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Transcript of NeBIO 2(2) March 2011
Editor-in-Chief: Khuraijam Jibankumar Singh, FLS
Managing Editors: Kripaljyoti Mazumdar
Associate Editors: Rajkumari Khedasana and Santosh Kumar
Guest Editor: Gunadhor Thongam
Copy Editors: Anju Arambam and Mehnaz Nasreen
Editorial Assistance: RK Jashmi Devi, Mary Thangjam and Bobbymoore Konsam
Advisory Board
Dr. S. K. Sharma, NBPGR, New Delhi
Dr. Ramakrishna, Zoological Survey of India
Dr. Asad Rahmani, BNHS, Mumbai
Dr. Nigel Collar, Birdlife International, UK
Dr. Partha Sarathi Roy, IIRS, NRSC & CSSTEAP
Dr. Vivek Menon, WTI, Delhi
Dr. S. Krishnan, ZSI, Chennai
Dr. M. Ahmedullah, BGIR, Noida
Dr. A. A. Mao, BSI, Itanagar
Dr. Vishwas Chavan, GBIF, Denmark
Dr. Hemant K. Badola, GBPIHED, Gangtok, Sikkim
Dr. Rita Singh, GGS Indraprastha University, Delhi
Dr. Abhik Gupta, Assam University, Silchar
Dr. P. L. Uniyal, University of Delhi, Delhi
Dr. H. Narendra Singh, Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune
Dr. Biseshwori Th., IBSD, Imphal
Dr. R. K. Sinha, Tripura University, Agartala
Dr. Ramachandra Laha, Mizoram University
Dr. Kh. Ashalata, Tezpur University, Tezpur
Dr. Swapna Prabhu, BNHS, Mumbai
Robindra Teron, Assam University, Diphu, Assam
P. K. Bhuyan, NE-CERD, Guwahati
Production Team
Production Managers: Kh. Vupendra Singh and G. Marangmei
Circulation and Publication Manager: RK Sanahanbi
Published, owned, printed and edited by Khuraijam Jibankumar Singh
NeBIO – an international peer reviewed quarterly journal published by North East Centre for Environmental Education and Research (NECEER), Imphal.
NeBIO publishes original research, short communication, book review, general and review articles on biodiversity and environment of North East India
and its adjoining region (Bangladesh, Bhutan, Southern China, Eastern Nepal and Myanmar).
NeBIO Research Journal is one of the initiatives of NECEER, Imphal. The journal aimed not only to encourage research works but also to bridge the gap
between various forms of methodologies, perspectives and knowledge production. The need for publishing such a journal was also prompted by the
fact that there has not been such an interaction between all those engaged in research areas and environmental education so far in the region
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
1
Notable observations on the melanistic Asiatic Golden cat (Pardofelis
temminckii) of Sikkim, India
Bashir T, Bhattacharya T, Poudyal K and Sathyakumar S
Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun - 248 001, Uttarakhand, India
Author for correspondence: [email protected]
© NECEER, Imphal
ABSTRACT
During our investigations on the status of carnivores and their prey in Prek Chu Catchment
(182 km²) of Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve (BR), Sikkim, from January 2009 to
August 2010, we obtained the first photographic confirmation of Asiatic Golden cat
Pardofelis temminckii from Sikkim and also a new altitudinal record (3,960 m) for the
species. Of the five felids recorded from the area, the Asiatic Golden cat had the second
highest photo-capture rate of 0.50±0.16 (mean±S.E) photo-captures/100 trap days.
Interestingly, all the photographs of the Asiatic golden cat from different parts of Prek Chu
were of melanistic form and did not resemble any of described three subspecies of Asiatic
Golden cat viz., Catopuma. t. temminckii, C. t. dominicanorum, and C. t. tristis. We
hypothesize that either all the golden cats of Khangchendzonga BR are melanistic or they
could be a different subspecies. Further research on these aspects using molecular
genetics is underway.
KEYWORDS: Asiatic Golden cat, Camera trapping, Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve,
Melanistic, Photo-capture rate, Subspecies
The Asiatic golden cat Catopuma temminckii Vigors
and Horsfield, 1827, (earlier known as Profelis
temminckii) is the largest of the group of smaller
Oriental felines with the exception of clouded
leopard �eofelis nebulosa (Prater, 1971; Mukherjee,
1998). Though it appears similar to the African
golden cat Profelis aurata, it is slightly heavier and
has a proportionately longer tail (Sunquist &
Sunquist, 2002) and males are larger than females
(Lekagul & McNeely, 1977; Tan, 1984; Nowell &
Jackson, 1996). The most common body coloration
is fox-red to golden-brown, but it can also be dark
brown, pale cinnamon, bright red, or grey with
occasional melanistic forms (Ghimirey & Pal,
2009). The pelt is usually quite uniform in colour,
but there is a morph marked with a pattern similar to
that of the ocelot Leopardus pardalis (Jutzeler, Xie
& Vogt, 2010). This morph is found all over the
species range in China, and has been reported
mainly from Sichuan and Tibet (subspecies
Catopuma temminckii tristis; Nowell & Jackson,
1996) and also detected in Bhutan (Wang, 2007).
The species is distributed in India, China, Tibet and
Nepal (Sunquist & Sunquist, 2002), as well as in
Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand (Nowell &
Jackson, 1996), Lao PDR, Cambodia, Vietnam
(Duckworth et al., 2005), on the Malaysian
peninsula, and in Sumatra, Indonesia (Sunquist &
Sunquist, 2002). In India, its occurrence has been
reported only from north eastern states viz., Assam
(Choudhury, 2007), Arunachal Pradesh (Datta,
Anand & Naniwadekar, 2008; Selvan & Salvador,
pers. comm. 2011) and Sikkim (Biswas & Ghose,
1982).
Study Area
Sikkim - a small mountainous state in the Eastern
Himalayan region is positioned at the convergence
of three biogeographic realms, viz., Palaearctic,
Africo-tropical and Indo-Malayan (Mani, 1974).
This area is recognized as the global biodiversity
hotspots (Myers et al., 2000) and also one among
the important global 200 ecoregions (Olson &
Dinerstein, 1998). The Khangchendzonga Biosphere
Reserve (BR) in Sikkim is one of the most
significant biodiversity hotspots of India with
Bashir et al, 1 - 4
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
2
varying eco-zones from temperate to arctic (1,220-
8,586 m), and a repository of many rare and
endangered flora and fauna primarily due to its
location and remarkable variations in altitude. The
Khangchendzonga BR encompasses temperate,
subalpine and alpine habitats (1,000 to 5,000 m) as
well as rocky slopes, glacial moraines and
permafrost areas (> 5,000 m) with diverse slope and
aspect categories, along with a range of wildlife use.
The BR consists of seven watersheds, viz., Lhonak,
Zemu, Lachen, Rangyong, Rangit, Prek and
Churong. We selected Prek chu (chu = river)
catchment as our intensive study (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Location of Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve in
sikkim, India showing the different watersheds including Prek Chu catchment – the intensive Study Area.
In spite of such rich biodiversity, there has been no
scientific survey or study on the assessment of
mammalian assemblage in the area (Sathyakumar et
al., 2009) with the exception of Tambe (2007) who
mentioned presence of some mammals in the region.
With this background, a study on carnivores,
ungulates and galliformes was initiated in
Khangchendzonga BR during 2008.
Methodology
Field surveys were carried out in all seven
watersheds of the BR, but Prek chu catchment was
selected and intensively surveyed because it
represents all the habitats of the BR (Sathyakumar et
al., 2009). Since camera trapping is the most
appropriate method for mammal inventories in all
environmental conditions especially for cryptic
animals (Silveira, Jacomo Anah & Diniz-Filho,
2003), we laid 27 camera trap units at 71 different
sites in 2 km x 2 km grids of the Prek chu catchment
placed along trails or paths that were actively used
by study species evident from their signs such as:
tracks, feeding signs, marking signs (spray, scrape),
pug/hoof marks, digging signs, scats/feaces and
other signs (Ahlborn & Jackson, 1988) with at least
one camera trapping unit covering each of the grids.
Camera units were attached to trees/rocks 15–30
cm above the ground and 3–5 m from a trail or
point where animal movement might be expected.
The camera trapping was done continuously (24
hrs) in all the seasons from January 2009 to August
2010 using Deercam (2), Wildview (2), Stealthcam
(18) and Moultrie (5) instruments.
Results
A sampling effort of 6,278 camera-days across 71
sample sites was achieved in the three survey zones
(1,407 camera-days in temperate, 3,061 camera-
days in subalpine, 1,810 camera-days in alpine),
resulting in 4,517 photographs. Of these, there
were 2,668 wild animals (mammals & birds), and
1,894 were domestic animals and human. We
obtained 25 photo captures of Golden cat, the first
photographic confirmation from sikkim. All the
golden cat captures were melanistic (Figure 2).
Neither of them had the most common fox-red to
golden-brown colour nor the morph marked with a
pattern similar to that of the ocelot. During the 20
months survey, 42 mammal species were recorded,
five of which were felids (n = 85 photographs).
Other felids captured were snow leopard Panthera
uncia, clouded leopard, jungle cat Felis chaus and
leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis. Melanistic
golden cat photographs were captured from 11 sites
situated in different grids of temperate (3 sites) and
subalpine forests (8 sites) ranging from 1,980 m to
3,960 m. While the sites situated in temperate zone
were dominated by Castanopsis-Symplococs-
Quercus forest, the sites situated in subalpine zone
were either dominated by Abies-Betula-
Rhododendron forest or dwarf Rhododendron at
>3,700 m. We calculated photographic encounter
rate (No. of photographs×100/Total No. of trap
days) for all felids and found that the photographic
encounter rate of the melanistic golden cat was the
second highest (0.50±0.16 [±S.E]) following the
leopard cat (2.16±0.72), a very common felid of
north east India. Photographic encounter rate of the
melanistic golden cat was highest in 2,500-3,000 m
elevation zone (0.77±0.51) followed by 3,500-
4,000 m (0.69±0.21), though the differences were
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
3
non-significant (Kruskal-Wallis Chi square = 4.09,
df = 3, p = 0.25).
Figure 2. Photo captures of melanistic golden cats from different
camera locations in Prek Chu catchment area of Khangchendz-
onga Biosphere Reserve
Discussion
Our observations have three very interesting
aspects. Firstly, all the photo captures were of
melanistic morphs which are reported as occasional
from elsewhere (Ghimirey & Pal, 2009). In China,
the ocelot morph seemed to be more common than
the uniform morph (Jutzeler et al., 2010) of golden
cat. The recent camera trap capture of this ocelot
morph from high altitudes of Bhutan (Wang, 2007)
has also confirmed its presence in Eastern-
Himalayan montane forests but not mentioned
about the presence of the melanistic form there.
