0.25 kg a.i/ha (POE) at 5, 7 and 8

WAT over weedy check and other treatments

was to an extent of 3.6 to 28.0 per cent. However,


oxyfluorfen @ 0.25 kg a.i./ha (POE) at 5 and 7

WAT was on par and recorded significantly

higher bulb yield over other treatments. Similar

results were obtained by Kathiresan et al.

(2004). The higher bulb yield in weed free check

was attributed to weed free environment

provided by regular weeding throughout the

crop growth period and no competition by

weeds for growth resources. Among the

herbicidal treatments, significantly higher bulb

yield in pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg a.i./ ha (PE) fb oxyfluorfen @ 0.25 kg a.i/ha (POE) at 5 ,7 ,8 and

5 and 7 WAT was attributed to the higher

efficacy of the repeated application of post

emergence herbicide for effective control of

dodder during the critical period of the crop

growth resulting in the better availability of

IJAS 2014 • 248

Oxyfluorfen 23.5% EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5, 7, 8 weeks after transplanting

T Pendimethalin 30% EC @ 1.00 kg a.i. ha-7

1 as pre-emergence (PE) followed by Oxyfluorfen 23.5% EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5 and 7weeks after transplanting

T Weedy check8

T Weed free check9

S.Em.±

C.D. (0.05)

0.7 5.8 3 82 80 81 100 100 100

24.4 33.1 29 0 0 0 0 0 0

0.0 0.0 0 100 100 100 100 100 100

2.23 2.73 1.8 8.4 4.9 5.4 0.18 0.21 0.19

4.73 5.80 3.9 17.7 10.3 11.5 0.39 0.45 0.40

DAT – Days after transplanting PE – Pre-emergent POE – Post-emergent


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

moisture and nutrients for crop growth and bulb

development. These results are in agreement

with the findings of Channappagoudar et al.

(2001).

IJAS 2014 • 249

Table 2: Cuscuta weed population per m2 area and infestation per plot at different growth stages as influenced by different weed management practices in transplanted onion.


as pre-emergence (PE) +one hand weeding at 40 days after transplanting (DAT)


pre-emergence (PE) fo l lowed by Oxyfluorfen 23.5% EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5 and 7 weeks after transplanting ( WAT)


as pre-emergence (PE) followed by Oxyfluorfen 23.5% EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5 weeks after transplanting ( WAT)


pre emergence (PE) followed by Oxyfluorfen 23.% EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5 weeks after transplanting


as pre-emergence (PE) followed by Oxyfluorfen 23.5%EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5, 7 and 8 weeks after transplanting ( WAT)


pre emergence (PE) followed by Oxyfluorfen 23.5% EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5, 7, 8 weeks after transplanting


as pre-emergence (PE) followed by Oxyfluorfen 23.5% EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5 and 7weeks after transplanting

T Weedy check8

T Weed free check9

S. Em±

CD (0.05)

1.81 2.54 2.18 2.00 2.01 2.01 14.2(3.4) (6.01) (4.70) (3.6) (3.6) (3.6)

2.47 2.45 2.46 2.26 1.68 1.97 7.5(5.6) (5.49) (5.6) (4.6) (2.3) (3.5)

1.65 1.70 1.68 2.00 2.08 2.04 4.5(2.2) (2.43) (2.30) (3.5) (3.8) (3.7)

1.81 1.791.80 2.55 2.56 2.56 3(2.9) (2.73) (2.8) (6.10) (6.1) (6.10)

1.72 1.79 1.79 0.90 1.17 1.04 1.0(2.7) (2.69) (2.7) (0.3) (0.9) (0.6)

2.13 2.17 2.15 1.94 1.92 1.95 7.5(4.1) (4.21) (4.2) (3.30) (3.30) (3.30)

1.82 1.87 1.85 1.10 1.21 1.16 1.0(2.8) (3.01) (2.9) (0.7) (1.0) (0.8)

4.51 4.11 4.11 14.01 13.51 13.05 52.5(17.7) (16.73) (16.7) (172.9) (168.2) (169.9)

0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.0(0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0)

0.33 0.20 0.24 0.29 0.30 0.29 —

0.70 0.43 0.50 0.61 0.63 0.61 —-

Cuscuta wed population/m2 Cuscuta Infest ation/plot (%)

(Mean of two years)

TreatmentsTr. No.

30 DAT

2012 20122013 2013Poo-led

Poo-led

60 DAT

* Figures in parenthesis indicate original values, DAT - Days after transplanting PE – Pre-emergent POE - Post-emergent.


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

Table 3: Bulb yield, bulb weight and economics as influenced by different weed management practices in transplanted onion.

T Pendimethalin 30% EC @ 1.00 1

kg a.i. ha-1 as pre-emergence (PE) +one hand weeding at 40 days after transplanting (DAT)

T Oxadiargyl 80% WP @ 0.4 kg 2

a.i. ha-1 as pre-emergence (PE) followed by Oxyfluorfen 23.5% EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5 and 7 weeks after transplanting (WAT)


kg a.i. ha-1 as pre-emergence (PE) followed by Oxyfluorfen 23.5% EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5 weeks after transplanting ( WAT)


a.i. ha-1 as pre emergence (PE) followed by Oxyfluorfen 23.% EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5 weeks after transplanting


kg a.i. ha-1 as pre-emergence (PE) followed by Oxyfluorfen 23.5%EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5, 7 a n d 8 w e e k s a f t e r transplanting ( WAT)


a.i. ha-1 as pre emergence (PE) followed by Oxyfluorfen 23.5% EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5, 7, 8 weeks after transplanting


kg a.i. ha-1 as pre-emergence (PE) followed by Oxyfluorfen 23.5% EC @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha-1 as post emergence (POE) at 5 and 7weeks after transplanting

T Weedy check8

T Weed free check9

S. Em±

33.58 30.42 32.00 51 54 52 61000 205635 145515 3.37

33.70 31.47 32.58 50 53 52 62900 210121 144037 3.34

34.27 31.76 33.02 51 56 54 61300 212723 147566 3.46

34.05 29.90 31.98 50 55 52 61900 204733 148166 3.30

35.96 35.32 35.64 56 64 60 63300 231162 167175 3.65

33.32 30.71 32.01 51 52 51 63900 206116 139843 3.22

35.65 33.77 34.71 55 62 58 62300 224189 156267 3.59

27.16 24.41 25.78 37 46 42 57350 165532 110500 2.88

35.91 35.75 35.83 54 61 58 75300 232790 156808 3.09

0.80 0.95 0.60 1.9 2.1 1.5 —- 4193 4012 0.07

-1Bulb yield (t ha ) Bulb yield (g) Mean of two years

TreatmentsTr. No. 2012 20122013 2013

Poo-led

Poo-led

Cost of culti-vation (Rs/ha)

Gross returns(Rs/ha)

Net returns(Rs/ha)

Benefit costratio

DAT – Days after transplanting PE – Pre-emergent POE – Post-emergent

IJAS 2014 • 250


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

The individual bulb weight of onion was

significantly higher in pendimethalin @ 1 kg

a.i/ha (PE) fb oxyflurofen @ 0.25 kg a.i/ha (POE)

at 5,7 and 8 WAT (60 g) over pendimethalin @ 1

kg a.i/ha (PE) fb oxyflurofen @ 0.25 kg a.i/ha

(POE) at 5WAT (54 g), pendimethalin @ 1 kg

a.i/ha (PE) + one hand weeding at 40 DAT (50 g),

Oxadiargyl @ 0.4 kg a.i./ha (PE) fb oxyflurofen

@ 0.25 kg a.i/ha (POE) at 5 and 7 WAT (52 g), 5 7

and 8 WAT ( 51g) and weedy check (42 g),

however it was on par with other treatments

(Table 3).

EconomicsNet returns were significantly higher in


oxyfluorfen @ 0.25 kg a.i./ha (POE) at 5,7 and 8

WAT (Rs.1,67,175/ha) or 5 and 7 DAT

(1,56,267/ha) and weed free check

(Rs.1,56,808/ha) compared to other treatments.

While, weedy check recorded significantly

lower net returns (Rs.1,10,500/ha) than other

treatments (Table 3). This is attributed to better

control of weeds in these treatments resulting in

increased bulb yield and thereby increased the

net returns.

The benefit cost (BC) ratio was significantly

higher with pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha (PE)

fb oxyfluorfen @ 0.25 kg a.i./ha (POE) at 5 and 7

WAT (4.82) than all other treatments except

pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg a.i./h (PE) fb

oxyfluorfen @ 0.25 kg a.i./ha (POE) at 5 ,7 and 8

WAT (3.65). This was attributed to lower cost of

cultivation and reasonably higher bulb yield of

onion in these treatments compared to other

treatments. Though weed free check recorded

significantly higher bulb yield and gross

returns, but the B: C ratio was lower (3.09). This

was mainly attributed to increased cost of

cultivation due to more number of hand

weedings during crop growth period over other

treatments. Whereas, weedy check recorded

significantly lower B: C ratio over rest of the

treatments and this was mainly attributed to

significantly lower bulb yield. Similar, findings

were also reported by Ved Prakash et al. (2000)

and Ankur Vermani et al. (2001).

REFERENCES1. Ankur Vermani, Nandal, T. R. and

Ravindar Singh, 2001, Nutrient uptake and

economic weed management in garlic

(Allium sativum L.). Indian Journal Weed

Science, 33 (3-4) : 225-226.

2. Bhalla, P.L., 1978, Weed competition, crop

losses and chemical weed control in onion-

A Review. Pestology, 11 (2): 35-39.

3. Bhan, V.M., Singh, S.D. and Tripathi, S.S.,

1976, Influence of weed on onion yield and

their methods of control using herbicides.

Indian Journal Weed Science, 8:140-144.

4. Channappagoudar, B. B., Agasimani, C. A.

And Biradar, N. R., 2001, Physiological

studies on weed control efficiency of

different herbicides in direct onion. First

Biennial Conf. in the New Millennium on

Eco-friendly Weed Management Options for

Sustainable Agriculture, ISWS, May 23-24,

2001, Bangalore, Karnataka (India), p. 70.

5. Gill, G. S. and Vijaykumar, 1969, Weed

index: A new method for reporting weed

control trials. Indian Journal of Agronomy,

14 : 96-98.

6. Kathiresan, R. M., Gnanavel, I . ,

Jayakanth, U. V., Arulchezlian, M. P.,

Anbhazhagon, R. and Pandmapriya, S. P.,

2004, Bioefficiency and phytotoxicity of

oxadiargyl in onion (Allium cepa var.

aggregatum). Indian Journal Weed Science,

36(3&4) : 236-238.

7. Khurana, S. C., Yadav, A. C. and Pandita,

M. I., 1985, Weed control in onion. Annual

Conference of Indian Society of Weed

Science, p. 19.

8. Patil, S. N., 1999, Physiological studies on

weed control efficiency in onion. M. Sc.

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(Agri.). Thesis, University Agricultural

Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka (India).

9. Singh, G. P., Thakral, K. K. and Pandita, M.

L., 1985, Efficacy of various herbicides and

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Thakur, S.S. and Choudary, N.K., 1992,

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IJAS 2014 • 252


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STATISTICAL METHODS IN THE POPULATION DYNAMIC STUDY OF INSECT

M.K. Nagamani and *Jayalaxmi Narayan Hegde

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore, Karnataka *Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Brahmavar, Udupi, Karnataka

INTRODUCTIONThe universal indiscriminate use of insecticides

and the complications which have followed have

directed attention to the need of radical change

towards ecology in tackling pest control problems

to the study of environmental conditions under

which pests could either be abundant or scarce so

as to evaluate the factor or factors responsible for

such variations in population.

Insect ecology is primarily concerned with (1)

variation in the number of insects of the same

sort and (2) variation of insects of different sort

in the same community.

There are two major type of studies in insect

ecology where statistical methods are applied (a)

Extensive: These studies are carried out over a

large area and are normally concerned with the

relation of different insect species with relation of

insect pest population to crop damage or with

prediction of damage and the application of

control methods (b) Intensive: These studies

involve continual observation of the population

of an insect in the same area. Usually information

is required on the basis of the population, (of

successive developmental stages) so that their life

history can be studied with a view to find out the

weakest part of the insect's life.

Measurement of insect populationThe population of insects can be measured in

the following terms.

Absolute estimateHere the actual number of insects in a particular

ABSTRACT

The population dynamics of an insect can ultimately help in designing 'Integrated Pest

Management Programmes. There are two major type of studies viz.,Extensive and Intensive

in insect ecology where statistical methods are applied.

Usually information is required on the basis of the population (of successive developmental

stages) so that their life history can be studied with a view to find out the weakest part of

the insect's life. Brief mention about the diverse methods of statistics applicable in both

situations are outlined in the present paper.

No. of Pages: 7 References: 7

Keywords: Population indices, Spatial distribution, Aggregation of insects, Poisson, Negative binomial, Dispersion, Sequential sampling, Life Table, Key factor analysis, Mortality survivor ratio.



Review Paper


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

environment is counted. Usually sample survey

methods are applied to get absolute estimates.

Relative estimateWhen absolute counting is not possible due to

some reason or other relative estimates are used.

These give values which indicate the largeness

of the population. (for instance the number of

insects falling in a light trap in 8 hours or the

visual scoring based on some criteria by an

experienced entomologies). Relative estimates

are only useful for space /time comparison.

Population indicesHere instead of counting the insects, their

products e.g., webs, nests, excuvia or effects

(especially plant damage) are recorded.

Whatever may be the measure that we use,

necessarily sample survey methods have to be

used. The estimates from sample surveys are

subject to error. Within the allowed budget of

the study, the most efficient sampling method

will normally be worked out.

Spatial distribution of insectsInsects normally do not settle in a field at random.

If they settle at random, due to the very small ratio

of the insects to the size of the field, it has been

established that the distribution can be

adequately explained by a Poisson distribution.

The frequency distribution of Poisson is given by

-kx

f(x) = e kxl

It can further be established that both the mean

and variance of a Poisson distribution are k. So if

in any insect population data, the mean is

nearly equal to the variance, we have to suspect

the random nature of settling of the insects.

But this is rarely the case. Due to elementary

facts like sexual pairing and complicated social

relationship, the inspects tend to aggregate in

certain spots. There are a series of distributions

available to describe this situation. Some of

them are (1) Negative binomial distribution (2)

Log normal distribution (3) Log distribution (4)

Neyman type A distribution, (5) PolyaAleppi

distribution etc.

If the variance is more than the mean (which is

the normal pattern of in sects) the negative

binomial distribution may fit the data. The

distribution is described by the parameters, the

mean and exponent k, which is the measure of

the amount of clumping and is often referred to 2 2 –as dispersion parameter. K is given by x /(S -x )

2 where x is the mean and s is the variance.

Generally k values are in the region of 2. As they

become larger the distribution approaches

Poisson distribution. Fractional values of k lead

to the logarithmic distribution. There are

various methods of fitting the negative binomial

distribution to the data. Reference may be made

to Anscombe (1949). The fitness of the negative

binomial to the observed frequency data can

also be tested by different methods depending

on the method used in fitting the data. If

negative binomial distribution fits the data,

then the parameter 'k' can be taken as a measure

of aggregation.

If the Poisson distribution fits the data the

proper sampling technique would be a simple

random sampling. On the other hand if negative

binomial fits the data the proper sampling

technique would be stratified random sampling

i.e., the field should be divided into uniform

plots first and then a few plants from each of

these portions should be selected for the

observation of insect population.

Measures of aggregation of insects The tendency of insect populations in nature is

to aggregate but in studying the population of

insects, especially in different environments

and of different stages if becomes necessary to

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arrive at a measure of this dispersion in the

field. Various measures have been proposed.