Records from Arunachal Pradesh (Datta et al.,
2008; Selvan & Salvador, pers. comm. 2011) and
Assam (Choudhury, 2007) have also not mentioned
about the presence of the melanistic form of golden
cat. Interestingly, the occasional melanistic form
was photographed only from Makalu-Barun
National Park, Nepal (Ghimirey & Pal, 2009)
which is further west of Khangchendzonga BR.
Our results indicate that the melanistic form of
golden cat is more common in Khangchendzonga
BR than the common golden-brown or ocelot
morph though they may be present but not detected
and this may be the case for Nepal Himalaya also.
Secondly, none of the melanistic golden cat
photographs that we obtained from
Khangchendzonga BR matched with the
photographs and descriptions of the other three
subspecies viz., Catopuma. t. temminckii, C. t.
dominicanorum, C. t. tristis (Grubb et al., 2005).
Uniform coat colour without any pattern suggested
close resemblance with the most common and
widely distributed subspecies C. t. temmincki; but
non detection of this most common morph raises
the question as to whether all the golden cats of
Khangchendzonga BR are melanistic in colour or
they are a different subspecies of golden cat. To be
conclusive, we are investigating these aspects using
molecular genetic studies. Further investigations
using camera traps and genetics are required in
eastern parts of Sikkim to know the exact
distribution of this melanistic morph and for the
detection of ocelot and the common morph of
golden cat.
Thirdly, we report a new altitude record of 3,960 m
for the golden cat. There are studies suggesting
that the golden cat may be less common in
montane forests (Holden, 2001; Mishra,
Madhusudan & Datta, 2006), although it has been
recorded at an elevation of 3,738 m in Bhutan
(Wang, 2007). Our observations confirmed that it
is common in montane forests dominated by Abies
and Rhododendron, and it could also inhabit the
tree line zone with dwarf Rhododendrons.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to the Department of Forests,
Environment and Wildlife Management,
Government of Sikkim for granting us permission
to work in Sikkim. We thank the Wildlife Institute
of India, Dehradun for providing us the grants and
support.
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NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
5
Structure and molecular evolution of Cytochrome-b among the freshwater
turtle genera Pangshura and Batagur
Chittaranjan Baruah*and D.K. Sharma
Bioinformatics Centre, Department of Zoology, Gauhati University, Guwahati – 781 014, Assam, India
Author for correspondence: [email protected]
© NECEER, Imphal
ABSTRACT
An in-silico study has been performed for 3D structure prediction and evolutionary
profile of Cytochrome-b from the highly endangered Southeast Asian turtle species
under the genera Pangshura and Batagur (Testudines: Geoemydidae: Pangshura and
Batagur). The analyses were performed using the sequence data of Cytochrome -b,
extracted from Protein Knowledgebase (UniProtKB). The study represents the
application of comparative modelling method for protein 3D structure prediction. The
evolutionary analyses were conducted in MEGA5 by Maximum Likelihood, Neighbour-
Joining and Minimum Evolution methods. The predicted structures of Cytochrome -b
have 20-23 helices, 40-43 helix-helix interacts, 14-15 beta turns, 4-6 gamma turns. The
structures were found statistically significant at 95% confidence level and the same were
deposited to Protein Model Database (PMDB). Bootstrap test (1000 replicates) was
performed to validate the phylogenetic tree. Two distinct clades were observed in the
final tree. The results showed that the Cytochrome- b of P.sylhetensis evolved much
earlier than the other three species of Pangshura. Further, it reveals that P.smithii and
P.tentoria are the sister species followed by P.tecta and P.sylhetensis their successive
sister-taxa. Distinctness within the sub-species of P.tentoria is not clear in the
evolutionary data of Cytochrome-b protein. The computational models of Cytochrome- b
could be of use for further evaluation of molecular mechanism of function. The present
study also provides an indispensable groundwork for future conservation and genetic
analysis of other turtle genera.
KEYWORDS: Chelonian, Conservation, Cytochrome-b, Geoemydidae, in-silico
The turtle family Geoemydidae includes highly
endangered South-east Asian turtle group, mostly
are of freshwater turtles (Van Dijk et al., 2000;
IUCN, 2006). Most geoemydids are freshwater
turtles. The group also occupies a wide range of
habitats, from highly aquatic (Batagur and
Pangshura) to highly terrestrial (Geoemyda). The
genera Pangshura and Batagur are characterized by
more or less well defined sexual dimorphism (Ernst
et al., 2000; Das, 2001). Batagur [maximum shell
lengths 48–58 cm; (Ernst et al., 2000)] is
comparatively larger than Pangshura [maximum
shell lengths 20–26.5 cm; (Ernst et al., 2000)] and
Das (2001) placed them into two distinct genera.
Understanding differentiation of these turtles at
molecular level would significantly contribute to
more powerful conservation formulation. The
present study focuses on the structure and molecular
evolution of Cytochrome-b, an integral membrane
protein of approximately 400 amino acid residues
(Esposti et al., 1993). Although, there is an
availability of sequence information for Cyto-
chrome-b from genera Pangshura and Batagur, yet
there is scare structural and evolutionary inform-
ation available. Therefore, the biochemistry and
molecular mechanism of their functions are yet to be
fully understood. In silico analysis has been
performed for 3D structure prediction and evolution-
Baruah & Sharma 5-12
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
6
ary profile of Cytochrome-b from the highly endan-
gered Southeast Asian turtle genera Pangshura and
Batagur (Testudines: Geoemydidae: Pangshura and
Batagur) in order to identify their structural and
evolutionary properties and to test whether the
evolution of the Cyochrome-b protein within each
genus correspond well with distinct clades.
Materials and methods
Acquisition and alignment of sequences
In silico analysis was carried out on the sequence
information of Cytochrome-b protein extracted from
Protein Knowledgebase (UniProtKB). A total of 27
homologous sequences belonging genera Pangshura
(4 species) and Batagur (6 species) along with our
group sequence (Lissemys punctata) to test the
phylogeny were acquired both by database keyword
search and by BLASTp (Altschul et al., 1997) and
FASTA (Pearson, 1991) searches are listed in Table
1. The sequences were simultaneously aligned using
CLUSTAL-W (Higgins et al., 1994) and Modeller
(Fiser et al., 2000) programs.
Three-dimensional structure prediction
Comparative (Homology) modeling based on the 3D
coordinates of pdb ID 1BCC Chain C
(Oxidoreductase Cytochrome Bc1 Complex From
Chicken X-Ray Diffraction) were conducted by
using Modeller9v2 program (Marti-Renom et al.,
2000). The final 3D structures for Cytochrome-b
were evaluated (Giorgetti et al., 2005) by ERRAT
(Colovos and Yeates, 1993) and ProCheck
(Laskowski et al., 2003).
Molecular Phylogenetic analysis
Evolutionary analyses were conducted in MEGA5
(Tamura et al., 2011). The evolutionary history was
inferred by using three different methods namely the
Maximum Likelihood (Jones et al., 1992),
Neighbor-Joining (Saitou and Nei, 1987) and
Minimum Evolution (ME) methods (Rzhetsky and
Nei, 1992). The tree is predicted to scale, with
branch lengths in the same units as those of the
evolutionary distances used to infer the phylogenetic
tree. The percentage of replicate trees in which the
associated taxa clustered together in the bootstrap
test (1000 replicates) are shown next to the branches
(Felsenstein, 1985). The evolutionary distances were
computed using the Poisson correction method
(Zuckerkandl and Pauling, 1965) and are in the units
of the number of amino acid substitutions per site.
The analysis involved 27 amino acid sequences. All
positions containing gaps and missing data were
eliminated. The Maximum Likelihood tree was
searched with the highest log likelihood (-
1792.5671) value. When the number of common
sites was < 100 or less than one fourth of the total
number of sites, the maximum parsimony method
was used; otherwise BIONJ method with MCL
distance matrix was used. In Neighbor-Joining
method, the optimal tree with the sum of branch
length = 0.35969843 is considered. The ME tree was
searched using the Close-Neighbor-Interchange
(CNI) algorithm (Nei and Kumar, 2000) at a search
level of 0. The Neighbor-joining algorithm (Saitou
and Nei, 1987) was used to generate the initial tree.
Table 1. Currently recognized species and subspecies of Pangshura and Batagur analyzed in the present study and associated UniProtKB
Accession �o (According to Fritz and Havas, 2007) Genus Species/Sub species UniProtKB Accession !o.
Pangshura Gray, 1856
Pangshura smithii smithii (Gray, 1863) A7WMA7
Pangshura smithii pallidipes (Moll, 1987) A7WMB0
Pangshura sylhetensis (Jerdon, 1870) A7WMB5, A7WMB6, A7WMB7
Pangshura tecta (Gray, 1831) A7WMC0, A7WMC2, A7WMC4, A7WMC6
Pangshura tentoria tentoria (Gray, 1834) A7WMD1, A7WMC7
Pangshura tentoria circumdata (Mertens, 1969) A7WMD5, A7WME1
Pangshura tentoria flaviventer (Günther, 1864) A7WME2
Batagur Gray, 1856
Batagur baska (Gray, 1831) A7WM87, C9X3V8
Batagur dhongoka (Gray, 1835) A7WMA1, Q70M67
Batagur kachuga (Gray, 1831) A7WMA3
Batagur trivittata (Duméril & Bibron, 1835) A8Y844
Batagur borneoensis (Schlegel and Muller,1845) A7WM90, A7WNH1
Batagur affinis (Cantor, 1847) A7WNG4, C9X3V9
Out group (Lissemys Smith,1931)
Lissemys punctata (Bonnaterre, 1789) B6RAK9
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
7
Results and discussion
The predicted 3D Structures of Cytochrome-b
The model of Cytochrome-b for all three subspecies
of P. tentoria have 20 helices, 41 helix-helix
interacts, 15 beta turns, 5 gamma turns. In the sub
species of P. smithii , Cytochrome-b have 23 helices,
43 helix-helix interacts, 14 beta turns, 6 gamma
turns. P. tecta, P. sylhetensis, Batagur dhongoka, B.
kachuga and B. baska Cytochrome-b have 24 helices,
40 helix-helix interacts, 15 beta turns, 4 gamma turns
(Fig. 1 & 2). Procheck verification proved that the
models are of good quality as judged by
Ramachandran Plot (Fig. 3) (Ramachandran &
Sasisekharan, 1968). The overall Quality factors
predicted by ERRAT verification programme for the
predicted 3D structures of Cytochrome-b are more
than 95% (Fig. 4). After fruitful verification of the
coordinate files, the structures were successfully
deposited to PMDB Protein Model Database (Tiziana
et al., 2006) of University of Rome and now
available for download. Each 3D structure of
Cytochrome-b has been assigned an unique PMDB
ID for the coordinate entry.
Figure 1. The predicted 3D structures of Cytochrome-b displayed by UCSF Chimera (A. Pangshura, B. Batagur)
Key:
Sec. struc: Helices labelled H1, H2, ... and strands by their sheets A, B, ...
Helix Strand
Motifs:
beta turn
gamma turn
Disulphides:
disulphide bond
Figure 2. Secondary structure assignment of the predicted three-dimensional model of Cytochrome-b.
A B
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
8
Figure 3. Ramachandran analysis of the backbone dihedral angles PSI (y) and PHI (f) for the final structure of Cytochrome-b protein
(from P. sylhetensis) Red region represents the most favored region, yellow = allowed region, light yellow = generously
allowed region, white = disallowed region [ProCheck].
Figure 4. ERRAT verification for the overall Quality factors of the predicted 3D structures of Cytochrome-b A. Pangshura (99.407), B. Batagur (97.329)
A
B
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
9
Evolution of Cytochrome-b among the genera
Pangshura and Batagur
All tree-building methods revealed Cytochrome-b of
Pangshura as perfectly supported monophylum with
bootstrap or posterior probability values of more
than 70% (Fig. 5 A-C). There were a total of 344
positions in the final dataset. The results are highly
consistent with earlier molecular genetics study
involving 12S rRNA genes (Shaffer et al., 1997) that
within Batagur and Pangshura, all species
correspond with well-supported clades. However,
the evolutonery tree of Cytochrome- b supports the
fact that P.tecta is the closest relative of
P.sylhetensis, while P.tecta, P.smithii and P.tentoria
are found as sister groups. Batagur dhongoka is
found to be an intermediate species of the two
genera that belongs to genus Batagur. Distinctness
of the subspecies within P. tentoria is badly
supported by the evolutonery data of Cytochrome-b
protein.
The analysis involved 27 amino acid sequences. The
percentage of replicate trees in which the associated
taxa clustered together in the bootstrap test (1000
replicates) is shown next to the branches
(Felsenstein, 1985).
A. The evolutionary history was inferred by using
the Maximum Likelihood method based on the
JTT matrix-based model (Jones et al., 1992). The
tree with the highest log likelihood (-1792.5671)
is shown.
B. The evolutionary history was inferred using the
Neighbor-Joining method (Saitou and Nei,
1987). The optimal tree with the sum of branch
length = 0.35969843 is shown. The tree is drawn
to scale, with branch lengths in the same units as
those of the evolutionary distances used to infer
the phylogenetic tree. The evolutionary distances
were computed using the Poisson correction
method (Zuckerkandl and Pauling, 1965).
C. The evolutionary history was inferred using the
Minimum Evolution method (Rzhetsky and Nei,
1992). The optimal tree with the sum of branch
length = 0.35969843 is shown. The evolutionary
distances were computed using the Poisson
correction method (Zuckerkandl and Pauling,
1965).
The equality of evolutionary rate between sequences
A (A7WMB5 sylhetensis) and B (A7WMA3
kachuga), with sequence C (B6RAK9 Lissemys
punctata) used as an outgroup in Tajima's relative
rate test (Tajima, 1993). The χ2 test statistic was 0.00
(P = 1.00000 with 1 degree[s] of freedom) There
were a total of 345 positions in the final dataset.
There were 277 identical sites and 11 divergent sites
in all three sequences. Unique differences in
sequence A and B are 7, while in sequence C is 43.
The structure Cytochrome-b can be helpful in
structural biology for further investigations on
allocatoion of amino acid residues in each fold,
prediction of active sites, molecular mechanism of
function and structure based phylogeny. The
structures of Cytochrome-b were found to be
statistically significant by the structure verification
programs. Sequence search vs existing PDB entries
revealed that the predicted structure has higher fold
similarities with PDB IDs 1bcc (C, Cytochrome bc1
complex from chicken) (75%) and 2bcc (C,
Stigmatellin-bound cytochrome bc1 complex from
chicken) (75%). The present analysis corroborate
that the genus Pangshura is monophyletic. The
modeling of Cytochrome b of genus Pangshura
gains importance for the structural biology and even
to the conservation genetic research from several
angles.
The present evolutionary study on Cytochrome-b
protein provides a stable phylogenetic hypothesis for
all Pangshura species, with the suggestion that
P.smithii and P.tentoria as sister species followed by
P.tecta and P.sylhetensis as their successive sister-
taxa.Molecular analysis is now a standard tool in
taxonomic and phylogenetic studies, focusing
mostly on genes in the mitochondrial genome
(Caccone et al., 1999) or DNA loci in the nuclear
genome (Cao et al., 2000). The present study
provides an indispensable groundwork for future
molecular analyses at the protein level. The choice
of molecular data is crucial for phylogenetic
analyses and molecular studies can now be tailored
specifically for particular phylogenetic groups and/
or questions (Lamb and Lydeard, 1994).
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
10
A7WME2 tentoria flaviventer
A7WMC7 tentoria tentoria
A7WME6 PtcXPtf
A7WME5 tentoria flaviventer
A7WMD5 tentoria circumdata
A7WME1 tentoria circumdata
A7WMD1 tentoria tentoria
A7WMB0 smithii pallidipes
A7WMA7 smithii smithii
A7WMC2 tecta
A7WMC0 tecta
A7WMC4 tecta
A7WMC6 tecta
A7WMB5 sylhetensis
A7WMB7 sylhetensis
A7WMB6 sylhetensis
Q70M67 dhongoka
A7WMA1 dhongoka
A7WM90 borneoensis
A7WNH1 borneoensis
A8Y844 trivittata
A7WM87 baska
C9X3V8 baska
A7WMA3 kachuga
C9X3V9 affinis
A7WNG4 affinis
B6RAK9 Lissemys punctata
99
83
88
86
70
74
75
99
99
76
90
84
74
94
A7WMD5 tentoria circumdata
A7WME1 tentoria circumdata
A7WME5 tentoria flaviventer
A7WME6 PtcXPtf
A7WMC7 tentoria tentoria
A7WME2 tentoria flaviventer
A7WMD1 tentoria tentoria
A7WMB0 smithii pallidipes
A7WMA7 smithii smithii
A7WMC2 tecta
A7WMC0 tecta
A7WMC4 tecta
A7WMC6 tecta
A7WMB5 sylhetensis
A7WMB7 sylhetensis
A7WMB6 sylhetensis
Q70M67 dhongoka
A7WMA1 dhongoka
A7WM90 borneoensis
A7WNH1 borneoensis
A8Y844 trivittata
C9X3V9 affinis
A7WNG4 affinis
A7WMA3 kachuga
A7WM87 baska
C9X3V8 baska
B6RAK9 Lissemys punctata
99
97
74
82
93
99
88
70
100
99
75
97
56
90
85
72
98
71
0.000.020.040.060.08
A7WMD5 tentoria circumdata
A7WME1 tentoria circumdata
A7WME5 tentoria flaviventer
A7WME6 PtcXPtf
A7WMC7 tentoria tentoria
A7WME2 tentoria flaviventer
A7WMD1 tentoria tentoria
A7WMB0 smithii pallidipes
A7WMA7 smithii smithii
A7WMC2 tecta
A7WMC0 tecta
A7WMC4 tecta
A7WMC6 tecta
A7WMB5 sylhetensis
A7WMB7 sylhetensis
A7WMB6 sylhetensis
Q70M67 dhongoka
A7WMA1 dhongoka
A7WM90 borneoensis
A7WNH1 borneoensis
A8Y844 trivittata
C9X3V9 affinis
A7WNG4 affinis
A7WMA3 kachuga
A7WM87 baska
C9X3V8 baska
B6RAK9 Lissemys punctata
99
97
73
82
94
99
85
72
100
99
75
97
57
91
86
71
97
72
0.000.020.040.060.08 Figure 5. A-C. Evolutionary relationship of Cytochrome-b among Pangshura and Batagur.
A B
C
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
11
Conclusion
The present study can be used as an additional
method for identification of species as well as for
identification of unknown samples with unusual
appearances and could be made available for the
identification of confiscated specimens. The
predicted 3D structures presented here can serve as a
guide for the allocation of amino acid residues
involved in each fold, which is important for further
investigations on molecular mechanism of functions.
The molecular evolutionary analysis underline that
further sampling is in dire need for developing
effective conservation strategies. Pangshura
represent distinct genera with four well supported
species. However, distinctness within the three
currently recognized sub-species of P.tentoria is not
clearly visible by the evolutionary analysis of
Cytochrome- b protein. Much is still to be learned
about how the protein can manipulate a sequence of
base pairs in such a peculiar way that results in a
fully functional organism.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Department
of Biotechnology, Govt. of India for financial
support to establish the Bioinformatics
Infrastructure Facility (BIF)
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NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
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Traditional Knowledge and Bioresource utilization among Lepcha in
North Sikkim
Sudin Pal* and Debnath Palit
*Department of Conservation Biology, Durgapur Government College, West Bengal
Department of Botany, Durgapur Government College, Durgapur, West Bengal.
Author for correspondence : [email protected]
© NECEER, Imphal ABSTRACT
The present communication concerns with the documentation of such knowledge of the
Lepchas communities of North Sikkim and brings into light medicinal uses of 44 species of
angiosperms. The study also encompasses regarding their socio-religious life, ethnomusic
and ethno culture. The ethno -biological research may be very helpful to the tribal to
maintain their hierarchy as well as it may be ready to lend a hand to modern society for the
need of drugs from the tribal peoples.
KEYWORDS: Bioresources, Lepchas, Traditional knowledge, North Sikkim, Herbal medicines.
The Lepchas are the very autochthones of Sikkim and Darjeeling and their land was extended from Himalayas down to Tilalaya in the vast plain of India. They were very primeval people of the world
and once a ruling race equal in power and status to many contemporary outside rulers. Lepchas call themselves as Rongkup/Rumkup mean „the son of the snowy peak. Ethnobiological studies involve the examination of reciprocal relationships between
indigenous societies and the living world. Specially, ethnobotany includes any such studies, which relate to plants, including how they are classified and named, how they are used and managed and how
they evolve under the influence of man (Jain, 1981; Cotton, 1998).