Some of them are given below:

2x - Departure from PoissonAs has been mentioned before it there is no

aggregation the Poisson distribution may for the

insect population data So w h i c h

measures the departure of the population from

the Poisson model can be taken as one of the

measures of dispersion. Higher the value of this,

more the aggregation among the insects.

'k' of the negative binomialThe parameter 'k' of negative binomial can also

be taken as a measure of aggregation of the

insects. Less the value of k, more is the

aggregation of insects. This aggregation can be

due to either the inherent nature of the insects or

due to environmental causes.

as suggested by Arbous and Karrich 2(1961) where v is a function with X distribution

with 2k degrees of freedom at 0.5 per cent

probability level has been used to find out the

nature of aggregation of insects. If this value is

less than two the aggregation is ascribed to

environmental causes. If it is more than two

aggregation may be due to either factors.

Morista’s indices of dispersionTwo indices which are relatively independent of

the type of distribution, the number of samples

and size of the mean have been suggested by

Morista (1962). The first index is given by the

formula.

Where N is the total number of samples and x the

sum of the numbers of individuals found in all

the samples.

When the distribution is at random i.e the

aggregation is not present this index will take the

value of one and when it is contagious it will

have value more than one and when the

distribution is uniform it will give fractional

values.

The second index of Morista is use full for

comparing the aggregation of the same insect in

different subareas or places (eg. Mites in

different parts of the tree). It is given by

Where G is the number of

subareas of places or environments. It can be

interpreted using the same method as for I1.

x Iwao’s and Kuno’s m-m method of studying

aggregation of insectsThe aggregation of insects has obviously two

components. The first is whether the basic

component of the distribution is single

individual or a group of individuals (say a

colony or clump), and the second is how such

basic components distribute themselves in the

habitat units. This aspect cannot be studied

using any of the measures suggested above. A

group of Japanese workers have been

concentrating their efforts in finding out

methods to distinguish between these two

aspects.

The mean crowding is defined as the number of

other individuals per individual per quadrat

(sub division) and is expressed by

Where xi is the number of insects in the ith

quadrat and m is defined as the mean density

given by the mean number of insects per

quadrat. The technique of Iwao consists in x

fitting linear regression equation between m

derived from sets of data collected for the xpurpose. If m =a+bm, it has then been

established that (1) ‘a’ measures the largeness of

the basic component and a >o when the

individuals are distributed in colonies. (2) b

measures the variation of such units in the

quadrats. If b=l the distribution is Poisson (ie.

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No aggregation) and for b>1 more and more

aggregation is present. If b<1 the distributions

are “under – dispersed”.

Due to these considerations ‘a’ is termed as the

index of basic contagion and ‘b’ as the density-

contagiousness coefficient.

Sequential Sampling The modern economic entomologist tries to

economise on the number of sprays of the potent

insecticides. One of the obvious methods of

doing this is to undertake spray only when we

must. From crop loss studies, the insect

population which will cause a significant loss to

the cultivator (economic threshold) is

determined. It will then become entomologist to

see whether this pest population has attained

threshold limit using sampling methods. Using a

new sample every time and determining the

population size becomes cumbersome. So a

sequential sampling technique has been

developed for this purpose. This technique was

originally developed in quality control by

Abraham Wald. It is a procedure whereby

samples are drawn in a sequence with decisions

being made on the information obtained from

each observation. If no decision can be made on

the basis of information from a given sample, the

data are added to those obtained for the next and

the process repeated till a decision is made. With

insect sampling, the efficiency of the method

lies in the absence of a fixed sample size; least

work is required when either populations are

low or high and extensive sampling is needed

only at intermediate densities. The first step in

the development of a sequential plan is to

establish the distribution of the concerned

insect to nature. Based on this distribution and

the economic threshold the two limiting lines

are drawn. Then, from a sample of plants the

insect population is counted. If this value falls

above both lines, spray is undertaken and if it

falls below both lines then no control measure is

undertaken. If it falls in between the lines an

additional sample is taken and the process

repeated. Obviously this process will end when

a decision is reached. The formulae for drawing

these lines in case of negative binomial

distribution is given in South Wood (1968) and

in case of Poisson and normal distribution in

Nishida and Torii (1970).

The economic threshold In the modern pest management programmes

the economic threshold plays a very important

rate. It has been defined as the level at which

damage can no longer be tolerated and therefore

the level at or before which it is desirable to

initiate deliberate control activities. It could also

be defined more critically as the level of pest

population where the loss caused by pest equals

in value to the cost of available control

measures. Economic injury level equals in value

the cost of control measures.

Headlly (1973) “Defining the economic

threshold” Systems approach in pest control,

gives detailed methodology for calculating the

economic threshold. His approach takes into

consideration the growth of pest population and

the other economic aspects involved in the

control measures. A more simpler method

which does not take into consideration the

growth pattern of insects and which is

applicable to the pests which cause un direct

damage to the crop is grven by Stone and Pedigo

(1972). The following methods is suggested.

1. Calculate: Gain threshold (q/Ha)

2. % yield loss necessary

3. Workout the linear regression between

percent defoliation or any other indirect

damage & yield loss due to defoliation. From

this equation find out the % defoliation

necessary to cause % yield lose /necessary

(Step 2 )

4. Absolute defoliation necessary = (percent

defoliation necessary)x (total foliate)

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5. Calculate: Plant Economic injury level =

6. Economic injury level = (plant EIL) x (No. of

plants /row. Mtr).

The Life Table construction Economical Life Tables are one of the tools

which are most useful in the study of insect

population dynamics. Such tables record a

series of sequential measurements that reveal

population change throughout the life cycle of a

species in its natural environment. Life Table is

a general term given to a series of population

estimates of insects that show the fall off in

numbers occurring between various life stages

such as egg larvae, instar etc. when the mortality

at each stage is traced back to the several

mortality factors operating on the population,

these tables form a budget of successive

processes that are operative in a given

population.

The first and most important point in the

construction of Life Table is to get a reliable

absolute estimate of the different stages of the

population in a unit area. This involves the

application of sampling method. Harcourt

(1969) lists the following criteria, which a

sampling method should satisfy.

a. All units must have an equal chance of

selection.

b. The sample unit must be stable that is the

number of insects available in the sampling

unit should not be affected by growth habit

of plants.

c. The proportion of insect population using

the sample unit as a habitat must remain

constant.

d. The sample unit should be reasonably small

so that enough units can be examined on a

given plot and data to provide adequate

estimate of sampling variance.

e. The sample unit should lend itself to

estimates of absolute population.

f. The sample unit should lend itself to

estimates of absolute population.

g. The method of sampling and observation

should not be cumbersome.

h. The sampling time should be determined by

a pilot sampling study.

i. Depending on the spectral pattern of the

insects a proper sampling plan should be

drawn up.

The columns of the age specific Life Table

undergoes many changes with the need of many

research workers. The most accepted of these is

the one given by, Morris et al (1954). This table

has the following headings.

x- Age group or stage of development of the

insect.

Ix – The number alive at the beginning of stage x

dx- Factor causing mortality at stage x with the

proportion of mortality due to a particular factor.

100qx- Mortality rate during stage x-

This can be got as 100

Sx- Survival rate within period x.

It is to be noted that one or two Life Tables would

reveal only that high mortality may occur at

certain age intervals. But a sequence of Life

Tables suitably replicated in time and space

would increase the understanding of the of the

dynamics of the pest and at the same time reveal

the most opportune time for management so as

to influence survival rates.

Key factor analysisThe ultimate aim of the life table analysis is to

find the stage which contributed most to the

mortality of the insect. There are several

approaches to do this. Some of them are given

below.

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ISSN NO. 0976-450X

Williams method ‘I’ the index of population trend is defined as

population one year divided by population in

the preceding year and multiplied by 100.

Through ‘I’ can refer to any stage of the insects

life which directly contributes to the increase of

insect population, normally adult stage is

generality considered. This can be denoted by

lA.lA = SE x SL x Sp x SA (simplified model)

where SE, SL, Sp and SA are survival rates of

eggs, larvae, pupae and adults. Williams method

consists in working out correlations between lA

and the different S’s. That particular stage which

gives the maximum coefficient of determination

(square of coefficient of correlation) will be

identified as the stage with maximum effect on

the population trend i.e. the key factor.

Morris methodSince the number of insects are expected to

follow a negative binomial distribution, and the

assumption of normal distribution is generally

made, Morris advocates transformation into log

before the analysis of data. Then the following

steps are adopted.

a. Work out correlation of log population of

one generation with the next and suppose 2we get R as low. This means that only the

log population size is not influencing the

population of next generation.

b. Search for density dependent factors like

weather, population of predators,

luxuriant growth of crop etc.

thc. One by one multiply the population at 9

state by these and work out relation

between log (population) n x D and log 2

(population) n+1 till we get an R which is

satisfactory.

d. That factor which contributes most to the

population of next generation is identified

as the key factor.

Varley and Gradewell’s methodBoth methods detailed above assume the liner

relation. Avoiding this, a simple graphical

method is given by Varley and Gradewell (1960)

Here the mortality at different stages as well as

the total mortality of the insect over generations

is drawn in a graph. Changes like parasite

population. Weather conditions etc. can also be

drawn in a similar graph. The graph which

resembles the total mortality most is taken as the

key factor.

Beso’s method of mortality survivor ratioM/S ratio for each stage of the insect is calculated

as % mortality and % survival in a particular

stage. By multiplying the M/S ratio for each stage

of the insect with total number of adults that

ultimately survived in a generation, the

numerical reduction in adult population from

the values so obtained the mortality factor

which contributed most to the total mortality is

determined.

Survivorship curves The graphical representation of the fall-off of

number of insects (1X) with time plotted against

age is called the survivorship curve.

There are four basic types of survivorship curves

according to Slobodkin (1962).

According Slobodkin in Type I mortality acts

most heavily on the old individuals, in type ii, a

constant number die at unit time, in type III, the

mortality rate is constant and in type IV mortality

acts most heavily on the younger stages.

SummaryThe population dynamics of an insect help in

designing ‘Integrated Pest Management

Programmes. The information is required on the

basis of the population of insect. Still further

research and detail study is needed on the

population dynamics of an insect.

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REFERENCES

1. Anscombe, F.J., 1949. The statistical

analysis of insect counts based on the

negative binomial distribution. Biometrics.

5: 166-73.

2. Morista, M., 1962. I Index:- a measure of

dispersion of individuals. Res. Popul. Ecol.,

4:1-7.

3. Morris, R.F. and Miller, C.A., 1954. The

development of life tables for spruce

budworm. Can. J. Zool., 32: 283-301.

4. Nishida, T. and Tori, T., 1970. Hand book

field methods for Research on rice stem

borer and their natural enemies. Blackwell

Scientific Publications.

5. Oakland G.B., 1950, An application of

sequential analysis to whitefish sampling.

Biornetrics. 6: 59-67.

6. Varley G.C. and Gradwell, G.R., 1960. Key

factors in population studies. J. Animal

Ecol., 29: 399-401.

7. Wald, A, 1947. Sequential analysis. John

Wiley and Sons, New York.

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INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT IN RAINFED PEARL MILLET

1 2A.K. Guggari and M.B. Patil

1AICRP on Pearl Millet, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Bijapur-586101, Karnataka

2Agricultural Research Station, Almel, Bijapur District, Karnataka

INTRODUCTIONPearl millet is one of the important and

predominant coarse cereals grown in arid and

semi-arid regions of the country. Its cultivation

is mostly confined to poor and impoverished

soils and cultivated by resource poor farmers.

ABSTRACT

A field experiment was conducted for two rainy seasons (2012 and 2013) at Regional Agricultural Research Station, Bijapur, Karnataka. There were eight treatments consisting of post emergence application of atrazine at different doses (0.1 to 0.4 kg a.i./ha) in addition to recommended practice of application of atrazine as pre-emergence @ 0.5 kg a.i./ha and were compared with weed free check, weedy check and farmers practice of two hand weedings/intercultivations at 20 and 40 DAS. Mean data of two years (2012 and 2013) indicated that, grain yield of pearl millet differed significantly due to various weed management practices during both the years. Significantly higher grain yield was obtained with weed free check (2542 kg/ha) compared to application of atrazine @ 0.1 to 0.3 kg a.i./ha as pre-emergence and weedy check, however, it was on par with application of atrazine @ 0.5 kg a.i./ha as pre-emergence followed by one hand weeding at 35 DAS (2389 kg/ha), hand weeding / hoeing twice at 20 and 40 DAS (2386 kg/ha) and atrazine @ 0.4 kg ai/ha as post-emergence followed by one hand weeding at 35 DAS (2303 kg/ha). Weedy check recorded significantlylower grain yield (1289 kg/ha) among the treatments. Application of atrazine @ 0.5 kg a.i/ha as pre emergence + one hand weeding at 35 DAS recorded lower weed index (5.56%) followed by hand weeding/hoeing at 20 and 40 DAS (5.98%) and application of atrazine @ 0.4 kg a.i./ha as post emergence + one hand weeding at 35 DAS (8.58%). Weed index was significantly higher with weedy check (47.76%) compared to other treatments. Weed control efficiency due to different weed management treatments observed at 60 DAS was higher in weed free check (100%) followed by hand weeding / hoeing twice at 20 and 40 DAS (87.8%) and atrazine @ 0.4 kg a.i./ha as post emergence + one hand weeding at 35 DAS (78.9%). Significantly higher net returns (Rs.18077/ha) and benefit cost ratio was recorded with the application of atrazine @ 0.5 kg a.i/ha as pre emergence + one hand weeding at 35 DAS compared to other treatments. However, it was on par with weed free check (Rs.16793/ha), atrazine @ 0.4 kg ai/ha as post emergence followed by one hand weeding at 35 DAS (Rs 17177/ha) and hand weeding/hoeing at 20 and 40 DAS (Rs.16137/ha).


Keywords: Atrazine, Pearl millet, Post emergence, Weed management.



Research Paper


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

In northern dry zone of Karnataka, which is

frequently hit by the drought, pearl millet is an

important food crop of kharif season, grown in

shallow to medium black soils. It is the most

assured crop amongst the other kharif crops

even under low rainfall situations. Decline in

the availability of laborers coupled with

increase in the wages, resulted in untimely field

operations (weeding/intercultivations), which

consequently reflects on the yield. Many times

farmers fail to apply pre-emergent herbicides

and seek the remedy after the weeds emerge.

Hence, to address such problems encountered

by the farmers an experiment was planned with

post emergence application of atrazine at

different doses (0.1 to 0.4 kg a.i./ha) in addition

to recommended practice of application of

atrazine as pre-emergence @ 0.5 kg a.i./ha and

were compared with weed free check, weedy

check and farmers practice of two hand

weeding / intercultivations at 20 and 40 DAS.