Sikkim Himalaya is a rich repository of medicinal plants that has been nurturing several distinct ethnomedicinal systems through ages. Historically,
Darjeeling was once a part of Sikkim and hence it is customary for authors to include Darjeeling hills when preparing any book or write up on medicinal plants of Sikkim Himalayas (Biswas & Chopra, 1956; Yonzone, 1984; Rai & Sharma, 1994; Rai et
al, 1998; Rai & Bhujel, 1999;). Darjeeling Himalayan region being very rich in biodiversity is one of the potential homes for medicinal plants in the country (Das, 1995; Saini, 2000; Rai & Bhujel,
2002; Das & Mandal, 2003).While revealing the
current status of ethnomedicinal plants in the Darjeeling Himalaya have categorized 40 species (14%) out of a total of 281 species as threatened (Cheetri, 2005). The earliest mention of the
medicinal use of plants is found in the traditional tale of Tamsangthing, perhaps the oldest repository of Lepchas knowledge, having originated along with Pundim Choo, which is the Pundim mountain peak. Ethnomedicine in vogue among Lepchas of
Darjeeling-Sikkim region has remained inadequately represented in literature (Gurung & Palit, 2007). Since there has been a rapid erosion of this indigenous knowledge due to their modern ways of
life, immediate documentation was felt necessary and on the other hand this ethnomedicobotanical investigation may possibly open an avenue for the therapeutic assessment in primary health care system. Material and methods This study mainly concentrates on Dzongu, Lingthem, Hegyathang, Gour and Lingoong blocks of North Sikkim. A rapid resource appraisal was conducted in the Lepchas localities of these places during 2006-2010 using structured questionnaire (Rao, 1989). No less than four Maondaok, Lepcha medicine men and 15 knowledgeable aged persons and 10 middle-aged women were used as primary sources of information. The names of plants used by
Pal & Palit 13 -17
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
14
them were communicated in Nepali. Information thus recorded were cross checked and verified through observations during frequent visits to the study sites. The species were documented along with their locally used names, medicinal uses and plant parts (s) used (Table-1).
Results and discussion The way of life of the Lepchas of Sikkim, Darjeeling, Ilam and Zaongsaw is reflected by their religious practices, dogmas, history, language, literature, manners, etiquettes, tradition, songs, dances and the geographical of the country.
Lepchas Living style The Lepchas were very much ford of hunting, agriculture, gardening and rearing of cows. Like other tribe they also has priest that is known as “bongthing” and it is mostly used to kill the ox as an escape during any religious anniversary and festival. The Lepchas have their national weapon called “Bamphok” and most of them used to hold it on their waists having covered it by a small box made up of wood.
Traditional Utensils used by Lepchas: In early day Lepcha people use to make utensils of woods, bamboos etc. the Lepcha architecture has been of highest order from the earliest times, it displays style of its own. The art of making utensils are purely of woods (Table 1).
Lepchas as Food gatherer There was the custom of gathering foods from forest like fruits, yam edible wild roots etc. among the Lepchas tribe and they used to cultivate cardamom and ginger but at present they also cultivate other
vegetables and crops. They used to collect yam from jungle by digging up the land and they filled the hole by leaves and litter, so that it will be easy to take out those food materials for the next time. According to the regulation act of Lepchas regarding the conservation of forest, that one should grow eight sprouts in exchange of cutting one tree. This system was called “Bukchung” in Lepchas language.
Architecture The Lepchas architecture and art of making musical instrument, houses, weapons etc has been of highest order from the earliest times. The bamboo called “poo” in Lepcha is the most useful plant by which they made construction of cane bridges, bamboo rafts, houses etc. They used 22 verities of bamboos and that are abundantly found up to 12,000 ft high attitude of Sikkim. The bamboo seeds are also used to make into a fermented drink and into bread in time of scarcity. The Lepchas says that when bamboo flowers, it may be a bad signs like warning of famine, scarcity of food, disaster etc.
Lepchas Dress The Lepchas used to wear clothes which are known
as “paki”. Women were used to wear sari covering
their legs from above waist and stretching by
bamboo’s pin in shoulder left its border outside to
knee called “Dumhun”, which is made of black
cotton or silk. They have a kind of hat on their head,
which is round in shape made from bamboos.
Bioresources and Socio-Religious life In Lepchas communities there were many traditions
customs and rituals which they followed in their life
from birth to death.
Table 1. Traditional Utensils used by Lepchas
Sl.no Name of utensils Plant used Uses
1 FYET (Chimti) Bamboo (Dendrocalamus sp.) Holding utensils.
2 KAAYU (cup) Bamboo (Dendrocalamus sp.) Drinking.
3 PUTAK Bamboo (Bambusa sp.) As holder where spoons and other are kept. 4 THURMA (spoon) Bamboo (Dendrocalamus sp.) Serving purpose
5 SAARU LADLES (daru) Bamboo (Dendrocalamus sp.) Serving purpose
6 TAFI (dalo) Bamboo (Bambusa sp.) Keeping goods or cereals 7 TAALYLOONG (nanglo) Bamboo (Bambusa sp.) Husking.
8 PODHYUM Bamboo (Bambusa sp.) Utensils
9 CHIMOO YOJMOO (chee-putak) Bamboo (Dendrocalamus sp.) Utensils
10 TALKE Bamboo (Dendrocalamus sp.) Utensils
11 TOANGKO (Basket) Bamboo (Dendrocalamus sp.) Keeping vegetables and foods. 12 CHOM TAFT Bamboo (Dendrocalamus sp.)
13 GYANGRO Bamboo (Dendrocalamus sp.) Used for making sunset 14 TEA FILTER PUNJET Bamboo (Dendrocalamus sp.) Tea filter.
15 KOYUK Bamboo (Dendrocalamus sp.) Use for serving
During their festivals celebration that is “losoong”, Tendong lho rum faat” (celebration of the tendong
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
15
hill) they make “chang” from maize (Zea mays) and
millets (Pennisetum glaucum) and chapatti from the
small girded pieces of maize. All aspects of folk
literature namely folk song, folk talks of their land
had profuse reference to trees, shrubs, climbers,
flowers and fruits. Folk proverbs having reference to
plants can indicative of the deep insight, common
sense and practical wisdom of the common folk.
Ethnomedine among Lepchas They use folk medicine not only for human but also for animals. The ethnic group has believed about
magi-co-religious belief about plant like sacrificial
plants, plants as human adornment and plants in puja
(Rum taat in lepcha) etc. The knowledge about the plants has come through generation verbally to the ethic people of Dzongu. They generally used flowers, roots, barks, leaves seeds etc of plants as
medicine. Some medicinal plants are freshly taken while some are preserved either by sun drying or by keeping it in a bamboo container with raw salt. During the course of the present study, medicinal
uses of 44 plants could be recorded from the Lepcha communities residing in the district of North Sikkim, a precise account of which is presented in Table 2.
Table 2. The medicinal uses of plants as documented from lepchas in north Sikkim
Name and Family Local name Part(s) used Diseases/ailments cured and related uses
Artemisia vulgaris L. [Asteraceae] Titepathi Whole plants Skin diseases, ulcer and nose bleeding, Gout
and rheumatism Mosquito and insect repellent.
Helianthus annuus L.[Asteraceae] Ghamphul Seed Lung diseases, cough, cold and bronchitis.
Coriandrum sativam L.[Apiaceae] Aoosu Seeds and leaves Flatulence
Marsdenia tenacissima Wight & Arnott Bahuni lahara Root leaves Gonorrhea
[Asclepiadaceae]
Cucurbita pepo DC. [Cucurbitaceae] Farsi Seeds leaves and fruit Intestinal worm infestation and leaves for
healing burns
Luffa acutangula Roxb. [Cucurbitaceae] Ghiraula Seeds, leaves Seeds- in constipation and leaves in granular
conjunctivitis.
Momordica charantia L. [Cucurbitaceae] Karela Leaves, fruits In gastric troubles
Phyllanthus emblica L. [Euphorbiaceae] Amala Bark and fruit Dysentery, indigestion, gonorrhea, with honey
cures leucorrhoea, relieves pain during
micturition.
!asturtium officinale R. Brown Scurvy, toxin and nicotine related health
[Brassicaceae] Simrayo Entire plant problems
Lens esculenta Moench.[Fabaceae] Musuri dal Seeds or grains Measles
Mimosa pudica L.[ Mimosaceae] Buharijhar Leaves and root Piles.
Glycine max L. Mers [Fabaceae] Bhatmas Roots and seeds Food supplement in general weakness.
Dichroa febrifuga Lour.[Hydrangeaceae] Basaka Roots and leaves Decoction in fevers, malaria.
Juglans regia L. [Juglandaceae] Okhar Bark and fruits Bark- intestinal worm infestation and Fruits in
rheumatism.
Mentha spicata L.[Lamiaceae] Pudina Leaves and shoots tip Headache, indigestion and cholera.
Allium sativum L. [Liliaceae] Indigestion, flatulence, mountain sickness.
Lasun/ Garlic Leaves of bulbs Juice- in skin diseases and as ear drops for ear-
ache.
Allium cepa L.[Liliaceae] Onion Bulb Stimulant, expectorant, amenorrhoea, summer
sunstroke.
Gloriosa superba L.[Liliaceae] Kulhari Roots and flowers, Abdominal pain, itching, piles, etc.
tubers
Viscum album L. [Loranthaceae] Harchur Whole plant Muscular pain, fracture
Hibiscus esculentus L.[Malvaceae] Bhendi Fruits Gonorrhea, painful urination.
Cedrela toona Roxb. Ex Rottl. & Tun Bark or flower Powerful astringent, various ulcerations.
Wild.[Meliaceae] Flowers in disturbed menstruation.
Michelia champaca L. [Magnoliaceae] Champ Bark, flower and Bark in fever and pharyngitis and lung-
fruits congestions.
Piper longum L. [Piperaceae] Pipla Fruits and roots Asthma, rheumatism, gonorrhea, piles,
enlargement of spleen.
Hordeum vulgare L.[Poaceae] Jauno Grain Health breakdown.
Imperata cylindrica (L.)Rausch. Vaugan Siru Root, flower and stem Fever, cough, internal bleeding, jaundice and
[Poaceae] kidney problems.
Rumex nepalensis Sprengel [Polygonaceae] Halhaley Root and leaves Colic pain, syphilis, ulcer; root paste in wounds
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
16
Ethno-music There traditional instrument includes; Satsong, Tungbok, Bangno Tungdar, Tungdarbong, suno, palerth etc which really thrills us with its sounds. “Satsang” is made of bamboo (Dendrocalamus sp.)
“Paleet” made up of bamboo (Dendrocalamus sp).
“Tungdar” made up of “Katus” plant (Castonopsis
sp) etc. (Table 3).
Conclusion Biodiversity conservation has been a major topic of concern all over the world in this decade. Depletion
of natural resources at a first rate challenges world scientists to conserve our nature, wildlife and the socio-cultural atmosphere of inhabitants in a sustainable manner. The rich diversity of
phytoresources in Sikkim Himalayas needs to be scanned judiciously. Preservation and conservation of plant genetic resources have prime importance and need to be adequately studied on priority basis. Lepchas are one of the primitive tribes to have used
their surrounding plants and animals for their health and sustenance. Since exploitation of natural plant resources is in full swing in the entire Sikkim Himalayan region and many of the medicinally
useful plant species have been depleted drastically, their conservation has become need of the hour.