MATERIALS AND METHODSA field experiment was conducted for two rainy

seasons (2012 and 2013) at Regional Agricultural

Research Station, Bijapur, Karnataka. There were

eight treatments consisting of post emergence

application of atrazine at different doses (0.1 to

0.4 kg a.i./ha) in addition to recommended

practice of application of atrazine as pre-

emergence @ 0.5 kg a.i./ha followed by one hand

weeding/intercultivation at 35 DAS, weed free

check, weedy check and farmers practice of two

hand weeding / intercultivations at 20 and 40

DAS. The post emergence application of atrazine

was done at 2-3 leaf stage of weeds. The

experiment was laid out in randomized block

design with three replications. The gross and net

plot sizes were 5.0 m x 3.6 m and 4.0 m x 2.70 m,

respectively. The soil of the experimental site

was medium black with low in available nitrogen -1 -1

(160 kg ha ) and P O (16 kg ha ), medium in 2 5

-1available K O (308 kg ha ) with 0.24 per cent 2

organic carbon and having alkaline pH (8.1). The pearl millet crop was raised by following

recommended cultivation practices of the

region. Pearl millet was fertilized with 50 kg N

and 25 kg P O /ha at the time of sowing. Total 2 5

rainfall of 525.5 and 771.6 mm was received in

28 and 41 rainy days from January to December

during 2012 and 2013, respectively as against

the normal rainfall of 594.3 mm (average of 100

years) received in 38 rainy days (Table 1). While

the rainfall received during the cropping period

from July to September was 219.8 and 473.4 mm

received in 13 and 23 rainy days during 2012

and 2013, respectively as against the normal

rainfall of 301.9 mm received in 18 rainy days.

The rainfall received was low (-82.1%) during

2012, while it was higher (171.5%) during 2013

compared to normal rainfall.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Grain yield of pearl millet differed significantly

due to various weed management practices

during both the years. Mean data of two years

(2012 and 2013) indicated that, grain yield of

pearl millet was significantly higher with weed

free check (2542 kg/ha) compared to application

of atrazine @ 0.1 to 0.3 kg a.i./ha as pre-

emergence and weedy check, however, it was on

par with application of atrazine @ 0.5 kg a.i./ha

as pre-emergence followed by one hand

weeding at 35 DAS (2389 kg/ha), hand weeding

or hoeing at 20 and 40 DAS (2386 kg/ha) and

atrazine @ 0.4 kg ai/ha as post-emergence

followed by one hand weeding at 35 DAS (2303

kg/ha). Similarly, significantly higher pearl

millet seed yield and stover yield were obtained

with two hand weedings and from weed free

treatments (Kiroriwal et al., 2012). The

favourable influence of weed control on

account of reduced weed-crop competition led

to increased growth and yield parameters viz.,

number of effective tillers, ear length, ear girth

and test weight (Table 2). Further contribution

of weed control measures towards the

important yield attributes could be owing to

their effect in increasing the weed control

efficiency and hence, better utilization of inputs

IJAS 2014 • 262


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

by crop plants. Ram et al, (2005) also reported

improvement in yield components due to

elimination of severe crop – weed competition.

Weedy check recorded significantly lower grain

yield (1289 kg/ha) among the treatments. The

stover yield differed significantly due to various

treatments only during 2013 but not during

2012, however, the mean data of two years

IJAS 2014 • 263

Table 1: Mean monthly rainfall of RARS, Bijapur during the cropping period of 2012 and 2013 and average of 100 years (1901-2000).

Month 2012 2013 Normal* 2012 2013 Normal*

July 72.4 206.6 72.2 4 7 5

August 60.0 72.0 78.1 4 4 5

September 87.4 194.8 151.6 5 12 8

Total 219.8 473.4 301.9 13 23 18

(-82.1) (+171.5)

Rainfall (mm) Rainy days

* Average of 100 years (1901-2000)

Table 2: Growth and yield parameter of pearl millet as influenced by various weed management treatments (Pooled mean of 2012 and 2013).

Treatments Grain Plant Ear Ear Total Effectivewt/ear (g) ht (cm) length girth (cm) tillers/ tillers

(cm) plant /plant

1. Control (Weedy check) 15.98 140.0 20.40 2.82 1.82 1.29

2. Weed free check 26.30 163.1 22.95 3.09 2.32 1.58

3. Atrazine @ 0.5 kg ai/ha (PE)+1 25.28 155.1 22.08 3.09 2.18 1.50HW at 35 DAS

4. Atrazine @ 0.1 kg ai/ha 19.70 147.3 21.02 2.88 2.22 1.45(PoE) + 1 HW at 35 DAS


6. Atrazine @ 0.3 kg ai/ha 22.70 154.7 21.87 3.00 2.28 1.38(PE) + 1 HW at 35 DAS


8. Hand weeding and hoeing 26.80 158.2 23.19 3.27 2.38 1.68at 20 and 40 DAS

S.Em.± 0.80 10.4 0.41 0.08 0.10 0.08

C.D.(0.05) 2.27 13.9 1.17 0.22 0.30 0.22

CV(%) 9.75 6.73 5.29 7.36 13.54 14.82

PE= Pre-emergence PoE= Post emergence HW= Hand weeding


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

Table 3: Grain and stover yield of pearl millet as influenced by various weed management practices.

Treatments Grain yield (kg/ha) Stover yield (t/ha)

2012 2013 Mean 2012 2013 Mean

1. Control (Weedy check) 1342 1237 1289 1.64 2.28 1.96

2. Weed free check 2267 2817 2542 2.10 3.96 3.03

3. Atrazine @ 0.5 kg ai/ha (PE) 2173 2606 2389 1.98 3.54 2.76+ 1 HW at 35 DAS

4. Atrazine @ 0.1 kg ai/ha (PoE) 1727 1994 1861 1.84 3.19 2.51+ 1 HW at 35 DAS

5. Atrazine @ 0.2 kg ai/ha 1857 2166 2012 1.96 3.41 2.68(PoE) + 1 HW at 35 DAS

6. Atrazine @ 0.3 kg ai/ha 2042 2009 2025 1.98 3.48 2.73(PE) + 1 HW at 35 DAS

7. Atrazine @ 0.4 kg ai/ha 2105 2500 2303 1.98 3.58 2.78(PoE) + 1 HW at 35 DAS

8. Hand weeding and hoeing 2107 2666 2386 1.95 3.95 2.95at 20 and 40 DAS

S. Em. ± 114 146 92 0.12 0.18 0.11

C.D. (0.05) 335 428 264 NS 0.52 0.31

C.V. (%) 11.8 12.94 12.44 12.56 10.43 11.39


Table 4: Number and dry weight of weeds per m2 at 60 DAS as influenced by various weed management practices.

Treatments

2012 2013 Mean 2012 2013 Mean

1. Control (Weedy check) 7.06 6.72* 6.89 5.13 14.68 9.91(54.5) (45.3) (49.9) (26.00) (225.0) (125.5)

2. Weed free check 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71 0.71(0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.00) (0.00) (0.0)

3. Atrazine @ 0.5 kg ai/ha 3.52 2.92 3.22 2.16 7.03 4.59(PE)+1 HW at 35 DAS (14.2) (8.1) (11.2) (4.86) (53.3) (29.1)

4. Atrazine @ 0.1 kg ai/ha 6.58 4.98 5.78 3.80 11.90 7.85(PoE)+1 HW at 35 DAS (48.2) (24.9) (36.6) (14.01) (156.7) (85.4)


6. Atrazine @ 0.3 kg ai/ha 3.82 3.92 3.87 2.52 9.32 5.92(PE)+1 HW at 35 DAS (20.0) (15.3) (17.6) (6.10) (92.8) (49.4)


8. Hand weeding and hoeing 0.71 3.07 1.89 0.71 6.17 3.44at 20 and 40 DAS (0.0) (8.8) (4.4) (0.00) (40.3) (20.2)

S.Em.± 0.83 0.28 0.44 0.28 1.25 0.64

C.D.(0.05) 2.45 0.84 1.26 0.83 3.66 1.82

CV(%) 39.97 15.52 31.66 22.48 29.81 33.24

No.of weeds/m2 at 60DAS Dry wt of weeds/m2 at 60DAS

PE= Pre-emergence; PoE= Post emergence; HW= Hand weeding *Square root transformed values; Figures in the parenthesis indicate the original values

IJAS 2014 • 264


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IJAS 2014 • 265

Table 5: Weed index and weed control efficiency of pearl millet as influenced by various weed management practices.

Table 6: Economics of pearl millet as influenced by integrated weed management treatments.

Treatments Weed index (%) Weed control efficiency(%) 600 DAS

2012 2013 Mean 2012 2013 Mean

1. Control (Weedy check) 40.80 54.72 47.76 - -

2. Weed free check - - - 100.0 100.0 100.0

3. Atrazine @ 0.5 kg ai/ha (PE) 4.15 6.93 5.56 79.8 72.9 76.4+ 1 HW at 35 DAS

4. Atrazine @ 0.1 kg ai/ha (PoE) 23.82 28.89 26.36 45.8 31.4 38.6+ 1 HW at 35 DAS


6. Atrazine @ 0.3 kg ai/ha (PE) 9.92 27.72 18.82 77.4 59.1 68.2+ 1 HW at 35 DAS


8. Hand weeding and hoeing 7.06 4.90 5.98 100.0 75.5 87.8at 20 and 40 DAS

2012 2013 Mean

1. Control (Weedy check) 16948 15286 16117 8360 8588 6926 7757 2.03 1.83 1.93

2. Weed free check 28237 34070 31154 14360 13877 19710 16793 1.97 2.37 2.17

3. Atrazine @ 0.5 kg ai/ha 27034 31440 29237 11160 15874 20280 18077 2.42 2.82 2.62(PE) + 1 HW at 35 DAS

4. Atrazine @ 0.1 kg ai/ha 21656 24347 23001 10840 10816 13507 12161 2.00 2.25 2.12(PoE)+1 HW at 35 DAS


6. Atrazine @ 0.3 kg ai/ha 25481 24691 25111 11000 14481 13691 14086 2.32 2.24 2.28(PE)+1 HW at 35 DAS


8. Hand weeding and 26232 32363 29297 13160 13072 19203 16137 1.99 2.46 2.22hoeing at 20 and 40DAS

S.Em.± 1347 1655 1064 - 1347 1655 1070 0.12 0.16 0.11

C.D.(0.05) 3959 4864 3035 - 3959 4864 3051 NS 0.49 0.31

CV(%) 11.2 12.09 11.63 - 21.2 20.68 20.84 11.7 13.83 13.68

2012 2013 Mean 2012 2013 Mean



TreatmentsGross returns

(Rs/ha)Net returns

(Rs/ha)Benefit cost

ratioCost

(Rs/ha)


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

showed that, stover yield followed similar trend

as that of grain yield (Table 3).

Application of atrazine @ 0.5 kg a.i/ha as pre

emergence + one hand weeding at 35 DAS

recorded lower weed index (5.56%) followed by

hand weeding/hoeing at 20 and 40 DAS (5.98%)

and application of atrazine @ 0.4 kg a.i./ha as

post emergence + one hand weeding at 35 DAS

(8.58%). Weed index was significantly higher

with weedy check (47.76%) compared to other

treatments (Table ).

Weed control efficiency due to different weed

management treatments observed at 60 DAS

was higher in weed free check (100%) followed

by hand weeding/hoeing at 20 and 40 DAS

(87.8%), atrazine @ 0.4 kg a.i./ha as post


(78.9%) and atrazine @ 0.5 kg ai/ha as pre


(76.4%). Weed control efficiency was the lowest

with atrazine @ 0.1 kg a.i/ha + hand weeding at

35 DAS (38.6%) and atrazine @ 0.2 kg a.i./ha +

hand weeding at 35 DAS (58.2%). Higher WCE

is attributed to better weed control by both pre

and post emergence herbicides.

Atrazine @ 0.5 kg a.i./ha as pre emergence + one

hand weeding at 35 DAS recorded significantly

higher net returns (Rs.18077/ha) compared to

weedy check (Rs.7757/ha) and application of

atrazine @ 0.1 to 0.3 kg a.i./ha as post


(Rs.12161 to 14086 /ha), however, it was on par

with weed free check (Rs.16793/ha), atrazine @

0.4 kg ai/ha as post emergence followed by one

hand weeding at 35 DAS (Rs 17177/ha) and hand

weeding/hoeing at 20 and 40 DAS (

Rs.16137/ha). Similarly, benefit cost ratio was

significantly higher with atrazine @ 0.5 kg

a.i./ha as pre-emergence and it was on par with

one hand weeding at 35 DAS (2.62) followed by

atrazine @ 0.4 kg a.i./ha as post-emergence

followed by one hand weed at 35 DAS (2.55), but

significantly superior than other weed

management treatments. Weedy check recorded

significantly lower benefit cost ratio (1.93)

among the treatment, mainly due to lower crop

yield from weedy plots.

CONCLUSIONSAtrazine can also be applied as post emergence

@ 0.4 kg a.i./ha when the weeds are at 2-3 leaf

stage followed by one intercultivations / hand

weeding at 35 DAS for effective management of

weeds. This could be very well adopted by the

farmers in situations where they fail to apply

atrazine as a pre emergence herbicide@ 0.5

a.i./ha. Similar effective control of weeds by

early post emergence application of atrazine in

maize were reported by Sandhu et al., (1991);

Dixit and Gautam (1996); Girma and Chinawong

(2005).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to the Project

Coordinating unit, AICRP on pearl millet

(ICAR), ARS, Mandor, for having provided the

financial assistance and the Regional

Agricultural Research Station, Bijapur,

University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad

for extending the physical facilities to carry out

the study.

REFERENCES

1. Ashish Kiroriwal, R.S.Yadav and Amit

Kumawat, 2012.Weed management in

pearlmillet based intercropping system.

Indian Journal of Weed Science 44(3):200-

203.

2. Dixit, A. and Gautam, K.C. 1996. Studies on

the effects of atrazine on weeds in winter

maize. Indian Journal of Weed Science

28(3&4):137-139.

3. Girma, W. and Chinawong, S, 2005.

Growth, yield attributes, yields and weed

characteristics as influenced by integrated

weed control measures of maize (Zea mays

L.) in central Rift Valley of Ethiopia.

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Kasetart Journal of Natural Sciences, 39(3):

338-349.

4. Ram, B.,Chaudhary, G.R., Jat, A.S. and Jat,

M.L. 2005.Effect of integrated weed

management and intercropping systems on

growth and yie ld of pear lmil le t

(Pennisetum glaucum), Indian Journal of

Agronomy. 50(2): 210-213.

5. Sandhu,K.S. and Bhatia, R.K. 1991.

Chemical weed control in transplant winter

maize. Indian Journal of Weed Science 23

(3&4):53-55.

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EFFECT OF ORGANICS AND INORGANICS ON NUTRIENT UPTAKE, YIELD AND RESIDUAL NUTRIENT STATUS OF SOIL

IN ONION (ALLIUM CEPA L.) CV. TELAGI RED

1 2 3 3 3*A. N. Bagali , H. B. Patil , V. P. Chimmad , P. L. Patil and R. V. Patil

1Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Bijapur-586101

2Horticulture, HRS (UHSB), Bijapur-586101

3Dept. of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Dharwad-580005

INTRODUCTION Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the most

important commercial vegetable crops

cultivated extensively in India and it belongs to

Alliaceae family. Onion is an indispensable

item in every kitchen as vegetable and

ABSTRACT

The experiment was conducted for two seasons during rabi and summer in Northern dry zone (Zone-3) of Karnataka, at Regional Agricultural Research Station Bijapur, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, on medium deep black soil to study the effect of integrated nutrient management on nutrient uptake and yield of onion (cv. Telagi Red), and residual nutrient status of soil. The inorganic level of 162:32:148 kg NPK per ha recorded

-1significantly higher dry matter (14.98%) and bulb yield (41.09 t ha ). The higher organic levels viz., FYM @ 30 t per ha, vermicompost @ 6 t per ha and poultry manure @ 3 t per ha were significantly superior with respect to dry matter (14.78, 15.17 and 14.89%,

-1respectively) and bulb yield (40.56, 41.65 and 40.88 t ha respectively). Higher uptake of ,

NPK was recorded with higher level of inorganics 162:32:148 kg NPK per ha (230.95, 14.30 -1 -1

and 37.22 kg ha ), organics; FYM @ 30 t per ha, (210.76, 12.58 and 37.06 kg ha ), -1vermicompost @ 6 t per ha (208.03, 13.11 and 35.46 kg ha ) and poultry manure @ 3 t per

-1ha (199.42, 12.97 and 34.87 kg ha ) and their interaction, i.e., inorganics 162:32:148 kg -1NPK per ha + vermicompost @ 6 t per ha (273.36, 15.30 and 42.64 kg ha ). Similarly,

-1higher inorganic level 162:32:148 kg NPK per ha (219.91, 42.20 and 491.60 kg ha ) and -1organics level; FYM @ 30 t per ha, (163.30, 33.16, and 466.53 kg ha ), vermicompost @ 6 t

-1per ha (164.60, 35.21 and 469.31 kg ha ) and poultry manure @ 3 t per ha (172.78, 39.19 -1and 468.31 kg ha ) registered higher residual soil nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

-1 -1Residual nitrogen (243.55 kg ha ) and phosphorus (46.51 Kg ha ) in the soil was significantly higher in a combination of 162:32:148 kg NPK and poultry manure @ 3 t per

-1ha compared to other interactions. While, higher level of potassium (497.98 kg ha ) was recorded with the treatment 162:32:148 kg NPK and vermicompost @ 6 t per ha over rest of the treatments but was on par with the treatment 162:32:148 kg NPK + poultry manure @ 3 t per ha and 162:32:148 kg + FYM @ 30 t per ha.


Keywords: Onion, Nutrient uptake, Residues, Organics, Inorganics, INM.


Research Paper



ISSN NO. 0976-450X

condiment, therefore commands, an extensive

internal market. Onion is liked for its flavour

and pungency which is due to the presence of a

volatile oil 'allyl propyl disulphide'- organic

compound rich in sulphur.

India the second largest producer of vegetables

and onion in particular, next to China, Onion is

cultivated on an area of 1.05 million ha

producing 16.81 million t (Tiwari, 2014).

Maharashtra is the leading onion growing state

and other important states include Madhya

Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,

Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,

Tamil Nadu and Orissa. In Karnataka, onion is

grown on an area of 0.16 m. ha with a

production of 2.40 m. t. The state's average

productivity (15.00 t/ ha) is however, lower

compared to country's average (16.00 t/ ha) and

world's average (19.40 t/ ha). India exported

about 0.77 m. MT of fresh onion worth Lakh

Rupees besides meeting the demand for internal

consumption (Tiwari, 2014).

Among the many constraints for low

productivity in onion, imbalanced nutrition

and water are main limiting factors. The

continuous and imbalanced use of fertilizers is

adversely affecting the sustainability of

agricultural production besides causing

environmental pollution. Greenland (1975)

suggested that for a sustainable crop production

system, chemical nutrients removed by the crop

must be replenished and physical conditions of

the soil maintained. Integrated nutrient

management (INM) provides excellent

opportunities to overcome all the imbalances

besides sustaining soil health and enhancing

crop production. This optimizes the benefit

from all possible sources of plant nutrients in an

integrated manner. The importance of nutrient

uptake to crop productivity is assessed from

economic returns and environmental pollution.

The induced deficiencies as a result of low

levels of an element affect the interaction

among different nutrients. The nutrient

recommendations made for onion in the

package are based on ad-hoc basis rather than

experimental results. Thus, in order to improve

the soil fertility for sustainable crop

productivity on long term basis and also for

reduction in fertilizer input cost, INM has

become inevitable. Hence, an experiment was to

ascertain the uptake of nutrients and its

influence on yield of onion and soil nutrient

status after the harvest and observations

presented in this paper.

MATERIAL AND METHODSThe experiment was conducted at Regional

Agricultural Research Station, Bijapur in the

Northern dry zone of Karnataka (Zone-3), which 'is located at 16˚ 49' North latitude, 75˚ 43 East

longitude and at an altitude of 593.8 m above the

mean sea level, for two seasons during rabi, and

summer 2004-05.

In order to plan the nutrient levels for the

experiment on integrated nutrient management

(INM), a preliminary investigation was carried

out during kharif 2004 to study the nutrient

uptake by the crop. The physical and chemical

properties of soil were characterized for various

parameters like soil type, texture, depth, field

capacity, wilting point, bulk density, pH, EC,

organic carbon, available N, available P O and 2 5

available K 0 before initiation of the 2

experiment. The crop was raised by adopting

the recommended package of practices

(Anonymous, 2002). The nutrient uptake by the -1 -1 crop was 81 kg N ha , 16 kg P O ha and 74 kg 2 5

-1K 0 ha . Based on this information on nutrient 2

uptake, the nutrient levels were planned and

allotted to treatments.

The experiment was laid out in split plot design

with three main treatments (inorganics); viz., M 1

- No NPK, M - One time the crop nutrient uptake 2

-1(81: 16: 74 kg NPK ha )and M - Two times the 3

-1crop nutrient uptake (162:32:148 kg NPK ha )

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and six sub treatments (organics); S - Farm Yard 1

-1 -1Manure (FYM) @ 15 t ha , S - FYM @ 30 t ha , 2

-1S – Vermi-compost (VC) @ 3 t ha , S - VC @ 6 t 3 4

-1 -1ha , S - Poultry Manure (PM) @ 1.5 t ha and S - 5 6

-1 PM @ 3.0 t ha along with two controls; Control-

1 (recommended package of practices) and

control -2 (absolute i.e., no inorganics and

organics) with three replications.

The cultivar used was a local type - Telagi Red. It

is a buff or light red skinned variety having

round bulbs with medium size. This variety has

got excellent keeping quality and suitable for

rabi and summer cultivation. Seedlings were

raised on the raised nursery beds. Six weeks old,

uniform and healthy seedlings were

transplanted on flat beds of plot size 2.25m x

1.5m following a spacing of 15 cm x 7.5 cm. The

well decomposed farm yard manure, vermi-

compost, and poultry manure were applied at

the time of land preparation as per the

treatments. Inorganic nutrients were applied as

per the treatments in the form of urea, single

super phosphate, and muriate of potash. Fifty

per cent of nitrogen and full dose of phosphorus

and potash were applied at the time of

transplanting and remaining 50 per cent of

nitrogen was applied six weeks after

transplanting. Irrigation was given as and when

required depending upon the climatic

conditions. Three hand weeding were carried

out to keep the plots free from weeds. The crop

was harvested fifteen days after 50 per cent neck

fall of the crop. The plants were pulled out along

with foliage and windrowed for five days for

field curing for rabi crop and one to two days for

summer crop. Then the foliage was cut leaving

2.5 cm top above the bulb. These bulbs were

cured under the partial shade for 12-14 days for

rabi and for 10-12 days for summer crop.

Ten plants from each plot were selected

randomly and tagged for recording bulb dry

matter and bulb yield. The bulb samples

collected at harvest were cut into pieces, after

air drying, the samples were oven dried at 70˚C

and ground in a Wiley mill to pass through two

mm sieve. The sieved samples were used for the

estimation of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash

uptake by the bulbs. The total dry matter

production was worked out after the estimation

of dry matter percentage. Then the total dry

matter production was multiplied with per cent

of nutrients to obtain the total uptake of

different nutrients. Soil samples were collected

from a depth of 0-15 cm before initiation of the

experiment and also after the harvest of the crop

to analyze the nutrient status of the soil

following standard procedure (Table 1).

The statistical analysis and interpretation of

data were done using the Fisher's method of

analysis of variance technique as described by

Gomez and Gomez (1984). The level of

significance used in “F” and “t” test was P=0.05.

Critical difference values were calculated

wherever the 'F' test was significant. The data

was analyzed using Dry soft Computer

Programme.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe production of economic yield of a crop is a

complex phenomenon and is an outcome of

interactions among factors like the crop, soil,

climate and agronomic manipulations. Higher

yields are obtained when the congenial

conditions are provided for a crop growth. The

object of development of technology is to

provide the optimum or near optimum

conditions to achieve higher yield of crops. In

view of this, formulation of suitable agronomic

practices like nutrient levels under given set of

agro-climatic conditions needs to be worked

out. The results of the experiment conducted on

integrated nutrient management on uptake of

nutrients, its influence on yield of onion bulbs,

residue accumulation and soil nutrient status

are discussed here under.

The experiment was conducted on medium

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deep black soil (Vertisol). Surface soil samples

(0-15 cm) were drawn before transplanting and

were analyzed for physical and chemical

properties (Table 1). The soil of the

experimental field was clayey in texture, with

coarse sand 16.2, fine sand 6.30, silt 13.20 and

clay content was 54.30. The depth of the soil

was 45-60 cm with field capacity of 17.6, 3wilting point 15 and bulk density 1.25 Mgm

(0-15 cm). The soil pH was 8.9 and EC 0.29. The

soil organic carbon was 0.4%, available N 150

kg/ha, available P O 17.8 kg/ha and the 2 5

available K O was 640 kg/ha.2

Table 1: Initial analysis of soil characteristics

Parameter Description Method employed Reference

I. Soil type Medium deepblack —

A. Physical properties

1. Texture Clay International Piper (1966)

Coarse sand (%) 16.20 Pipette method

Fine sand (%) 6.30

Silt (%) 13.20

Clay (%) 54.30

2. Depth(cm) 45-60

3. Field capacity (%) 17.60

4. Wilting Point (%) 15.00

35. Bulk density(Mgm )

0-15 cm 1.25 Core sampler method Dastane (1967)

15-30 cm 1.43

B. Chemical properties

1. pH (1:2.5 soil: 8.9 pH meter (Systronics Jackson water solution) model 331) (1973)

-12. EC (dS m ) 0.29 Conductivity bridge Jackson (1973)(Systronics model 304)

3. Organic carbon (%) 0.40 Walkley and Black’s Jackson (1973)Wet oxidation method

-14. Available N (kg ha ) 150 Alkaline potassium Subbiah and permanganate method Asija (1956)

-15. Available P O (kg ha ) 17.8 Olsen’s method Jackson (1973)2 5

-1-6. Available K O (kg ha ) 640 Flame photometer method Jackson (1973)2

using neutral normal ammonium acetate as extractant

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Dry matter Pooled data over season indicated significantly

higher dry matter percentage (Table 2) with the

treatment 162:32:148 kg NPK per ha (M ) 3

Table 2: Dry matter and bulb yield of onion as influenced by INM.-1Treatment Dry matter (%) Bulb yield (t ha )

I. Inorganics (M)

1. M (No NPK) 13.16 36.111

-12. M (81:16:74 kg NPK ha ) 14.98 41.092

-13. M (162:32:148 kg NPK ha ) 15.13 41.553

S. Em ± 0.11 0.29

CD (0.05) 0.35 0.95

II. Organics (S)-11. S (FYM 15 t ha ) 13.76 37.781

-12. S (FYM 30 t ha ) 14.78 40.562

-13. S (VC 3 t ha ) 14.05 38.573

-14. S (VC 6 t ha ) 15.17 41.654

-15. S (PM 1.5 t ha ) 13.87 38.075

-16. S (PM 3 t ha ) 14.89 40.886

S. Em ± 0.20 0.55

CD (0.05) 0.57 1.56

III. Interaction (M x S)

1 M S 12.66 34.731 1

2 M S 13.41 36.801 2

3 M S 12.91 35.451 3

4 M S 13.72 37.661 4

5 M S 12.75 35.001 5

6 M S 13.48 37.001 6

7 M S 14.23 39.032 1

8 M S 15.34 42.052 2

9 M S 14.50 39.782 3

10 M S 15.91 43.632 4

11 M S 14.34 39.332 5

12 M S 15.59 42.752 6

13 M S 14.41 39.583 1

14 M S 15.59 42.833 2

15 M S 14.73 40.483 3

16 M S 15.89 43.683 4

17 M S 14.52 39.883 5

18 M S 15.62 42.903 6

S. Em ± 0.29 0.79

CD (0.05) NS NS

Control 1 (RPP) 15.16 41.60

Control 2 (Absolute) 8.71 23.50

S. Em ± 0.50 1.37

CD (0.05) 0.97 2.68

Note: NS – Non significant, RPP - Recommended package of practices

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ISSN NO. 0976-450X

(15.13%) which was at par with 81:16:74 kg

NPK per ha (M ) (14.98%) and they were 2

significantly superior to no NPK application

(M ). The findings of Singh and Dhankar (1989) 1

and Mallangouda et al. (1995) in onion,

Shanmugasundarum and Savitri (2000) in

potato are in line with the present findings. The

dry matter percentage recorded was

significantly higher with higher levels of

organics (S , S and S ) over the lower levels (S , 2 4 6 1

S and S ). Mallangouda et al. (1995) recorded 3 5

significantly higher dry matter accumulation in

plant when FYM alone was applied @ 30 t per

ha. In brinjal, similar results were also reported

by Rao and Sankar (2001).

Though the interaction effects were non-

significant the combination M S recorded 3 4

numerically higher dry matter content (15.89%)

marginally. On the contrary, Mallangouda et al.

(1995) recorded significantly higher dry matter -accumulation in onion with RDF+ FYM (30 t ha

1). The dry matter recorded with recommended

package of practice (RPP) was at par with M , M , 2 3

S S and S in all the situations. The treatment 2, 4 6

combinations M S , M S , M S , M S , M S and 2 2 2 4 2 6 3 2 3 4

M S were significantly superior over RPP and 3 6

on par with each other with respect to dry

matter per cent.

Bulb yieldThe bulb yield of onion increased with

increasing levels of applied inorganics (Table 2).

Application of 162:32:148 kg NPK per ha (M ) 3

and 81:16:74 kg NPK per ha (M ) were at par and 2

-1recorded higher bulb yield (41.55 t ha and -1

41.09 t ha , respectively) compared to

application of no fertilizer (M ) over the seasons. 1

This increased bulb yield may be attributed to

significant increase in bulb weight. Increased

bulb weight with increased inorganic levels was

also reported by Varu et al. (1997). Similar

results of higher yield were also obtained by

Anonymous (2001), Tumbare and Pawar, (2003),

Sharma et al. (2008) and Mandloi et al. (2008)

with the application of increased levels of

inorganics.

There was a significant increase in bulb yield

with increase in levels of organics. Application

of FYM @ 30 t per ha, vermicompost @ 6 t per ha

and poultry manure @ 3 t per ha recorded

significantly higher bulb yield (40.56, 41.65 and -140.88 t ha , respectively), which recorded 6.85,

7.39 and 6.87 per cent increased yield compared

to their respective lower levels of organics over

the seasons. At higher level of organics,

improved soil physical conditions might have

resulted in better root growth, nutrient

absorption and better bulb development.

Increased bulb yield were noticed by several

workers viz; Lal et al. (2002), Patil et al. (2007)

and Ethel et al. (2009) with increased FYM

levels, Chee et al. (1998) and with increased

vermi-compost levels and Mandloi et al. (2008)

with higher level of poultry manure.

The interaction effects between inorganics and

organics were found non-significant for bulb

yield. Similar observations were reported by

Anonymous (2002) wherein interaction effects

of organic manures and fertilizers were non-

significant in onion. However, the combination

of higher levels of inorganic (M ) and 3

vermicompost (S ) recorded marginally higher 4

-1bulb yield (43.68 t ha ) followed by M S (43.63 t 2 4

-1 -1ha ) and M S (42.9 t ha ). On the contrary, 3 6

significantly higher bulb yield due to integrated

application of inorganics and organics (INM)

were reported by Yadav and Yadav, (2001),

Abbey and Kanton (2003), Mondal et al. (2004),

Chadha et al. (2006), Patel et al. (2008) and Hari

et al. (2009).