Habitat depletion has also been conveying threats to them. As such, restorative steps must be taken in these areas and initiatives should be taken for
sustainable use of these taxa. Moreover documentation of indigenous knowledge is globally given priority since together with phytoresources the knowledge about their uses has also fallen victim to
extinction. In view of this the present work puts into record from primary sources medicinal uses of 44 species against 62 diseases which include such dreadful ones as bronchitis, tuberculosis, asthma, diarrhea, dysentery, measles, malaria, cholera,
ulcerations, and typhoid. The herbal prescriptions against these and other diseases are very simple which involves use of 17 cultivated and 24 wild species. One of the noteworthy features is that only
in 15 cases roots are used. Since use of roots for medicine often involves death of the plant the Lepchas prefer to use other plant parts (Table 2). Of the different remedies, the antitubercular and
antiasthmatic medicines are the most important ones since the hard life of Lepchas in the hills always puts a heavy load of risk on their pulmonary organs and susceptibility to tuberculosis is also very high. The remedies documented in this work need
certainly to be therapeutically and clinically
Aconitum heterophyllum Wallich Bikhuma Root Stomach ache, fever, cough, asthma. [Ranunculaceae]
Rosa macrophyla Nigyle [Rosaceae] Kadaorip Petals, buds, and roots Hemorrhage. Buds and roots- useful in curing tuberculosis.
Rubus ellipticus Smith [Rosaceae] Aselu Roots, fruit, young Colic pains and helminth infestation in children. shoot
Rubus moluccanus L.[Rosaceae] Bhotay pan leaves Amenorrhea. Rubia cordifolia L. [Rubiaceae] Manjito Roots, fruits and Skin disease.
leaves
Evodia fraxinifolia [Rutaceae] Khanakpa Fruits Typhoid and indigestion. Zanthoxylum acanthopodium L. [Rutaceae] Boke timbur Seeds, bark and fruits Fever, dyspepsia and cholera. Gout, rheumatism
and toothache. Aegle marmelous Corr. [Rutaceae] Bael Fruit and roots Constipation, loss of appetite, dysentery. Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Stenberg Roots Diarrhea and dysentery [Saxifragaceae]
Datura fastuosa L. [Solanaceae] Kajyoo Roots, and seeds Rheumatic swelling, lumbago, sciatica, chronic asthma and for mad-dog bites.
Lycopersicon esculentum Miller [Solanaceae] Golbhera Fruits and leaves Headaches and rheumatism. Leaf juice in wound
Daphne cannabina Lour.ex Wall Kagate Roots Antidotes in poisoning. [Thymelacaceae]
Leea robusta L.[Vitaceae] Puntom Leaves and young Bandaged over the fractured, relives pain, body shoots. ache and in swollen legs.
Amomum subulatum L.[Zingiberaceae] Bara alainchi Seeds and roots Infection of teeth and gums. Curcuma caesia Roxb.[Zingiberaceae] Geyshying Rhizome Flatulence. Curcuma longa L.[Zingiberaceae] Hardi Rhizome Sprain and wounds, cough and cold. The fresh
juice for skin infections. Zingiber officinale Roxb. [Zingiberaceae] Adua Rhizome Cold, throat troubles, asthma, palpitation, loss
of appetite, piles, dropsy and rheumatism.
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
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Table 3. Some of the ethno musical instruments used by Lepcha Sl.no. Musical instrument Plant parts used Description of Instrument 1 Satsong Bamboo Dendrocalamus sp. Length - 24 inches, Circumferance - 30 inches,
Length - 20 inches Hollow wooden block+animal skin + Length - 36 inches, Diameter - 11 inches, Height -
2 Tung bok strings (made of stinging nettle) 6 inches, Strings - 3 inches.
3 Bangno Animal skin + Hollow wooden trunk Diameter - 36 inches, Height - 30 inches, Sticks - Bambusa sp. one pairs.
4 Bampathyut Short bamboo Dendrocalamus sp. Length - 2 inches.
5 Tangdyo Chipped wood of bamboo Length - 6 inches. Dendrocalamus sp.
6 Panthong paleet Bamboo Dendrocalamus sp. Shapely thin bamboo with four holes.
Length - 30 inches, Diameter - 10 inches up broad 7 Chakparzang Castronopsis sp. side and 15 inches of hard side 8 Tungdar (madal) Bamboo +Animal skin Dendrocalamus sp. Diameter - 26 inches, Height - 1 inches 9 Tungdarbong Bambusa sp. Length - 20 inches, Diameter - 15 inches 10 Nibyokopalseth Dendrocalamus sp. Long bamboo with five holes 11 Popatek Dendrocalamus sp. Small bamboo with four holes.
validated. Through ethnobotanical researches many
knowledge can be gained which can be helpful to
the modern and civilized society. In another aspect
the pharmacologists can study the use of medicinal
plants by the Lepcha along with their active
constituents and the new brand of drugs can be
obtained with high efficiency and a low price. As in
all, the respective communities can protect the
plants use by the tribal and the problem of
deforestation can also be solved or controlled.
References Biswas, K. and Chopra, R.N., 1956.Common
medicinal plants of Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalaya, Bengal Govt. Press, Calcutta.
Cheetri, D.R., Basent, D., Chiu, R.F., Kalikotay, S. and Cheetri, G., 2005. Current status of ethnomedcinal plants in the Darjeeling himalaya, Current science, 89(2): 264-268.
Cotton, C.M., 1998. Ethnobotany Principles and
Applications, 3rd
edition, John Wiley and Sons publisher, NewYork, USA.
Das, A.P., 1995.Diversity of angiospermic flora of Darjeeling hills, In: Taxonomy and Biodiversity, edited by A.K. Pandey, CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi.
Das, A.P. and Mandal, S., 2003. Some medicinal Plants of Darjeeling Hills, WWF-India, West Bengal State Office, Kolkata.
Gurung, S. and Palit, D., 2007. Medicinal plant lore among Lepchas in Darjeeling District, West Bengal, India, In: !ational Symposium on Medicinal and aromatic plants for Economic Benefit of Rural People (MAPER), Pp 37-41, Ramakrishna Vivekananda Mission Institute of
Advanced Studies, Kolkata.
Jain, S.K., 1981. Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta.
Rai, P.C., Sarkar, A., Bhujel, R.B. and Das, A.P., 1998. Ethnomedicinal studies in some fringe areas of Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalaya. Journal of Hill Research. 11: 12 – 21.
Rai, S.K. and Bhujel, R.B., 1999. Notes on some less known ethnomedicinal plants from the Darjeeling Himalaya. . Journal of Hill Research, 12: 160-163.
Rai, S.K. and Bhujel, R.B. 2002. Ethnic uses of some monocotyledonous plants in the Darjeeling Himalayan region, In: Perspectives of Plant Biodiversity, edited by AP Das, (Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun), Pp.635 – 644.
Rai, L.K and Sharma, E., 1994. Medicinal plants of Sikkam Himalayas status, uses and potential, Bisen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh , Dehradun.
Saini. R.P., 2000. Medicinal plants of Darjeeling hills-A study by Silviculture hills Division. Indian Forester., 128: 822 – 837
Yonzone, G.S., Yonzone, D.K.N. and Tamang, K.K., 1984. Medicinal plants of Darjeeling district. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany, 5: 605 – 616.
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
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Sighting of Asian Painted Frog (Kaloula pulchra) from West Bhubanban (near Agartala city), West Tripura district, Tripura
Partha Pratim Bhattacharjee*, D Laskar, J Majumder, R Lodh and T Das
Ecology & Biosystematics Laboratories,
Dept. of Zoology, Tripura University, Suryamaninagar-799130, West Tripura, Tripura, India
Author for correspondence: [email protected]
© NECEER, Imphal
On 27th September 2010, a colourful frog was found
in the kitchen garden of the first author at West
Bhunanban, 2 kms away from Agartala city, West
Tripura. Geographically it lies between 23051.565´
N and 91015.737´ E with an altitudinal gradient of
48 m above sea level. It was a small sized frog with
squat round body and short and thick hind feet.
Body colour was mahogany brown backs and cream
stomachs. The distinctive stripes down the side can
range from copper-brown to salmon pink in colour.
Fingers were long without webs and tips were
swollen as adhesive pads. The sub-articular tubercles
were distinct and present on fingers and toes.
Shovel-shaped metatarsal tubercles were present,
inner larger than the outer ones. Tibio-tarsal
articulation reached the shoulder when hind limbs
were extended and bent. The frog was identified as a
Painted Frog (Kaloula pulchra) after carefully
examining it with the help of the field guide of
Daniel (1963a,b, 1975); Vyas and Parasharya
(2004). The photograph (Figure 1) was identified to
be that of Kaloula pulchra and was recorded from
West Bhubanban, near Agartala city, Tripura.
The Painted Frog, Kaloula pulchra Gray, 1831
belongs to the family Microhylidae and is widely
distributed in Peninsular India and Sri Lankan
region. It is distributed over a 2,283,959 km2 area
from Nepal and north-eastern India through
Myanmar and Thailand to southern China,
Singapore, Sumatra, Borneo and Sulawesi (Inger
and Lian, 1996). In Indian region this species is also
strewn in West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh, Assam, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat
and Tripura (Dutta, 1997; Sarkar, et al., 2002; Vyas
and Parasharya, 2004). The frog inhabits a wide
range of habitats, including wetlands, riverbanks,
forests and residential, agricultural and urban areas
(IUCN et al., 2004).
Figure 1. Kaloula pulchra
In earlier studies regarding the presence of this
species was only confined in the sole locality of
Jampui Hills (Vanghmun Village, 23° 58' N, 92° 16'
E) where it was encountered near a forest trail (S.
Mahony, pers comm.; Sarkar, et al., 2002; Sengupta
et al., 2009). Present records of the species from
West Bhubanban, near Agartala city, West Tripura
district show that the species is widely distributed in
West Tripura district as well as North Tripura
district of Tripura state.
References
Daniel, J. C. 1963a. Field guide to the amphibians of
western India, Part I. Journal of the Bombay
�atural History Society 60 (2): 415-438.
Daniel, J. C. 1963b. Field guide to the amphibians of
western India, Part II. Journal of the Bombay
�atural History Society 60 (3): 690-702.
Daniel, J. C. 1975. Field guide to the amphibians of
western India, Part III. Journal of the Bombay
�atural History Society 72 (2): 506-522.
Bhattacharjee et al, 18 -19
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
19
Dutta, S. K. 1997. Amphibians of India and Sri
Lanka (Checklist and Bibliography). Odyssey
Publishing House. 342pp. Inger, R. F. and Lian,
T. F. 1996. The �atural History of Amphibians
and Reptiles in Sabah, Borneo, Sdn. Bhd Natural
History Publications. IUCN, Conservation
International and Nature Serve. 2004. Global
Amphibian Assessment (15 October, 2004):
www.globalamphibians.org.
Sarkar, A. K., Das, S. and Ray, S. 2002. Amphibia.
In: State Fauna Series: Fauna of Tripura. 7(pt
1). Vertebrate. Ed. Director. Zoological Survey
of India, Kolkata. pp. 179-190. Sengupta, S.,
Das, A., Das, S., Hussain, B., Choudhury, N. K.,
and Dutta, S. K. 2009. Taxonomy and
Biogeography of Kaloula species of Eastern
India. The �atural History Journal of
Chulalongkom University 9(2): 209-222.
Vyas, R. and Parasharya, B. M. 2004. Painted Frog
(Kaloula pulchra) from Anand and Surat,
Gujarat, India. Zoos’ Print Journal 19 (4): 1444
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
20
Dendrobium of ‘Joypur Reserve Forest’ of Dibrugarh District of Assam, India
Khyanjeet Gogoi
Rupai High School, Rupai Siding, Tinsukia - 786153, Assam
Author for correspondence: [email protected]
© NECEER, Imphal
ABSTRACT
102 species of orchids including the floriculturally significant D. aphyllum, D. aduncum,
D. cumulatum, D. fimbriatum, D. lituiflorum, D. moschatum, D. nobile, D. sulcatum,
D.transparens etc. were recorded from Joypur Reserve Forest, in an intensive survey
during 2006-2009. The Dendrobes are described, highlighting their important features
for easy identification.
KEYWORDS: Dendrobium, Joypur, Rain forest, Enumeration.
Dendrobium is one of the important and intere-
sting epiphytic groups of orchids known for their
beautiful and long-lasting flowers of diverse
morphological features. It is the second largest
genus of the family Orchidaceae, comprises more
than 1,000 species and is widely distributed in
Sri Lanka, India, China, Japan, Malaysia,
Australia and New Zealand. In India it represents
102 species and nearly 20 species grow in Assam
(Barua, 2001).
Study area
Joypur Reserve Forest in the district of Dibrugarh and
under the Dibrugarh forest Division is situated within
95°22´ E. to 95°30´ E. and 27°00´ N. to 27°16´ N. It
covers an area of 10,876.68 hectares, bounded by
Arunachal Pradesh in its East and South, Sibsagar
District in its West. This reserve forest is classified as
type IB.C.I Assam valley wet Evergreen forest type
(Champion & Seth, 1968). It forms a part of the
world heritage of tropical/sub tropical wet evergreen
forest, multistoried in structure and rich in
biodiversity, more popularly known as ‘Rain forest’.
The area falls under humid zone, which is
characterized by high precipitation. The high
humidity and heavy rain fall are significant features
of evergreen forest in this region. The amount of
rainfall tapers towards the end of the rainy season but
there is some amount of partially in every month.
Maximum annual rainfall recorded is 3,640 mm.
Temperature ranges maximum of 36°C and minimum
6°C. Joypur Reserve Forest consists of 102 species
orchids belonging to the 46 genera among them 13
species are Dendrobium. In this paper a brief
description, along with photographs has been
provided for easy identification of the Dendrobiums.
Materials and methods The present investigation is the outcome of several
field trips encompassing all the season have been
carried out in Joypur Reserve Forest during 2006-
2009. The specimens collected in the flowering and
fruiting stages and maintained it for availability of
plant materials during taxonomic evaluation. Then
specimens were processed in to dried and mounted
herbarium specimens. Identification were done using
standard orchid manuals and by matching at the
Herbarium of the Department of Botany Guwahati
University (Assam). The Herbarium specimens are
deposited in the Herbarium, Department of Botany
Guwahati University.
Species description
Dendrobium acinaciforme Roxb, Pradhan, Indian
Orchid-II, 344, 1979; Barua , Orch. Fl. Kamrup dist.
151, 2001; Chowdhry, Orch. Fl. Arunachal Prad.,
283, 1998; Hedge, Orch. of Arunachal Prad. 60,
1984; Deorani & Naithani, Orch. of Nagaland, 164,
1995; Kumar and Monilal, Cat. Ind Orch; 70, 1994;
Misra, Orch. of India, 291, 2007.
Stem 10-30 cm. long, compressed,leafy, with long
naked extremities; leaves 3.5-5 cm. × 6-8 mm.,
lanceolate, distichous, fleshy, enciform, acute,
sessile, laterally compressed; inflorescence racemose,
flowers solitary from axils of bracts, yellowish-white,
small, about 1cm. long, sepals broadly acute or
obtuse, 5-nerved, dorsal sepals elliptic-ovate, 3.5×2
mm., lateral sepals slightly obliquely ovate, 6×3 mm.,
Gogoi 20 -26
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
21
Figure1. 1. Dendrobium acinaciforme, 2. Dendrobium aduncum, 3. Dendrobrium cathcartii, 4. Dendrobium
cumulatum, 5. Dendrobium fimbriatum var. fimbriatum, 6. Dendrobium fimbriatum var. oculatum, 7.
Dendrobium lituiflorum, 8. Dendrobium nobile, 9. Dendrobium stuposum, 10. Dendrobium sulcatum, 11.
Dendrobium terminale, 12 Dendrobium transparens.
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
22
petals lanceolate, 1-nerved, 3×1.5 mm., lip shortly
clawed, erect, 7×7 mm., obovate, rounded cuncate at
base, whit or creamy with a pale yellow blotch in the
middle with red rods, coloumn minute, 1 mm. long;
foot 4.5 mm. long.
Flowering time: August-September.
Specimen Examined: Gogoi - 0117 (Assam).
Dendrobium aduncum Wall Ref in Hook Fi. Brit.
Ind. 5,730, 1890; Bruhi, Guide Orch. Sikkim, 60,
1926; Pradhan Ind. Orch.2, 324; Kumar and
Monilal, Cat. Ind. Orch., 70, 1994; Hedge, Orch. of
Arunachal Prad. 60, 1984; Chowdhry, Orch. Fl.
Arunachal Prad., 283, 1998; Misra, Orch. of India,
291, 2007.
Plants with pendulous pseudobulbs, 30-90 cm. long,
sometimes more, leaves many , 5-7.5x1-1.8 cm.,
linear lanceolate, acute acuminate, minutely and
unequally bifid at apex ; flowers in many zigzag
racems (check the terminology), each racems of 4-9
flowers , flowers 1.2-2 cm .across pale purple ;
dorsal sepals ovate, acute 1.5x0.8 cm.;lateral pairs
triangular ,sub rhomboidal 1.6x1.3 cm.; petals
1.5x0.8 cm., broader; lip 1.2x0.9 cm., cymbiform,
cuspidate ciliate adpressed to the concave column;
pubscent except for a squarish glistening area on the
disc, column foot long; mentum saceate; anther
papilliose, dark purple.
Flowering time: May-June
Specimen Examined: Gogoi - 0078 (Assam).
Dendrobium aphyllum (Roxb) Fisher,in Gamble,
Fl. Press. Madras 3, 1416, 1928; Hook, Fl. Brit. Ind.
5, 738, 1890; Hedge, Orch. of Arunachal Prad. 60,
1984; Deorani & Naithani, Orch. of Nagaland, 166,
1995; Chowdhry, Orch. Fl. Arunachal Prad., 287,
1998; Pradhan, Ind. Orch,2, 321, 1979; Roy, Orch.
Ind. 60, 1979; Banerji, Orch. Nepal, 64, 1978,;
Kumar and Monilal, Cat. Ind Orch; 70, 1994; Barua,
Orch. fl. Kamrup Dist; 169, 2001; Misra, Orch. of
India, 292, 2007.
Plants with pseudobulbs, 60-120 cm. long,
pendulous, leafless when flowering; leaves linear-
lanceolate, deciduous, sessile, sheathing, internode
3-4 cm.; flowers 1-3 each node, pale rose, 4.5-5 cm.
across, sepals subequal, oblong lanceolate, sub-
acute, petals broader, elliptic, rounded; sepals and
petals purple-rose; lip yellow, pubscent, 3-3.5x1.5-
2.2 cm., orbicular at the base, shortly convolute-
ciliate, pale yellow with radiating streaks at the base;
fruits 6-7x0.8 cm.
Key to the varieties:
1a. Leaves ovate-elliptic or sub orbicular, much
shorter towards the base of the stem, ovate
lanceolate to oblong and longer towards the
apex. var. katakinum
1b. Leaves ovate lanceolate and oblong through
out the stem decreasing length to the upward.
var. aphyllum.
1a. Dendrbium aphyllum (Roxb) Fischer var.
katakinum Iswar Barua.
Pseudobulb pendulous; leaves shorter at the
base of the stem and gradually longer towards
the apex; basal leaves ovate-elliptic, sub
orbicular, 3-4x2 cm.with rounded or sub acute
apex ;apical leaves ovate, lanceolate oblong
with acute or acuminate or sub acuminate apex,
8x3cm; lateral sepals slightly keeled a long mid
vein beneath, rather elliptic oblong and not or
slightly falcate, lip 5 purple nerved.
Flowering time: May
1b. Dendrbium aphyllum (Roxb) Fischer var.
aphyllum Leaves ovate-lanceolate, oblong through out
the stem, acute or acuminate the apex,5-12x3-
4cm.; decreasing length towards the upward;
sepals oblong- lanceolate more or less falcate
not keeled; lip with distinct ridges.
Flowering time : May -June
Specimen Examined: Gogoi - 0077, 0098
(Assam).
Dendrobium cathcartii Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India, 5,
727, 1890, Hedge, Orch. of Arunachal Prad. 60,
1984; Chowdhery Orch. Fl. Arunachal Prad., 290,
1998; Kumar and Monilal, Cat. Ind Orch; 70, 1994;
Misra, Orch. of India, 292, 2007.
Epiphytic, stem 50-70 cm. long, erect, terete, stout,
internode 3-3.5 cm., leaves dorsiventral, linear-
lanceolate, unequally byfid, 10-12×1-1.5 cm.,
narrowed, sheathing at base; flowers in pairs, leaf-
opposed, greenish-yellow, 2 cm. across, fragrant;
sepals unequal, dorsal sepal lanceolate-ovate, acute,
lateral sepal lanceolate; petal shorter than the sepals,
incurved, lip yellow with purple, elliptic-oblong,
acute, flat, mentum stout, curved shorter than the
lateral sepals, capsules ovoid.