With respect to bulb yield, in comparison with -1

RPP (41.60 t ha ), none of the inorganic levels,

organic levels and their combinations were

IJAS 2014 • 274


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

significantly superior while, M , M , S , S , S 2 3 2 4 6

and combinations of M and M with organics at 2 3

different levels recorded on par yields.

Nitrogen uptakeThe treatment 162:32:148 kg NPK per ha (M ) 3

-1(230.95 kg ha ) recorded significantly higher

uptake of nitrogen compared to M (202.95 kg 2

-1 -1ha ) and M (141.71kg ha ) for pooled data over 1

seasons (Table 3). At higher level of inorganics,

the nitrogen available in the soil might have

resulted in higher uptake. Similar results were

reported by Cizauskas and Viskelis (2002) in

onion, as well as Shanmugasundaram and

Savitri (2000) in potato. Among the organics,

application of FYM @ 30 t per ha (S ) recorded 2

Table 3: Effect of INM on nutrient uptake by onion bulbs and residual soil nutrient status.

I. Inorganics (M)

1. M (No NPK) 141.71 8.99 27.52 79.12 28.42 423.831

-12. M (81:16:74 kg NPK ha ) 202.95 12.50 35.19 163.10 35.07 472.962

-13. M (162:32:148 kg NPK ha ) 230.95 14.30 37.22 219.91 42.20 491.603

S. Em ± 3.49 0.35 0.44 0.04 0.25 0.37

CD (0.05) 11.37 1.16 1.44 0.15 0.81 1.22

II. Organics (S)-11. S (FYM 15 t ha ) 176.31 11.75 30.37 131.37 32.60 456.321

-12. S (FYM 30 t ha ) 210.76 12.58 37.06 163.30 33.16 466.532

-13. S (VC 3 t ha ) 177.12 11.42 30.95 141.79 34.17 458.533

-14. S (VC 6 t ha ) 208.03 13.11 35.46 164.60 35.21 469.314

-15. S (PM 1.5 t ha ) 179.57 9.73 31.16 150.40 37.06 457.775

-16. S (PM 3 t ha ) 199.42 12.97 34.87 172.78 39.19 468.316

S. Em ± 4.82 0.42 0.64 0.71 0.15 0.48

CD (0.05) 13.64 1.18 1.80 0.48 0.41 1.37

III. Interaction (M x S)

1 M S 149.38 9.21 25.54 63.96 25.25 417.901 1

2 M S 162.36 9.24 31.34 85.97 25.98 426.381 2

3 M S 129.30 7.71 28.09 71.66 27.66 420.271 3

4 M S 137.16 8.78 29.46 85.83 29.41 429.881 4

5 M S 132.05 9.19 23.50 73.12 30.23 419.671 5

6 M S 139.99 9.81 27.19 94.20 32.03 428.881 6

7 M S 171.14 11.45 29.79 139.97 32.63 465.722 1

8 M S 226.37 12.79 37.92 176.67 33.04 477.752 2

9 M S 200.43 12.21 29.62 146.65 33.38 468.052 3

10 M S 213.58 15.26 34.27 178.43 34.24 480.082 4

11 M S 182.16 8.96 37.51 156.28 38.08 467.072 5

12 M S 224.03 14.33 42.03 180.59 39.04 479.112 6

13 M S 208.41 14.60 35.78 190.19 39.92 485.353 1

14 M S 243.55 15.71 41.91 227.27 40.45 495.463 2

15 M S 201.63 14.36 35.14 207.06 41.49 487.293 3

16 M S 273.36 15.30 42.64 229.56 41.98 497.983 4

17 M S 224.50 11.05 32.49 221.82 42.87 486.573 5

18 M S 234.23 14.78 35.38 243.55 46.51 496.313 6

S. Em ± 7.28 0.57 0.87 0.27 0.43 0.68

CD (0.05) 26.95 1.81 2.79 0.77 1.45 NS

Control 1 (RPP) 239.47 17.68 41.14 230.46 45.46 489.06

Control 2 (Absolute) 70.64 5.56 11.79 54.66 22.04 329.21

S. Em ± 11.93 1.04 1.57 0.58 0.36 1.19

CD (0.05) 23.38 2.03 3.08 1.66 0.71 2.34

Note. NS – Non significant, RPP – Recommended package of practices

Nutrient uptakeTreatment Resideual soil nutrient status-1N (kg ha ) -1N (kg ha )-1P (kg ha ) -1P (kg ha )-1K (kg ha ) -1K (kg ha )

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significantly higher nitrogen uptake (210.76 kg -1ha ) and was at par with vermicompost @ 6 t per

-1ha (S ) (208.03 kg ha ) and poultry manure @ 3 t 4

-1per ha (S ) (199.42 kg ha ) in pooled over the 6

seasons. Similar observations were made by

Prasanna Kumar et al. (2007) in maize with

application of vermicompost @ 2.5 t per ha and

Singh and Pandey (2006) in onion with FYM,

fertilzers and Azotobactor. Interaction effect

showed that, nitrogen uptake was significantly -1

higher with M S (273.36 kg ha ) compared to all 3 4

other combination of treatments in pooled over

the seasons. Similar results were reported by

Mallanagouda et al. (1995) with RDF+FYM.

Recommended package of practices (RPP)

recorded significantly higher nitrogen (239.47 -1

kg ha ) uptake compared to M and M but was at 2 1

par with M in pooled over the seasons. The 3

treatment RPP was significantly superior for

nitrogen uptake over all organic treatment

levels in pooled over the seasons.

Phosphorus uptakeThe uptake of phosphorus increased

significantly with increased level of inorganics.

Significantly higher uptake of P was recorded

with application of 162:32:148 kg NPK per ha -1

(M ) (14.30 kg ha ) over 81:16:74 kg NPK per ha 3

-1(M ) (12.50 kg ha ) and no fertilizer (M ) (8.99 kg 2 1

-1ha ) in pooled over the seasons. Similar

observations were made by Thimmiah (1989) in

onion and Roy and Seth (1971) in radish.

Among organics, significantly higher P uptake

was recorded with application of vermicompost -1

@ 6.0 t per ha (S ) (13.11 kg ha ), which was on 4

par with poultry manure @ 3 t per ha (S ) (12.97 6

-1 -kg ha ) and FYM @ 30 t per ha (S ) (11.75 kg ha2

1). Similar results were reported by Prasanna

Kumar et al. (2007) with vermicompost @ 2.5 t

per ha in maize. Among the inorganic fertilizers

and organic manure interaction treatments,

significantly higher P uptake was recorded by -1

M S (15.71 kg ha ) and it was on par with M S , 3 2 3 4

M S , M S , M S , M S and M S interaction 2 4 3 6 3 1 2 6 3 3

effects. Compared to RPP, none of the inorganic

fertilizers or organic manures or combinations

was significant except the treatment

combination M S which was on par.3 2

Potassium uptakeAmong the inorganics significantly higher

uptake of K was recorded with application of -1

162:32:148 kg NPK per ha (M ) (37.22 kg ha ) 3

compared to 81:16:74 kg NPK per ha (M ) (35.19 2

-1 -1kg ha ) and no fertilizer (M ) (27.50 kg ha ). 1

Similar results were reported by Thimmaiah

(1989) and Hariappa (2003) in onion. Among

the organics, significantly higher uptake was

recorded by FYM @ 30 t per ha (S ) (37.06 kg 2

-1ha ) compared to other organics, however it was

on par with vermicompost @ 6 t per ha (S ) 4

-1(35.46 kg ha ) and poultry manure @ 3 t per ha

-1(S ) (34.87 kg ha ). Among the interactions, 6

significantly higher uptake of K was recorded -1with M S (42.64 kg ha ) and was on par with 3 4

-1 -1M S (42.03 kg ha ) and M S (41.91 kg ha ). In 2 6 3 2

comparison with RPP, none of the inorganic and

organic treatment or their interaction was found

significant but the interactions, M S , M S and 3 4 2 6

M S were on par.3 2

Residual soil nutrient statusNitrogenHigher inorganic level viz., 162:32:148 kg NPK

per ha (M ) recorded significantly higher 3

-1residual N (219.91 kg ha ) compared to 81:16: -174 kg NPK per ha (M ) (163.10 kg ha ) and no 2

-1fertilizer application (M ) (79.12 kg ha ). 1

Similarly, increased residual N with increase in

the rate of N application was recorded by Singh

and Singh (1995). Among the organic manures,

poultry manure @ 3 t per ha (S ) recorded 6

significantly higher soil residual N (172.78 kg -1ha ) compared to other organics and their

levels. The only interaction, M S recorded 3 6

significantly higher soil residual N (243.55 kg -1

ha ) compared to other interactions. Higher

residual N with the application of INM was

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ISSN NO. 0976-450X

observed by Singh and Singh (1995) and Meena

(2007). Decreased N after five years was noticed

by Madhu et al. (1997), higher fertility status by

Singh and Pande (2006) and significantly higher

amount of organic carbon by Basavaraj et al.

(2007) which are in agreement with the present -1findings. In comparison to RPP (230.46 kg ha ),

none of the inorganic fertilizers or organic

manures or their interactions except M S 3 6

recorded significantly higher soil residual N.

PhosphorusSimilar trend was also observed with available

phosphorus to that of available nitrogen. -1Inorganic fertilizer level M (42.20 kg ha ) 3

recorded significantly higher soil residual P O 2 5

compared to other levels. Among the organic -1

levels, only S (39.19 kg ha ) recorded 6

significantly higher soil residual P O compared 2 5

to other organic manures. The interaction M S 3 6

-1(46.51 kg ha ) recorded significantly higher

residual P O over other interactions. Higher 2 5

residual P with the application of INM was

observed by Singh and Singh (1995), increased

P after five years was noted by Madhu et al.

(1997), higher fertility status by Singh and

Pande (2006) and significantly higher amount of

available phosphorus by Basavaraj et al. (2007)

which are in agreement with the present -1findings. Compared to RPP (45.46 kg ha ), none

of the inorganic fertilizers or organic manures or

their interactions except M S recorded 3 6

significantly higher soil residual P O .2 5

PotassiumThe inorganic fertilizer level M recorded 3

significantly higher soil residual K O (491.60 kg 2

-1ha ) compared to other levels. Higher level of K

application significantly influenced the residual

K content of soil. Similar observations were made

by Hariappa (2003). Among the organics,

vermicompost @ 6 t per ha (S ) recorded 4

significantly higher soil residual K O (469.31 kg 2

-1ha ) over other organic manures. The interaction

effect between inorganic fertilizers and organic

manures was found non-significant. Compared -1

with RPP (489.06 kg ha ), only M and the 3

interactions of M S , M S and M S recorded 3 2 3 4 3 6

significantly higher soil residual K O. Higher 2

residual K after five years with the application of

INM was noted by Madhu et al. (1997), higher

fertility status by Singh and Pande (2006) and

significantly higher amount of available potash

by Basavaraj et al. (2007) which are in agreement

with the present findings.

It can be concluded that the inorganic levels of -181:16:74 (41.55 t ha ) and 162:32:148 kg NPK

-1 -1ha per ha (41.09t ha ) recorded significantly higher bulb yield of onion. The higher organic levels viz., FYM @ 30 t per ha, vermicompost @ 6 t per ha and poultry manure @ 3 t per ha were significantly superior with respect to dry matter and bulb yield. Higher uptake of NPK was recorded in higher level of inorganics (M ), 3

organics (S , S and S ) and in the interaction 2 4 6

M S . Compared to RPP none of the inorganics or 3 4

organic levels or their combinations was found significant for higher NPK uptake except M S 3 4

which recorded higher uptake of N. Residual nitrogen and phosphorus in the soil was significantly higher with M S compared to all 3 6

other interactions during both the seasons. Application of RPP resulted in significantly lower residual nitrogen in the soil compared to M S during both the seasons and for pooled. 3 6

Higher level of potassium was recorded with the treatment M S over rest of the treatments but 3 4

which was on par with M S and M S . 3 6 3 2

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uptake and yield of potato in Western Ghats

of Tamil Nadu. J. Indian Potato Asso.,

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integrated nutrient management on yield

and nutrient uptake by onion and on soil

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IN VITRO EVALUATION OF FUNGICIDES AND BIOAGENTSAGAINST ALTERNARIA RICINI (YOSHII) HANSF.

CAUSING LEAF SPOT OF CASTOR

1 2Neelakanth, S. Hiremani and S. G. Mantur

1Division of Plant Pathology, IARI, New Delhi-110012

2Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, UAS, Bangalore-560 065

INTRODUCTIONCastor (Ricinus communis L.) belonging to the

family Euphorbiaceae is one of the important

non-edible, export oriented industrial oil seed

crop grown in India which occupies an area of

7.87 lakh ha with an annual production of 10.54 -1

lakh tones and productivity of 1339 kg ha

(Anon 2007). Castor oil and its derivatives are

used in several industries like perfumery,

cosmetics, textile, paints, printing inks,

adhesives, plastics, rubber, lubricants, paper,

chemicals and pharmaceuticals etc. (Singhal,

1995). Castor plants are attacked by numerous

diseases under high relative humidity

conditions, but only a few occur in the high

plains. In recent years, leaf spot caused by

Alternaria ricini is assuming serious

proportions in major castor growing areas,

causing losses in yield and oil content.

Management of the disease is possible through

use of fungicides and biocontrol agents. Several

fungicides can be used to control this disease

but specific fungicides and concentrations are

needed to be evaluated in vitro and then they

can be used for spraying in fields. Similarly

some of the biocontrol agents are effective in

inhibiting the pathogen; hence, there is a need

to study the effect of different biocontrol agents

against this pathogen.

MATERIAL AND METHODSThe experiment was conducted in the

Department of Plant Pathology, College of

Agriculture, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore during

2009-10. The leaves of castor having typical

symptoms of leaf spot caused by Alternaria

ABSTRACT

An experiment involving in vitro evaluation of fungicides and bioagents against Alternaria ricini (Yoshii) Hansf. causing leaf spot of castor was conducted. Six fungicides were evaluated in vitro against A. ricini wherein propiconazole at 500 ppm concentration was most effective in inhibiting the growth of the pathogen. Carbendazim was least effective among all the treatments. Four biological control agents were evaluated in vitro against A. ricini among which Trichoderma viride was most effective in inhibiting the growth of the pathogen. Bacterial antagonists were least effective as compared to fungal antagonists.

No. of Pages: 5 No. of Tables : 3 No. of Figs.: 3 References: 4

Keywords: In vitro, Alternaria ricini, fungicide, bioagent.


Research Paper



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IJAS 2014 • 282

ricini were collected from the field and were

brought to the laboratory and the pathogen was

isolated and cultured on Potato dextrose agar

medium. In vitro evaluation of fungicides

involving six fungicides and in vitro evaluation

of bioagents with four organisms was

undertaken.

Under in vitro condition, different fungicides

viz., mancozeb, chlorothalonil, copper oxy

chloride, propiconazole, difenconazole and

carbendazim were evaluated against Alternaria

ricini by employing poisoned food technique.

The desired concentrations were obtained by

adding appropriate amount of stock solution of

fungicides to Potato dextrose agar taken in Petri

plates, repeated thrice for each treatment.

Potato dextrose agar without fungicides served

as control.

Each plate was inoculated with a 5mm mycelial

disc of the pathogen taken from 7 days old

culture. The inoculated plates were incubated

at room temperature. The colony diameter was

recorded and per cent inhibition in each

treatment over control was calculated by using

the formula,

C - TI = ----------------- × 100 C

Where, I = per cent inhibition

C = radial growth in control

T = radial growth in treatment

The different bioagents viz., Trichoderma viride,

T. harz ianum, Bac i l lus sub t i l i s and

Pseudomonas fluorescens were evaluated

against Alternaria ricini by dual culture

technique.