Flowering time: April-May
Specimen Examined: Gogoi - 0148 (Assam).
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
23
Dendrobium cumulatum Lindl. In Hook. f. Fl. Brit.
India, 5, 731, 1890; Hedge, Orch. of Arunachal
Prad. 61, 1984; Chowdhry, Orch. Fl. Arunachal
Prad., 295, 1998, Pradhan, Ind. Orch. 2, 342, 1972;
Kumar and Monilal, Cat. Ind Orch; 70, 1994; Misra,
Orch. of India, 292, 2007.
Epiphytic, stem erect, 15-60 cm. long, narrow at the
base, slender, pendulous, laterally flattened,
internodes striate; leaves 5-10×1-2 cm., oblong-
lanceolate, acute; inflorescence corymbiform 4-5
cm. long; flowers 3.5 cm. long, flowers white with
purple, pendent; floral bracts lanceolate; dorsal sepal
elliptic, subacute, lateral sepals falcate, similar,
acute, subcylindrical incurved; petals much broader,
obovate or rounded, obtuse erose; lip obovate-
spathulate, claued at base, erose, emarginated at
apex, white suffused with yellow, base produced
into an elongated structure and bearing a tooth at
junction with the apex of the mentum, mentum large
and narrow; column very short.
Flowering time: May-June.
Specimen Examined: Gogoi- 0265 (Assam).
Dendrobium fimbriautm Hook f. in Hook Fl. Brit.
Ind. 5, 745, 1890; Chowdhry, Orch. Fl. Aunachal
Prad., 301, 1998; Bruhl, Guide Orch. Sikkim, 64,
1926; Deorani & Naithani, Orch. of Nagaland, 176,
1995; Hegde, Orch. of Arunachal Prad. 62, 1984;
Pradhan Ind .Orch.2, 309, 1979; Roy, Orch. Ind., 58,
1979; Kumar and Monilal, Cat. Ind. Orch., 70, 1994;
Barua, Orch. Fl. Kamrup Dist., 163, 2001; Misra,
Orch. of India, 293, 2007.
Epiphytic, pseudobulbs 75-150 cm. long, erect or
suberect; tapering towards the apex, light yellowish
green, internods 1.5-3.5 cm., sheathed, striate, older
stems are leafless and arcuate or pendulous; leaves
several, lanceolate acuminate, gradually tapering to
an aute apex ,10-15x 1.5-2.8 cm; racemes on leafy
or leafless stem, lateral, pendulous, subapical, 15-20
cm long, 8-12 flowers each; flowers 4-5 cm. across,
bright yellow, sweet scented, sepals broadly oblong,
rounded, entire 2.5x1.3 cm. petals broader
suborbicular 2.5x1.7 cm.; lip orbicular fimbriate,
pubescent 3x2.5 cm.; bright yellow, wavy margins,
with or without a deep purplish brown blotch in the
middle; reddish streak at base, column foot 0.9 cm.
long.
Key to the varieties:
1a. Lip with a dark maroon blotch, Var. oculatum.
1b. Lip without a dark maroon blotch, Var.
fimbriatum.
1a. Var. oculatum Hook. f. Fl. Brit India, 5,745,
1890.
Flowers yellow or bright orange yellow, lip
with dark maroon blotch.
Flowering time: March-May.
1b. Var. fimbriatum; in Chowdhary, Orch. Fl.
Arunachal Prad.,301,1998.
Flowers bright orange yellow, lip without a
dark maroon blotch.
Flowering time : April – May
Specimen Examined: Gogoi - 0102, 0303
(Assam).
Dendrobium lituiflorum Lindl, in Hook, Fl. Brit.
Ind.5,740, 1890; Hegde, Orch. of Arunachal Prad.
63, 1984; Pradhan, Ind. Orch.2, 361, 1979; Kumar
and Monilal, Cat. Ind. Orch., 71, 1994; Barua, Orch.
fl. Kamrup Dist., 174, 2001; Deorani & Naithani,
Orch. of Nagaland, 185, 1995; Chowdhry, Orch. Fl.
Arunachal Prad., 308, 1998; Misra, Orch. of India,
293, 2007.
Plants with pseudobulbs up to 60-80 cm. long,
pendulous, slender, purplish brown; internodes 2-3
cm., leaf sheaths spotted purple; leaves 7.5-10.x
1.6-2 cm, linear-lanceolate, decidous, absent at the
time of flowering ;flowers in fasicles of 2-5, 4-5 cm.
across, pale purple; sepals oblong-lanceolate, acut
3x1 cm. purple, whitish blow; petals ovate-oblong,
acute, 3x1.7 cm., purple, white at the base; lip
trumpet shaped, 3.5x2.5 cm. , mouth orbicular,
white, pale purple at tips, with purple disc, fruit 5-
5.5 cm.
Flowering time: March-May
Specimen Examined: Gogoi- 0057 (Assam).
Dendrobium moschatum (Buch-Hum) Sw. in
Hegde, Orch. Arunachal Prad. 64, 1984; Pradhan,
Ind. Orch.2, 308, 1979; Roy, Orch. Ind., 59, 1979;
Banerji, Orch. Nepal, 63, 1978; Bruhl, Orch.
Sikkim, 64, 1926; Kumar and Monilal, Cat. Ind.
Orch., 71, 1994; Deorani & Naithani, Orch. of
Nagaland, 187,1995; Barua, Orch. Fl. Kamrup Dist.,
159, 2001; Chowdhry, Orch. Fl. Arunachal Prad.,
311, 1998; Misra, Orch. of India, 294, 2007.
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
24
Dendrobium calceolaria Caruy ex Hook; Fl. Brit.
Ind. 5, 744, 1890.
Plants with pseudobulbs, 1-2 meter long, terete
striate, pointed towards the apex, erect or sub erect;
leaves several, 10-15x 3.5 cm., alternate acute or
faintly notched, ovate to lanceolate ovate;
inflorescence arising from apical region of the
leafless or leafy stem; 10-30 cm. Long; flowers 4-
15, 5-7 cm across, showy, orange yellow; sepals
broadly ovate,obtuse,dorsal sepals 4 x1.8 cm., lateral
sepals 4 x1.7 cm.; petals 4.3 x3 cm., broadly ovate,
rounded , sessile or subsessile or clowed; lip hairy,
shorter than petals, forming a hemispherical or pear-
shaped open mouthed pouch with the upturned
margins, two dark maroon blotches present inside
the base; Column yellow with purple tinge at top;
ovary upto 5 cm.; fruit 7-9x1.5 cm.
Flowering time: May-June.
Specimen Examined: Gogoi- 0058 (Assam).
Dendrobium nobile Lindl in Hooker Fl. Brit. India,
5, 740, 1890; Bruhl, Guide. Orch. Sikkim, 65, 1926;
Hegde, Orch. Arunachal Prad. 64, 1989; Pradhan,
Ind. Orch. 2, 315, 1979; Roy, Orch. India, 60, 1979;
Banerji, Orch. Nepal, 64, 1978; Deorani & Naithani,
Orch. of Nagaland, 189, 1995; Kumar and Monilal,
Cat. Ind. Orch. 71, 1994; Chowdhry, Orch. Fl.
Arunachal Prad., 314, 1998; Misra, Orch. of India,
294, 2007.
Pseudobulb 30-70 cm. long; some times more, erect
or pendulous, tufted, some what laterally slightly
compressed, 1.2-1.5 cm. thick, yellowish green on
maturity; leaves many, 8-12x2.5-3 cm., persistant,
ovate lanceolate, apex unequally bilobed;
inflorescence 1-5 flowered, flowers arranged on
short peduncles at nodes,5-7 cm. across, white
merging with purple at apex, wavy in texture; sepals
linear-oblong, obtuse, 3x0.9 cm.; petals much
broader, 3x1.5 cm.; lip purple at tip, 3.5x2.5 cm., at
middle followed by deep purple central blotch,
anther purple ; fruit 11x2.5 cm.
Flowering time: March-April
Specimen Examined: Gogoi- 0346 (Assam)
Dendrobium stuposum Lindl in Hook. f. Fl. Brit.
India, 6, 186, 1890; Ghani, Orch. of Burma, 122,
1995; Pradhan, Indian Orch., II, 324, 1979;
Chowdhery Orch. Fl. Arunachal Prad., 322, 1998;
Deorani & Naithani, Orch. of Nagaland, 196,1995;
Kumar and Monilal, Cat. Ind Orch; 72, 1994; Misra,
Orch. of India, 295, 2007.
Epiphytic, pseudobulbs 15-35 cm. high, erect,
tufted, narrow at the base, thicker at apex, sulcate,
terete; leaves 6-8×1-2 cm., sessile, linear-oblong or
oblong-lanceolate, unequally lobed; peduncle
leteral, short, bracteate on leafy or leafless stems;
inflorescence 1-4 flowered, flowers about 2 cm.
across, white with a spot of dull yellow on the lip;
sepals ovate, dorsal sepal acute, lateral sepals keeled
and acuminate; petal oblong-obovate, minutely
apiculate, margins ciliolate; lip with dull yellow
blotches, oblong-obovate, 3 lobed, lateral lobes erect
and ciliolate at the apex, midlobe orbicular ovate,
disc gland tipped hairy, column broad.
Flowering time: June.
Specimen Examined: Gogoi- 0450 (Assam).
Dendrobium sulcatum Lindl in Hook. f. Fl. Brit.
India, 5, 749, 1890; Ghani, Orch. of Burma, 123,
1995; Pradhan, Indian Orch., 304, 1979; Hedge,
Orch. of Arunachal Prad. 64, 1984; Chowdhery,
Orch. Fl. Arunachal Prad., 322, 1998; Kumar and
Monilal, Cat. Ind Orch; 72, 1994; Misra, Orch. of
India, 295, 2007.
Epiphytic, pseudobulbs 20-45 cm. long, semi-erect,
tufted, compressed, clavate, sulcate, green to
greenish yellow; internodes 3-5 cm. long, sheathed;
leaves 2-5, 10-20×3-5 cm., elliptic-ovate,
coriaceous, with strong lateral nerves, acute towards
the apex of the pseudobulbs; inflorescence
pendulous, 5-10 flowered, given off from leafy or
leafless stems; flowers orange-yellow, 2.5-3.5 cm.
across, sepals equal, oblong-ovate, subacute; petals
broader, concave, obtuse; lip orange yellow,
suborbicular when spread out, sub-entire, concave,
edges hairy, raised and partly curved inwards, base
with deep brown colored striac; coloumn short and
broad.
Flowering time: April-May.
Specimen Examined: Gogoi- 0153 (Assam).