Twenty ml of PDA medium was poured into

ster i le Petr i plates and al lowed for

solidification. Seven days old 5 mm culture

discs of pathogen and the fungal antagonists

were cut with the help of sterile cork borer and

placed at two opposite sides of the Petri plate

under aseptic conditions. But for bacterial

antagonists, one side streaking was done

opposite the pathogen culture. Each of the

treatment was replicated thrice and incubated

at room temperature for seven days. Growth of

the pathogen (colony diameter) was recorded

and later colony inhibition percentage was

calculated.

RESULTS

In vitro evaluation of fungicidesThree contact fungicides viz., mancozeb,

chlorothalonil and copper oxy chloride and three

systemic fungicides viz., propiconazole,

difenconazole and carbendazim were evaluated

against Alternaria ricini infecting castor. The data

on per cent inhibition of colony of A. ricini over

control is presented in Table 1 and 2, Fig. 1 and 2.

Among the contact fungicides, chlorothalonil at

800 ppm (48.22 %) was most effective, as

compared to other treatments. But in systemic

fungicides, propiconazole was found more

efficient in inhibiting the growth of the

pathogen, wherein it inhibited the fungus upto

96.74 per cent and 96.34 per cent at 500 and 250

ppm, respectively, difenconazole 500 ppm

(82.51 %) was the next best treatment after

propiconazole at 100 ppm (95.12 %).

Carbendazim (38.20 %) was the least effective

among all the treatments.


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Table 1: In vitro evaluation of contact fungicides against A. ricini

Table 2: In vitro evaluation of systemic fungicides against A. ricini

Table 1: In vitro evaluation of contact fungicides against A. ricini

Sl. No.

Sl. No.

Fungicide

Fungicide

Contact

Systemic

100 ppm

50 ppm

200 ppm

100 ppm

400 ppm

250 ppm

800 ppm

500 ppm

Colony inhibition percentage (mean)

Colony inhibition percentage (mean)

1 Mancozeb 32.51 37.8 40.24 45.12

2 Chlorothalonil 24.73 34.75 37.8 48.22

3 Copper oxy chloride 16.46 28.85 37.39 44.71

4 Control 0 0 0 0

Fungicides (F) Concentration (C) F×C

SEm± 0.9 0.78 1.57

CD 2.64 2.29 4.58

5 Propiconazole 82.51 95.12 96.34 96.74

6 Difenconazole 71.54 71.70 81.70 82.51

7 Carbendazim 8.93 23.16 24.77 38.20

8 Control 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Fungicides (F) Concentration (C) F×C

SEm± 0.93 0.80 1.58

CD 2.68 2.30 4.66


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In vitro evaluation of bioagentsThe effect of fungal and bacterial biological

control agents was studied in vitro against A.

ricini. Two fungal bioagents viz., Trichoderma

viride and T. harzianum and two bacterial

biocontrol agents viz., Bacillus subtilis and

Pseudomonas fluorescens were evaluated.

Among the biocontrol agents tested, inhibition

of radial growth was maximum in case of T.

viride (mean=56.63 %), followed by T.

harzianum (46.83%). But B. subtilis (28.47%)

and P. fluorescens (28.44%) were less effective in

inhibiting the radial growth of the pathogen.

The data is presented in Table 3 and Fig 3.

Fig. 2 In vitro evaluation of systemic fungicides against A. ricini

Table 3: In vitro evaluation of bioagents against A. ricini

Sl No Bioagents Colony inhibitionpercentage (mean)

1 Trichoderma viride 56.63

2 T. harzianum 46.83

3 Bacillus subtilis 28.47

4 Pseudomonas fluorescens 28.44

5 Control 0.00

SEm± 2.39

CD 7.53

Table 3: In vitro evaluation of bioagents against A. ricini


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DISCUSSIONIn vitro evaluation of fungicides and bioagents

was carried out for the management of A. ricini.

Three contact fungicides viz., mancozeb,

chlorothalonil and copper oxy chloride and

three systemic fungicides viz., propiconazole,

difenconazole and carbendazim were evaluated

against A. ricini. Propiconazole inhibited the

pathogen growth by 96.74 per cent and 96.34

per cent at 500 and 250 ppm concentrations

respectively; difenconazole 500 ppm (82.51 %)

w a s t h e n ex t b e s t t r e a t m e n t a f t e r

propiconazoloe at 100 ppm (95.12 %).

Similar results were obtained by many authors.

Propiconazole (0.05%) showed maximum

inhibition of fungal growth, followed by

difenconzole (0.05%) in case of A. alternata

(Suryawanshi et al., 2010).

Hence, in the present study also propiconazole

and difenconazole were found best chemical

fungicides for the in vitro management of A.

ricini which supports the results obtained in the

earlier studies by other authors.

The effect of fungal and bacterial biological

control agents was studied in vitro against A.

ricini. Among the biocontrol agents tested,

inhibition of radial growth was maximum in

case of T. viride (mean=56.63 %) followed by T.

harzianum (46.83 %), however, Bacillus subtilis

(28.47%) and Pseudomonas fluorescens

(28.44%) were less effective in inhibiting the

radial growth of the pathogen.

Martinez and Salano (1995) studied the

antagonism of 10 Trichoderma strains against A.

solani on tomato, strains L12 and L17 showed 3

types of antagonism and gave 45.7 and 38.77 per

cent control of A. solani respectively.

Similarly, in the present study also T. viride was

found more effective in inhibiting mycelial

growth of A. ricini followed by T. harzianum and

there was significant difference between these

two treatments, however bacterial antagonists

were found less effective in inhibiting the

growth of A. ricini.

SUMMARYIn vitro evaluation of fungicides against

Alternaria ricini revealed that propiconazole

was most effective in inhibiting the pathogen at

250 and 500 ppm. The next best chemical was

difenconazole at 500 ppm. Remaining

fungicides were least effective in inhibiting the

radial growth of the fungus. Propiconazole was

effective and inhibited up to 96.74 per cent of

the radial growth of the pathogen over control.

In vitro evaluation of the biological control

agents revealed that fungal biocontrol agents

were more effective in inhibiting the radial

growth of the pathogen as compared to bacterial

biocontrol agents. Trichoderma viride inhibited

56.63 per cent of radial growth of the pathogen

over control in dual culture technique. Least

inhibition was observed with Pseudomonas

fluorescens (28.44 %).

REFERENCES

1. Anonymous, 2007, Quarterly Bulletin of

S t a t i s t i c , Fo o d a n d A g r i c u l t u r e

Organization, 32pp.

2. Martinez, B. and Salano, T., 1995,

Antagonism of Trichoderma spp. to

Alternaria solani. Revista-de-protection

vegetal, 3; 221-225.

3. Singhal, V., 1995, Hand book of Indian

Agriculture. Vikas publishing house Pvt.

Ltd. Jangpura, New Delhi. pp. 235-250.

4. Suryawanshi, K. T., Sawant, D. M.,

Navale, A. M. and Deokar, C. D., 2010,

Studies on the pathogen associated with

fruit of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.).

Bioinfolet, 7 (2): 158-160.


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IJAS 2014 • 286

ISSN NO. 0976-450X

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF TECHNOLOGIES FOR SORGHUM PRODUCTION: PRINCIPLE

COMP0NENT ANALYSIS APPROACH

1 2 3Devyanee K. Nemade V. A. Tiwari and S. S. Bhoyar

1Department of Agricultural Economics and Statistics2Agricultural Prices and Costs Scheme

3Junior Research Assistant, Department of Agricultural Economics and StatisticsDr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola, Maharahstra

INTRODUCTIONIn India, sorghum ranks third in area and production

after rice and wheat, with 10.39 Million ha area, and

accounts 24.40 per cent of the world sorghum area.

However, the yield per hectare of sorghum in India is

only 852 kilogram/ha as compared to world average

yield of 1391 kg per ha. Maharashtra, Karnataka,

Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu

are the top five sorghum growing states of India.

These five states together account for about 91 per

cent of the country's total sorghum production.

Agricultural production has increased manifold due

to the introduction of high yield varieties along with

the use of improved production technologies. For

kharif sorghum various technologies were evolved

by the University. It is important to know the impact

of these technologies on production and economics

of production.

So as to what extent these technologies have been

adopted by the farmers and what constraints they are

facing in adoption of the technologies. Effect of the

adoption of technologies investigated. The new

agricultural strategy involved the adoption of the

various recommended improved practices for

optimizing the yield level. In view of this study has

been undertaken with following objectives.

1. To study the extent of adoption of technologies.

ABSTRACT

Agricultural production has increased manifold due to the introduction of high yield varieties along with the use of improved production technologies. In kharif sorghum crop many technologies were evolved by the University. It is important to know that at what extent these technologies have been adopted by the farmers on their field and what constraints they are facing in adopting the technologies. Effect of the adoption of these technologies on production and economics of production also needs to be investigated.

The study pertains to Akola district there in Akola and Murtizapur tahasil were selected. In all 120

farmers were selected. The primary data were collected by survey method for the year 2009-10.

At high adoption level (above 70 per cent), the gross returns and net returns at Cost 'A' and cost 'C'

were the highest. The benefit cost ratio was highest in high level of adoption groups at cost 'C' i.e.

1.61.

No. of Pages: 5 No. of Tables : 3 No. of Figs.: 3 References: 4

Keywords: Technology Adoption.

Corresponding author: [email protected]:

Research Paper



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IJAS 2014 • 288

2. To study the economics of production at

different levels of technologies.

METHODOLOGYThe study has been undertaken in the selected area

of Akola district. Two tahasil viz., Akola and

Murtizapur were selected for the study.

The farmers were categorized on the basis of land

holding. In all 120 farmers were selected comprising

48 farmers were selected from Small and medium

group and 24 farmers from large group. From each

tahsil six villages were selected i.e. Ugwa, Chandur,

Gusar, Agar, Ghusarwadi and Sanguldi in Akola

tahasil and Murtizapur tahasil Kanzara, Khindhed,

Agar, Shirso, Mana and Dhotara and in each villages

10 farmers sample were selected.

The study was based on primary data. The data were

collected by survey method through personal

interview.

Analytical Techniques Technologies of State Agricultural Universitites:The technologies developed by SAUs for kharif

sorghum were considered. These technologies are

given below.

1. Seed Rate 2. Nitrogen (Basal Dose) 3. Phosphorus

4. Potassium 5. Nitrogen (Top Dose) 6. Hoeing 7.

Weeding 8. Plant Protection.

Extent of adoption of technology Actual level of adoption of each item of technology

on farmers field was identified. Using the

recommended technologies developed by SAUs,

efficiency of each technology were calculated. All

efficiency score were scaled down to zero to one and

all the groups of farmers were classified as zero

adoption, greater than zero to 0.4, 0.4 to 0.8 and 0.8 to

1. Actual Adoption

Extent of Adoption = ------------------------------Recommended Technology

Development of composite Index The components of technology recommended by the

University for sorghum crop expressed in terms of

adoption score (X1, X2 …….. X8) were utilized for

developing composite index of technology adopted.

A composite index is a single numerical value

representing the net adoption of all components of

technologies whose values lies in between 0 and 1.

The Principle component analysis (PCA) approach

was used for developing composite index. The

principle components based on 8 x 8 co-rrelation

matrix of 8 component of technology were computed.

A set of 8 principle component explaining 100 per cent

of total variation of all components of recommended

technologies were considered.

Consider 8 eigen vectors in the form of 8 x 8 matrix

where rows represent variables and columns

represent eigen vectors from which weight (wi)

coefficient of component of technology say was

determined as under.

Mi Wi = --------

SMi

Where,

Wi = WeightMi = Maximum element in with raw

SMi = Sum of maximum element in with raw.

The components of technologies recommended by

the University for kh. sorghum were identified and

then the level of adoption of each component of

recommended technology by the farmer is expressed

in terms of adoption scores and same is utilized for

developing composite score of technology adoption.

In this process, weights were properly scaled so that

the composite scores lie in between 0 and 1.

Composite scores were computed for all selected

farmers using the following function.

The estimated composite adoption score (Si) is;Si = W1X1 + W2X2 + -------------- + W8X8.

Where,1. X1 = Seed Rate, 2. X2 = Nitrogen (Basal

application), 3. X3 = Phosphorus,4. X4 = Potassium, 5. X5 = Nitrogen (Top

dressed), 6. X6 = Hoeing,7. X7 = Weeding, 8. X8 = Plant Protection.

Which provides adoption index (of all components

of technologies) for each cultivator. The composite

index obtained in the process lies in between 0 & 1.

The net adoption of recommended technologies

expressed in terms of composite score of the total 120

was followed, tabulated and classified into three


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IJAS 2014 • 289

groups as low level adoption (30 to 50 per cent),

medium level adoption (above 50 to 70 per cent) and

High level adoption (above 70 per cent).

Economics of production at different level of

technology adoption After developing composite index of adoption,

farmers were classified into low, medium and high

adopters on the basis of composite index and

economics of production at different adoption levels

was worked out.

To accomplish the objectives of the study, cost

concepts viz. Cost 'A', Cost 'B' and Cost 'C' were used

to estimate per ha cost of cultivation of Kh. sorghum.

ReturnsThe yield of main product and By product was

considered for this purpose. Farm business income = Gross returns – Cost 'A' Family labour income = Gross returns – Cost 'B'

Net income = Gross returns – Cost 'C'Estimation of Benefit Cost ratio,

Gross returnsBenefit Cost ratio at Cost 'A' = ----------------------

Cost 'A'

Gross returnsBenefit Cost ratio at Cost 'C' = ---------------------

Cost 'C'

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONTechnologies developed by State Agricultural

Universities The study has been undertaken to identify the level

of adoption of different technologies as against

recommended level for kh. sorghum by farmers,

State Agricultural University has evolved different

technologies which were considered as a

recommended one. The technologies for Kharif

sorghm are presented in Table 1.

Table 1 : Recommended technologies developed by SAUs for Kh. Sorghum.

Sr. No. Technologies Units Recommendation

1 Seed Rate Kg/ha 7.5 to 10 Kg/ha

2 Nitrogen(Basal Dose) Kg/ha 40

3 Phosphorus Kg/ha 40

4 Potassium Kg/ha 40

5 Nitrogen(Top Dose) Kg/ha 40

6 Hoeing 2 to 3

7 Weeding 2 to 3

8 Plant Protection Rs. Thirum, Carbenzium etc.

Extent of Adoption of technologyThe extent of adoption of different technologies is

presented in Table 2(a) to 2(I)

From above different technology adoption it can be

concluded that, in case of level of technology of Seed

rate, 88 per cent farmers had adopted the seed rate

above 0.80 to 1.0. In some cases farmers were used

more seed rate as compared to recommended doses

and few farmers have adopted low seed rate.

The results of technology of NPK was observed, more

or less equal same, as the application of N and P was

same and potassium, at overall level 65 per cent

farmers were not applied in Akola district. The

technology of insecticide was more adopted by the

farmers in this district.


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Table 2c : Extent of adoption of recommended technology: Phosporus.

Small Medium Large Total

1 0 3 6 1 10(6.25) (12.50) (4.17) (8.33)

2 Above 10 3 3 160 to 0. 40 (20.83) (6.25) (12.50) (13.33)

3 Above 25 35 16 760.40 to 0.80 (52.08) (72.92) (66.67) (63.33)

4 Above 10 4 4 180.80 to 1.0 (20.83) (8.33) (16.67) (15.00)

Total 48 48 24 120(100) (100) (100) (100)

Sl. No. Efficiency No. of Farmers

Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to the total.

Table 2(a) : Extent of adoption of recommended technology: Seed Rate

Table 2(b) : Extent of adoption of recommended technology: N Basal doses.


1 0 0 0 0 0(0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00)

2 Above 0 0 0 00 to 0. 40 (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00)

3 Above 7 5 2 140.40 to 0.80 (14.58) (10.42) (8.33) (11.67)

4 Above 41 43 22 1060.80 to 1.0 (85.42) (89.58) (91.67) (88.33)

Total 48 48 24 120(100) (100) (100) (100)


1 0 2 5 0 7(4.17) (10.42) (0.00) (5.83)

2 Above 25 23 11 590 to 0. 40 (52.08) (47.92) (45.83) (49.17)

3 Above 12 15 8 350.40 to 0.80 (25.00) (31.25) (33.33) (29.17)

4 Above 9 5 5 19(0.80 to 1.0) (18.75) (10.42) (20.83) (15.83)

Total 48 48 24 120(100) (100) (100) (100)

Sl. No.

Sl. No.

Efficiency

Efficiency

No. of Farmers

No. of Farmers



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Table 2(f) : Extent of adoption of recommended technology: Hoeing


1 0 0 0 0 0(0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00)

2 Above 32 35 16 830 to 0. 40 (66.67) (72.92) (66.67) (69.17)

3 Above 15 13 8 360.40 to 0.80 (31.25) (27.08) (33.33) (30.00)

4 Above 1 0 0 10.80 to 1.0 (2.08) (0.00) (0.00) (0.83)

Total 48 48 24 120(100) (100) (100) (100)



Table 2(d) : Extent of adoption of recommended technology: Potash.


1 0 30 31 18 79(62.50) (64.58) (75.00) (65.83)

2 Above 17 16 6 390 to 0. 40 (35.42) (33.33) (25.00) (32.50)

3 Above 1 1 0 20.40 to 0.80 (2.08) (2.08) (0.00) (1.67)

4 Above 0 0 0 00.80 to 1.0 (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00)

Total 48 48 24 120(100) (100) (100) (100)



Table 2e : Extent of adoption of recommended technology: N Top Doses.


1 0 4 7 0 11(8.33) (14.58) (0.00) (9.17)

2 Above 24 21 9 540 to 0. 40 (50.00) (43.75) (37.50) (45.00)

3 Above 12 16 11 390.40 to 0.80 (25.00) (33.33) (45.83) (32.50)

4 Above 8 4 4 160.80 to 1.0 (16.67) (8.34) (16.67) (13.33)

Total 48 48 24 120(100) (100) (100) (100)



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Table 2(g) : Extent of adoption of recommended technology: Weeding.

Table 2(h) : Extent of adoption of recommended technology: Plant Protection.


1 0 0 0 0 0(0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00)

2 Above 24 27 10 610 to 0. 40 (50.00) (56.25) (41.67) (50.83)

3 Above 22 21 14 570.40 to0.80 (45.83) (43.75) (58.33) (47.50)

4 Above 2 0 0 20.80 to 1.0 (4.17) (0.00) (0.00) (1.67)

Total 48 48 24 120(100) (100) (100) (100)


1 0 36 21 11 68(75.00) (43.75) (45.83) (56.67)

2 Above 0 0 0 00 to 0. 40 (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00)

3 Above 0 0 0 00.40 to0.80 (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00)

4 Above 12 27 13 520.80 to 1.0 (25.00) (56.25) (54.17) (43.33)

Total 48 48 24 120(100) (100) (100) (100)

Sl. No.

Sl. No.

Efficiency

Efficiency

No. of Farmers

No. of Farmers

Distribution of farmers according to composite

adoption indexOn the basis of technology adopted, the farmers were

categorized under low, medium and high adoption

groups as under.

It is observed form Table 3 that, 63.33 per cent

farmers were categorized under low level of adoption

index (0.30 to 0.50). However 32.50 per cent was

categorized under medium level of adoption in

Akola district. The high level of adoption of

technology represent the farmers adopted 4.17 per

cent more than 70 per cent of recommended

technology.

IJAS 2014 • 292

Table 3 : Distribution of farmers on the basis of Composite Index.

S. N. Ranges of Composite adoption Index No. of Farmer % to total no. of cultivators

1 Low (0.30 to 0.50) 76 63.33

2 Medium (0.50 to 0.70) 39 32.50

3 High (Above 0.70) 5 4.17

Total 120 100


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Per hectare input utilization The pattern of utilization of resources by farmers indicate the degree of management of resources, their choice and decision making. Besides this, it indicates the local level of technology adopted by the farmer. Human labour, bullock labour, seed, manures and fertilizers for Kh. sorghum are the basic types of resources used in Akola district.

An attempt was made to measure the extent of labour use, according, labour utilization for a crop depends on the intensity of preparatory and cultural operations done for raising crop. At overall level, per ha 84.93 human labour days are employed for Kh. sorghum. Among the total human labour employed, proportion of the female labour was more.

Total bullock labour employed per hectare worked out to 13.23 days, 12.54 days and 13.80 days for low medium and high adoption group respectively. The requirement of bullock labour is more or less equal.

Seed is the important input in crop production. Per hectare recommended seed rate is 7.5 to 10 kg/ha. It is observed from the table that utilization of seed by growers was close to recommended level in all the studied size groups.

Utilization of FYM and fertilizers are important components of modern technology. Recommended dose per hectare for FYM and fertilizer in the form of Nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium is 30 qt/ha and 80:40:40 kg per hectare respectively.

In respect of manure as against recommended dose of 30 qt per hectare the actual level of use for low, medium and high adoption groups were 10.55, 13.40 and 20.20 qt/ha, respectively. In case of FYM, it was applied maximum by the farmers. In respect of fertilizer application it is observed that the utilization of NPK was lower as compared to recomanded dose.

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Table 4 : Per hectare Physical Inputs used for Kharif Sorghum.

S. N. Particular Unit Low Medium High Overall

1 Total Human Labour Days 85.47 79.36 89.95 84.93

Male Days 38.85 39.19 43.3 40.45

Female Days 46.62 40.17 46.65 44.48

2 Bullock Labour Days 13.23 12.54 13.8 13.19

3 Machine Labour Hrs. 8.66 7 8.8 8.15

4 Seed Kgs. 8.22 8.59 10.46 9.09

5 Manuring Qtls. 10.55 13.4 20.2 14.72

6 Fertilizer N Kg 24.2 55.28 64.4 47.96

P Kg 22.41 21.46 29.9 24.59

K Kg 2.72 4.26 6.22 4.4

Table 5 : Cost of Cultivation of Kharif Sorghum

S. N. Particular Low Medium High Overall

1 Hired Human Labour 2652.12 2239.05 2004.85 2298.67(19.08) (15.69) (12.57) (15.63)

2 Bullock Labour 1624.07 1531.47 1562.42 1572.6(11.69) (10.73) (9.80) (10.69)

3 Machine Labour 1167.71 1045.05 1090.19 1100.98(8.40) (7.32) (6.84) (7.49)

4 Seed 532.68 575.28 588.79 565.58(3.83) (4.03) (3.69) (3.85)


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as a whole was Rs. 14705.12, the Cost 'A' which

corresponds, to the direct production expenses was

Rs. 8800.38. In terms of percentage cost 'A' accounts

to 59.85 per cent of the total cost. Hired human

labour was the major item of cost which accounts to

15.63 per cent of the total cost. Fertilizer was also an

important cost item in Kh. sorghum cultivation

which accounts to 7.86 per cent of the total cost.

Another important cost were interest on fixed capital

4.67 per cent, bullock labour 10.69 per cent, Seed

3.85 per cent, manures 7.51 per cent, and

depreciation cost 1.40 per cent, interest on working

capital 3.28 per cent. Family labour cost was 9.97 per

cent of the total cost.

Utilization of machine labour was more (8.15 days) in

all groups. From the foregoing discussion, it can be

concluded that, the large group of adopters used the

highest input or resources as compared to other groups.

Per hectare cost of cultivation The cost of cultivation has been worked out by using

standard cost concepts i.e. cost 'A', cost 'B' and cost

'C'. The purpose of calculating these costs is to

workout profitability of Kh. sorghum on the basis of

direct costs and imputed cost.

It is revealed from Table 5 that per hectare total cost

of cultivation of Kh. sorghum (cost 'C') for the sample

5 FYM 751.14 1139.98 1420.00 1103.71(5.40) (7.99) (8.90) (7.51)

6 Fertilizer N 354.67 673.61 934.30 654.19(2.55) (4.72) (5.86) (4.45)

P 400.71 375.14 595.76 457.20(2.88) (2.63) (3.74) (3.11)

K 32.62 44.76 54.94 44.11(0.23) (0.31) (0.34) (0.30)

7 Plant Protection 60.11 111.79 191.74 121.21(0.43) (0.78) (1.20) (0.82)

8 Repairing Charges 119.06 123.56 125.17 122.59(0.86) (0.87) (0.78) (0.83)

9 Interest on Working 461.69 471.58 514.09 482.45Capital (3.32) (3.31) (3.22) (3.28)

10 Depreciation 193.30 183.64 239.40 205.45(1.39) (1.29) (1.50) (1.40)

11 Land Revenue 62.98 67.86 83.87 71.57(0.45) (0.48) (0.53) (0.49)

12 Cost ‘A’ 8412.85 8582.78 9405.52 8800.38(60.53) (60.15) (58.97) (59.85)

13 Interest on Fixed l 231.47 553.15 1273.59 686.07Capital (1.67) (3.88) (7.99) (4.67)

14 Rental value of land 3358.34 3706.26 4195.13 3675.46(24.16) (25.98) (26.30) (24.99)

15 Cost ‘B’ 12002.66 12842.19 14874.24 13239.69(86.36) (90.00) (93.26) (90.03)

16 Family Human labour 1894.97 1426.30 1075.00 1465.42(13.64) (10.00) (6.74) (9.97)

17 Cost ‘C’ 13897.62 14268.49 15949.24 14705.12(100) (100) (100) (100)

(Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to the total cost)


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Among the level of adoption groups per hectare cost

of cultivation was highest in high adoption group i.e.

Rs. 15949.24 followed by medium and low level of

adoption group with Rs. 14268.49 and Rs. 13897.62

respectively.

Thus, the study revealed that the human labour and

fertilizer were important items of cost in Kh.

sorghum cultivation.

Economics of production of Kh. Sorghum Per hectare production of Kh. sorghum at overall

level was observed to 26.92 qt/ha in Akola district.

Among groups, the highest per hectare Kh. sorghum

production of 29.80 qt. was obtained by high

adoption level group. It was followed by 26.98 qt in

medium adoption level group and then 23.97 qt in

low adoption level group in Akola district.

It is observed from Table 6, per hectare gross return

from Kh. sorghum cultivation at overall level was Rs.

22948.87. Net returns at Cost 'A' overall level was Rs.

14148.48. Among this group it was highest in high

adoption level group i.e. Rs. 16268.48 and lowest

was observed under low adoption level group i.e. Rs.

12115.02.

At overall level per hectare net returns at Cost 'C'

were Rs. 8243.75. Net returns at Cost 'C', was highest

under high adoption level groups.

The benefit cost ratio at overall level was 2.60 at Cost

'A'. Among level of adoption groups Benefit cost ratio

was highest in high level of adoption groups at cost

'C' i.e. 1.61.

CONCLUSION At high adoption level (above 70 per cent), the gross

returns and net returns at Cost 'A' and cost 'C' were

the highest. The benefit cost ratio was highest in high

adoption level groups at cost 'C' i.e. 1.61. Hence it can

be concluded that in order to achieve higher

economic returns from cultivation of Kh. sorghum,

farmers should adopt more than 70 per cent

technologies adoption level.

REFERENCES

1. Suryawanshi, R. B., P.V. Deshpande and B.S.

Deshpande (1992): Constraints in the adoption

of agricultural technology in production of

sorghum and cotton crops. Journal of Soils and

Crops. 2(2): 33-35.

2. Koranne, U.M., P.O. Ingle, A.W. Deshmukh and

M.B. Chaudhari (1996): Evaluation of adoption

and impact of technologies evolved and

recommended by Dr. PDKV, Akola, for cotton

crop. AGRESCO Report.


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EFFICACY OF BOTANICALS AGAINST SOYBEAN DEFOLIATORS

1 2 3S. V. Nagrale , M. J. Deshmukh , V. A. Tiwari 4 5M. S. Joshi and Debashree Bhattacharjee

1&2Department of Agriculture Entomology,3 4Agricultural Prices and Costs Scheme, Department of Plant Pathology

Department of Plant Pathology,5

Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola, Maharashtra

INTRODUCTIONSoybean (Glycine max L.) is one of the miracle 'Golden

th bean' of the 20 century, originated in China. Soybean

as specific remedy for the proper functioning of the

heart, liver, kidneys and stomach, as well as the value

of soybean sauce, milk, curd, paste and sprouts, not

only for food but also to treat various diseases and

body ailments. The principal early use of soybean was

as a forage crop (Probst and Judd, 1973).

Soybean possess a very high nutritional value, on an

average it contains 20 per cent oil, 40 per cent protein,

Vit A, B, C,D, E and K along with 0.69 per cent

phosphorus, 0.112 per cent iron and 0.024 per cent

calcium. (Bishnoi, 2005).

During kharif 2009 area sown under soybean in Maharashtra was 30.320 lakh ha. The estimated yield per hectare and total production of soybean would be around 982 kg and 29.774 lakh MT. And during kharif 2009 area sown under soybean in Vidarbbha region was 18.951Lakh ha and the estimated yield per hectare was 996.5 kg and total production of soybean would be around 18.976 lakh MT (Anonymous, 2009).

Plant products are one of the eco-safe tools of the

IPM, botanical pesticides have less side effects and

more insect control properties. In view of many

environmental problems caused by chemical

pesticides, farmers should use these ecofriendly pest

management tactics.

ABSTRACT

Experiment was carried out at field of Department of Agricultural Entomology, Dr. PDKV, Akola in kharif 2009 for efficacy of some plant extracts against soybean defoliators viz. tobaco leaf eating caterpillar, semilooper and hairy caterpillar. Eight treatments were used, consisting of botanicals and insecticide viz. Karanj leaves extract 5%, Neem leaves extract 5%, Rui leaves extract 5%, Ghaneri leaves extract 5%, Karanj seed extract 5%, Neem seed extract 5% and Quinalphos 25 EC 0.05% and untreated control. The observations on defoliators was recorded on randomly selected one meter row

th thlength at five places from each plot, before 24 hours and after 7 and 14 days after application of treatment. The obtained data were statistically analyzed with proper transformation. Quinalphos 25 EC 0.05% was highly effective treatment followed by Neem seed extract 5%, Neem leaves extract 5% and Karanj seed extract 5%and reccorded against soybean defoliators. The plots treated with Quinalphos 25 EC 0.05% recorded maximum yield (2013 kg/ha) of soybean followed by Neem seed extract 5% and Neem leaves extract 5% recording 1666 kg/ha and 1458 kg/ha and they were significantly superior over rest of the treatments. As well as they were recording highest incremental cost benefit ratio.


Keywords: Botanicals, Soybean Defoliators.

Corresponding author: [email protected]:

Research Paper



ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 298

Farmers are facing severe problem of Lepidopteran

defoliators on soybean. They generally use chemical

pesticides to control the pest problem, however, it

gives a hazardous effect on natural ecosystem.

Therefore the promotion and development of

microbial control agents and botanicals are the

ecofriendly and economical method of pest

management which helps to minimize the use of

synthetic pesticides.

MATERIAL AND METHODS The present investigation entitled “Evaluation of

some plant extracts against major pests of soybean”

was planned to carry out the studies on the effect of

different plant extracts against major pests on

soybean under field condition at Department of

Agricultural Entomology, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh

Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola, Maharashtra, India during

kharif season 2009.

Details of materials used and the methods followed

during the course of studies are described herewith.

Details of experiment

1. Design : Randomized Block

Design (RBD)

2. Date of sowing : 01.07.2009

3. Season : Kharif 2009

4. Number of

treatments : Eight ( 8)

5. Number of

replications : Three (3)

6. Total number

of plots : 24

7. Variety : JS-335

8. Fertilizer dose : 30:75:00 kg NPK/ha

9. Plot size : Gross=3 m x 2.4 m

Net=2.40m x 2.24 m

10. Total experimental : 22.7 m x 12 m

area

11. Spacing : Row to Row = 30 cm

Plant to plant = 8 cm

12. Marginal spacing : Between replication

= 1.5 m

Between treatments

= 0.5 m

Table 1: Treatment details

Details of materials used and the methods followed during the course of studies are described herewith.

Treatment No. Treatments Dosage

T Pongamia pinnata (Karanj) leaves extract + dispersing agent 5%1

T Azadirachta indica (Neem) leaves extract + dispersing agent 5%2

T Calotropis procera (Rui) leaves extract + dispersing agent 5%3

T Lantana camera (Ghaneri) leaves extract + dispersing agent 5%4

T Karanj seed extract + dispersing agent 5%5

T Neem seed extract + dispersing agent 5%6

T Quinalphos 25 EC (for std. check) 0.05%7

T Untreated control 8

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONIn the present study, eight treatments consisting of

Karanj leaves extract 5%, Neem leaves extract 5%,

Rui leaves extracts 5%, Ghaneri leaves extract 5%,

Karanj seed extract 5%, Neem seed extract 5%,

Quinalphos 25 EC 0.05% and untreated control were

evaluated for their efficacy against soybean

defoliator i.e. tobacco leaf eating caterpillar, green

semilooper and hairy caterpillar. The per cent larval

reduction of soybean defoliators was recorded at 7

and 14 days after each application and the data were

presented in table 2, 3 and 4.


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 299

Per cent larval reduction of tobacco leaf eating

caterpillar after applicationFrom the data presented in table 2 it was observed

that all the treatments were significantly superior

over control in respect of per cent larval reduction of

tobacco leaf eating caterpillar at 7 and 14 days after

first, second and third application. The treatment

Quinalphos 25 EC 0.05% recorded maximum per

cent larval reduction (75.07, 61.55, 35.41, 33.52,

86.68, 87.30%) of tobacco leaf eating caterpillar and

was at par (*) with Neem seed extract 5% found to be

second best reatment in which more per cent larval

reduction was observed. However, the next best

treatments viz., Neem leaves extract 5% Karanj seed

extract 5%, Karanj leaves extract 5%, Rui leaves

extract 5% and Ghaneri leaves extract 5% were at

par with each other.

Similar findings are also reported by Shivankar et al.

(2008) in maximum per cent larval reduction in

Quinalphos 25 EC. In case of Neem seed extract and

neem leaves extract anologous results were also

reported by Ganeshan et al. (1995), Babu (1998),

Bassappa and Singh (2003) respectively. And for

Karanj seed and karanj leaves extract similar findings

were observed by Reena and Singh (2003), Mukesh

Kumar et al. (2002) and While in case of Rui leaves

extract similar results were recorded by Sahayaraj

(2002).

Per cent larval reduction of soybean semilooper after applicationThe data presented in table 3 indicated that all the treatments were significantly superior over untreated control in per cent larval reduction of

Table 2: Effect of different plant extract against tobaco leaf eating caterpillar.

1 Pongamia pinnata (Karanj) 34.39 28.29 22.31 21.76 60.95 48.98leaves extract (35.91) (32.13) (28.19) (27.81) (51.33) (44.42)

2 Azadirachta indica (Neem) 59.83 42.49 28.8 26.15 63.19 68.56leaves extract (50.67) (40.68) (32.46) (30.76) (52.65) (55.90)

3 Calotropis procera 45.69 25.63 24.66 22.5 59.3 40.23(Rui) leaves extract (42.53) (30.41) (29.78) (28.32) (50.36) (39.37)

4 Lantana camera (Ghaneri) 32.53 25.13 26.23 19.72 56.26 37.07leaves extract (34.78) (30.09) (30.81) (26.37) (48.60) (37.51)

5 Karanj seed extract 51.37 33.23 27.84 22.47 60.75 57.01(45.79) (35.20) (31.85) (28.30) (54.79) (49.03)

6 Neem seed extract 66.03 49.09 31.85 26.24 72.96 71.39(54.35) (44.48) (34.36) (30.82) (58.67) (57.67)

7 Quinalphos 25 EC 75.07 61.55 35.41 33.52 86.68 87.3(60.05) (51.68) (36.52) (35.38) (68.60) (69.13)

8 Untreated control 18.9 23.68 17.64 17.24 2.09 1.93(25.77) (29.12) (24.84) (24.54) (8.33) (8.00)

‘F’ test Sig. Sig. Sig. Sig. Sig. Sig.

SE(m)± 3.07 1.81 2.17 1.75 4.24 3.44

CD at 5% 9.32 5.50 6.59 5.31 12.87 10.46

CV % 12.16 8.56 12.1 10.44 14.96 13.23

TreatmentSl. No.

Tobacco leaf eating caterpillar

7daysafter first

spray

7daysafter first

spray

7daysafter first

spray

14 daysafter first

spray

14 daysafter first

spray

14 daysafter first

spray




ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 300

green semilooper. The treatment Quinalphos 25 EC 0.05% was most recorded significantly superior over all the treatments and recorded maximum (83.80, 66.64, 72.26, 63.93, 97.42, 97.00) per cent larval reduction and was at par with Neem seed extract 5% in some extent with recording of 60.90 per cent larval reduction after three spraying.

Amongst the plant extracts Neem seed extract 5% was at par with Neem leaves extract 5% found significantly superior to rest of the treatments recording more per cent larval reduction of green

semilooper. The treatment Rui leaves extract 5% and Ghaneri leaves extract 5% recording much significant per cent larval reduction respectively. Similarly minimum per cent larval reduction was observed in untreated control.

In Quinalphos 25 EC 0.05% similar observations on larval reduction of green semilooper was recorded by Singh and Singh (1988). In case of Neem seed extract and Karanj seed extract Jothi et al. (1991) are recommended for the control of green semilooper at 2% extract.

Table 3: Effect of different plant extract against soybean green semilooper.



3 Calotropis procera (Rui) 32.32 25.5 651.95 39.74 50.47 40.11leaves extract (34.65) (30.37) (46.12) (39.08) (45.27) (39.30)




7 Quinalphos 25 EC 83.80 66.64 72.26 63.93 97.42 97.00(66.27) (54.72) (58.22) (53.09) (80.76) (80.04)



SE(m)± 2.87 2.49 3.41 2.44 2.95 2.64

CD at 5% 8.72 7.56 10.35 7.40 8.95 8.03

CV % 12.65 12.47 13.51 10.58 10.13 9.81

TreatmentSl. No.

Green Semilooper7days

after firstspray

7daysafter first

spray

7daysafter first

spray

14 daysafter first

spray

14 daysafter first

spray

14 daysafter first

spray

Green Semilooper Green Semilooper

Per cent larval reduction of soybean hairy

caterpillarThe data presented in Table 4 indicated that all the

treatments were significantly superior over the

untreated control in per cent larval reduction of

hairy caterpillar. The treatment Quinalphos 25 EC

recorded significantly highest (78.76, 63.83, 76.54,

66.39, 71.77, 68.60) per cent larval reduction and

was at par with Neem seed extract 5% recording

more larval reduction.

Neem leaves extract 5% recording more significant

larval reduction and was at par with former

treatment Neem seed extracts 5%. Whereas the

remaining treatments of plant products Karanj seed

extract 5%, Karanj leaves extract 5%, Rui leaves

extract 5% and Ghaneri leaves extract 5% were third

in order of merit and recording significant per cent

larval reduction. Similarly minimum per cent larval

reduction 8.00% was recorded in untreated control.


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 301

Effect of different treatments on yield of soybean The yield recorded from the different treatments is

given in Table 5 indicated that significant differences

among the various treatments in respect to yield of

soybean.

Table 4 : Effect of different plant extract against soybean hairy caterpillar.



3 Calotropis procera (Rui) 47.27 33.77 46.61 46.35 37.68 34.28leaves extract (43.44) (35.53) (43.06) (42.91) (37.87) (35.84)




7 Quinalphos 25 EC 78.76 63.83 76.54 66.39 71.77 68.60(62.56) (53.03) (61.03) (54.57) (57.91) (55.92)



SE(m)± 2.80 2.55 2.70 2.58 2.83 3.02

CD at 5% 8.51 7.74 8.19 7.83 8.60 9.17

CV % 11.09 11.89 10.72 10.81 12.28 13.71

TreatmentSl. No.

Green Semilooper7days

after firstspray

7daysafter first

spray

7daysafter first

spray

14 daysafter first

spray

14 daysafter first

spray

14 daysafter first

spray

Green Semilooper Green Semilooper

Table 5 : Effect of different treatments on yield.

Sl No. Treatment Dosage Yield Increased Yield Increased per plot yield per per ha yield per

(kg) plot (kg) (kg) ha (kg)

1. Pongamia pinnata ( Karanj) 5% 0.985 0.235 1368 326leaves extract

2. Azadirachta indica (Neem) 5% 1.050 0.300 1458 416leaves extract

3. Calotropis procera (Rui) 5% 0.960 0.210 1333 291leaves extract

4. Lantana camera (Ghaneri) 5% 0.940 0.190 1305 263leave extract

5. Karanj seed extract 5% 1.000 0.250 1388 347

6. Neem seed extract 5% 1.200 0.450 1666 625

7. Quinalphos 25 EC 0.05% 1.450 0.700 2013 972

8. Untreated control 0.750 - 1041 -

‘F’ test Sig. - Sig. -

SE(m)± 0.082 - 1.175 -

CD at 5% 0.249 - 3.564 -

CV % 13.66 - 14.07 -


ISSN NO. 0976-450X

IJAS 2014 • 302

The significantly highest yield (2013 kg/ha) was

obtained due to application of Quinalphos 25 EC at

0.05% and it followed by Neem seed extract 5% and

Neem leaves extract 5% in which 1666 and 1458

kg/ha yield of soybean was recorded and these

treatments were found significantly superior to

Karanj seed extract 5%, Karanj leaves extract 5%, Rui

leaves extract 5% and Ghaneri leaves extract 5% in

which 1388, 1368, 1333 and 1305 kg/ha yield of

soybean were recorded respectively. Amongst these

treatments Karanj seed extract and Karanj leaves

extract were at par with each other. Significantly the

lowest (1061kg/ha) yield was recorded in untreated

control and it was least significant over all the

treatments.

Singh and Singh (1988) studied the field efficacy of

11 insecticides against grey semilooper and found

that Fenvalerate and Quinalphos were highly toxic

against grey semilooper and the crop was remained

free from larval population of grey semilooper and

also yielded highest quantity of grain yield (1700

kg/ha). Hence these findings are analogous to the

present investigation and gave support to the data.

Incremental cost benefit ratio of different

treatmentsConsidering the costs of inputs for different

treatments and corresponding yield obtained from

the different plots treatment, the incremental cost

benefit ratio (ICBR) of all treatments were worked

out at prevailing market rates and presenting the data

revealed that the Quinalphos 25 EC 0.05% was the

most economic and recording highest ICBR of 1:7.69

and it followed by Neem seed extract 5% and Neem

leaves extract 5% recording 1: 5.41 and 1:3.63 ICBR

respectively. The next better economic treatments

were Karanj leaves extract 5% and Rui leaves extract

5% recording ICBR 1:2.00 and 1:1.68 respectively.

In present study the various treatments Quinalphos

25 EC 0.05 was found to be most economic recording

highest ICBR 1:7.69 and it followed by Neem seed

extract 5% and Neem leaves extract 5% recording

ICBR of 1:5.41 and 1:3.63 respectively. Therefore

these findings are in conformity with the findings of

Das et al. (1998) they evaluated Neem derivatives on

soybean and found that ICBR was higher for

chemical insecticides followed by Neem seed kernel

extract 5%.

LITERATURE CITED1. Babu, R. 1998. Combined activity of Neem and

chinaberry extracts on feeding and ovipsoition

of Spodoptera litura Fab. Neem Newsletter.

15(3):25-27.

2. Basappa, H. and H. Singh, 2003. Effect of

sequential application of biopesticides and

endosulfan on Spodoptera litura. Proc. of the

National Symposium on Frontier Areas of

Entomological Research, IARI, New Delhi,

November, 5-7,pp.362-363.

3. Behara, U.K. and C.R. Satpathy, 1996. Action

of Calatropis procera against Spodoptera litura.

Insect Environment, 2:43.

4. Bhalkare, S.K. 1995. Management of soybean

pest complex with some chemical and plant

origin insecticides. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis

(unpub.), Dr. PDKV, Akola.

5. Bishnoi, V. 2005. Soybean: As Food Sopa Digest.

2(3):10-12.

6. Das, S.B., V.S. Kandalkar and O.P. Verma, 1998.

U s e o f N e e m d e r i v a t i v e s a g a i n s t

Melanagromyza obtusa (Maloch) and

Helicoverpa armigera (Hub.) infesting medium

maturing pigeonpea. Neem Newsletter.

15(2):18.

7. Ganeshan, S., K. Raman and B.N. Vyas, 1995.

Effect of certain plant extracts on growth and

development of three important noctuid pests.

Pestology. 12(10):18-23.

8. Gomez, K.A. and A.A. Gomez. 1984. Statistical ndprocedure for Agricultural Research, 2 Edn,

New York, John Willey and Sons, pp.643-645.

9. Jothi, B.D., A. Verghese and P.L. Tandon, 1991. Evaluation of different plant oils and extracts against citrus aphids Toxoptera citridus (Kirkedly). Indian J. Pl. Prot. 18(2):251-254.

10. More, G.D., N.R. Kadu and S.P. Sakhare, 1989. Evaluation of insecticides properties of indigenous plant products against S. litura. Nag. Agril. Coll. Mag. 50:1-3.

11. Probst, A.H. and R.W. Judd, 1973. Origin and Early History. In Soybeans : Improvement Production and Uses. Caldwell, B.E. (Eds.) American Society of Agronomy, Inc., Publisher, Wisconsin, USA, pp.1-3.


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12. Reena S.K. and R. Singh, 2003. National Symposium on Frontier areas on Entomological Research, 5-7 November at New Delhi, pp. 330-331.

13. Sahayaraj, K. and M.G. Paulraj, 1998. Screening the relative toxicity of some plant extracts to Spodoptera litura (Fab.) of groundnut Fresenius Environmental Bulletin. 7(9-10):557-560.

14. Sahayraj, K. 2002.Toxicity of C.gigantea combine with biocontrol agents against S.litura. Indian J. Ent. 64(3):292-300.

15. Shivankar, S.B., S.B. Magar, V.D. Shinde, R.G. Yadav and A.S. Patil, 2008. Field bioefficacy of chemical, botanical and bio-pesticides against Spodoptera litura Fab. in Sugarbeet. Indian J. of Agril. Sci. 27 (3)333-335

16. Singh, O.P. and K.J. Singh, 1988. Effectiveness

of some insecticides against the larval

population of grey semilooper Riveula sp. a new

pest of soybean in Madhya Pradesh. Pesticide.

22(6):29-31.


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ISSN NO. 0976-450X

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