Dendrobium terminale Par. & Reichb. f. in Hook. f.
Fl. Brit. India, 5, 725, 1890; Ghani, Orch. of Burma,
124, 1995; Pradhan, Indian Orch., 343, 1979;
Chowdhry, Orch. Fl. Arunachal Prad., 193, 1998;
Kumar and Monilal, Cat. Ind Orch; 72, 1994; Misra,
Orch. of India, 295, 2007.
Epiphytic, stem 10-15 cm. long, erect, terete,
slander at base, leaves fleshy, 10-20×5-8 mm., broad
at the base, equitant, subacute at apex; flowers 1-2,
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
25
10-12 mm. long, terminal, white flushed pink, lateral
sepals 10-12 mm. long, falcately elliptic, dorsal 3-4
mm. long narrower; lip elongated, triangular, yellow
lined in the middle of upper surface; mentum broad,
blunt very long, column short.
Flowering time: September.
Specimen Examined: Gogoi - 003 (Assam).
Dendrobium transparens Lindl, in Hooker Fl. Brit.
Ind. 5, 738, 1890; Pradhan Ind. Orch.2, 316, 1972;
Roy, Orch. Ind., 60, 1979;Banerji, Orch. Nepal, 65,
1978; Bruhl, Guide Orch. Sikkim, 64, 1926; Kumar
and Monilal, Cat. Ind. Orch., 72, 1994; Deorani &
Naithani, Orch. of Nagaland, 197,1995; Chowdhry,
Orch. Fl. Arunachal Prad., 327, 1998; Misra, Orch.
of India, 295, 2007.
Plants with pseudobulbs 30-60 cm. long, pendulous,
terete, swollen at base, faint yellow, more then 5
leaved; leaves 7.5 – 10x 1.2 cm., linear, lanceolate,
acute, recurved; inflorescence 2-4 flowered, born on
leafless stem, flower 4-5 cm. across; sepals
lancoelate acute 2.8-3x1.3 cm., sepals and petals
white linged with purple at tips, lip oblong cuncate
at base, 3.2x1.9 cm., white with large purple patch
on the disc; disc pilose with a central fleshy sulcate
line, fruit 6x1-1.5 cm.
Flowering time: April-May
Specimen Examined: Gogoi - 0016 (Assam).
Conclusion 13 species of Dendrobium were presently collected
from Joypur Reserve Forest. These includs 9 species
(D. aphyllum, D. aduncum, D. cumulatum, D.
fimbriatum, D. lituiflorum, D. moschatum, D. nobile,
D. sulcatum, D.transparens ) that are floriculturally
sigificant and comprise an important genetic
resource. The present study of the Dendrobium of
the Joypur Reserve Forest is an embodiment of a
work of limited magnitude. Information so gathered
are of considerable academic, explorative and
informative value. As most of the areas of this forest
are not intensively studied, the interesting flora is
still to be exposed. While featured study of the
present nature could reveal so much of the richness
of a particular taxon. A continued in depth study is
bound to yield extremely fruitful results on the rich
flora of the entire forested area. However, basic
studies of the present nature cannot be
underestimated and surely enriches knowledge base.
Detailed study of morphological features of various
species of Dendrobium was collected and Taxa
identified on the basis of their features. All the
species show resemblance with the earlier
description, though not described from this area.
Little variation noticed may be due to geographical
and ecological conditions. Orchid flora of this forest
constitute valuable natural resource. Proper
enumeration of these species and their conservation
are very much needed and greatly emphasized.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to Dr. Kashmira Kakoti, Dr.
A. Cristy Williums, Deputy Commissioner-
Dibrugarh and Divisional Forest Officer- Dibrugarh,
Assam for constant supervision and valuable
suggestions during the course of present studies.
References Abrahum, A. and Vatsala, P. 1981. Introduction to
Orchids, Trivandram.
Banerji, T. L., 1978. Orchids of �epal. Bishen Singh
Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India.
Barua, I. C. 2001. Orchid Flora of KamrupDistrict.
Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun India.
Bhagabati, A.K., Kalita, M. C. & Baruah, S. 2006.
Biodiversity of Assam. Assam Science Society,
Guwahati, Assam, India.
Bruhi,Paul, 1926. A Guide to the Orchid of Sikkim.
Thacker & Spink & Co., Simla, India
Champion, H. G. and Seth, S. K. 1968. A revised study of
the forest type of India, Govt. Of India Press, Nasik,
India.
Chowdhery, H. J. 1998. Orchid Flora of Arunachal
Pradesh. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra
Dun, India.
Chowdhery, H. J. and Pal, G. D. 1997. Orchidaceae of
Arunachal Pradesh. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal
Singh, Dehra Dun, India.
Chowdhery, S. 2005. Assam’s Flora. Assam Science
Technology and Environment Council, Guwahati,
Assam, India.
Deorani S. C. and Naithani, H. B. 1995. Orchids of
�agaland. Oriental Enterprises, Dehra dun, India.
Deva, Som and Nathani, H. B.1968. The Orchid Flora of
�orth-West Himalaya. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal
Singh, Dehra Dun, India.
Gamble, J.S. 1928. Flora of presidency of Madras. Vol-
III. Adlard and Sons Ltd.,London.
Gogoi, K. 2005. The Genus Dendrobium in Dibru-
Saikhowa �atoinal Park and Biosphere Reserve, in: J.
Orchid Soc. India: 17-25.
Gogoi, K., Borah, R. L. and Sharma, G. C. 2009. Orchid
flora of Joypur Reserve Forest of Dibrugarhdistrict of
Assam, India in: Pleione, 3 (2): 135-147.Gogoi, K.,
Borah, R. L. & Sharma, G. C. 2010. Orchid flora of
Dibru-Saikhowa National Park and Biosphere
Reserve, Assam, India in: Pleione, 4 (1): 124-134.
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26
Grant, 1895. The Orchids of Burma, Hanthawaddy Press,
Rangoon.
Hegde, S. N.1984. Orchids of Arunachal Pradesh. Govt.
of Arunachal Pradesh,Itanagar,India.
Hooker, J. D.1890. Orchidaceae. In: Flora of British
India. L.Reeve and Co., Ashford, Kent. Vol-V: 687-
864 & Vol-VI:1-198.
Kumar Sathish and Manilal, 1994. A Catalogue of Indian
Orchids. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra
Dun, India.
Lindley, J. 1857. Contributions to the Orchidology of
India-I.in: Journal of Linnean Society. 1: 170- 190.
Lindley, J. 1859. Contributions to the Orchidology of
India-II.in: Journal of Linnean Society. 3: 1-63.
Lindley,J.1830-1840. Genera and species of
Orchidaceous Plants, London.
Lindley, J. 1852-1859. Folia Orchidacea-An enumeration
of the known species of orchids, London.
Misra, Sarat, 2007. Orchids of India, Bishen Singh
Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India.
Pangtey, Samant & Rawat. 1991. Orchids of Kumaun
Himalaya, Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra
Dun, India.
Pradhan, M. 2004. 100 Sikkim Himalayan Orchids,
Mumbai, India.
Pradhan, U.C.1979. Indian Orchids Guide to
Identification and Culture. Kalimpong, India. Vol-I &
II.
Raizada, M.B., Naithani, H.B. and Saxena, H.O. 1981.
Orchids of Mussoorie. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal
Singh, Dehra Dun, India.
Roy, A. S. 1979. Orchids of India. National Book Trust.
New Delhi, India.
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
27
Ethno-medicinal studies on indigenous wetland plants in the tea garden tribes of Darrang and Udalguri district, Assam, India S Saharia
1 and CM Sarma
2
1 Department of Botany, Mangaldai College, Mangaldai - 784125, Assam
2 Department of Botany, Gauhati University, Guwahati -781014, Assam
Author for correspondence: [email protected] © NECEER, Imphal
ABSTRACT The undivided Darrang district includes Darrang district and Udalguri district (BTAD). Darrang is located at 26°9´ N; 91°45´ E and 26°45´ N 92°22´ E and Udalguri district is located at 26°46´ N 92°08´E and 26°77´N 92°13´ E. The whole area is gifted with a large number of plants including plants in ox-bow lake (beels), ponds, swamps, marshes, water reservoir, water logging area etc. which make habitat for plants normally utilized by the tea tribes having 1,63,693 (This figure doesn’t match with the text inside, it should be 15,49,285) population of the total population from two districts, distributed in total 28 tea garden estates. Almost sixty five wetland and semi-aquatic medicinal plants used by the tea garden tribes have been enumerated. Description, their local/vernacular names and the plant parts used for medicinal purposes have been studied. The work aims at the preservation and preparation of this knowledge of the wetland plants possessing medicinal properties for the ailments (which type of ailments? Should give at least an example) and further fruitful investigation on modern scientific lines. KEYWORDS: Wetland plants, tea tribes, preservation, ailments.
Ethnobotany is a multidisciplinary study involving
the relationship between plants and the aboriginal
people and a fair familiarity with the flora and the
vegetation of the region. North Eastern India offers
an immense scope for such ethnobotanical studies
since it is mostly inhabited by numerous aboriginal
tribes having rich folklore. The tea garden
community is an important tribe of Darrang and
Udalguri districts and they are highly concentrated
in northern part of the district. “The northern
teabelt” comprises 3 tea gardens having 7,593 tea
tribes men in Darrang district whereas 25 tea
gardens consist of 1,26,100 population of the tea
tribe in Udalguri district in aggregate (2001, census).
The uses of plants in various medicinal purposes by
the tea garden tribes are facilitated due to presence
of numerous wetlands (nearly 103 Nos.) in the
districts (ARSEC 1997). These wetlands are sources
of important aquatic and semi- aquatic medicinal
plants. The tea garden tribes of the districts use more
than 75 wetland plants for various herbal remedies
from swamps, marshes and other wetlands of the
district. The frequency of plant parts medicinally
used are- whole plants, bark, fruits, leaf, juice, root
etc. The plant parts used by people for different
applications include infusion or decoction, chewing,
pounding or extraction, paste, and some parts are
rubbed or boiled. Several methods of application of
medicine are observed which are orally
administered, locally applied, inhaling or smoking
and massaging.
Study area
The study area includes the undivided Darrang-the
geographical Darrang and Udalguri district
comprising 28 total numbers of tea gardens. Darrang
is located at 26°9´ N 91°45´ E / 26°45´ N 92°22´ E.
The total area of the district is about 1,427.49 sq.
km, while the population of the district is about
7,92,614 population density is 555 person per sq.
Saharia and Sarma 27-33
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
28
km. The district is bounded by Udalguri district in
the north, Sonitpur district in the east, Morigaon
district in the south and Kamrup district to the west.
(Statistical office, Darrang, Udalguri-2001, census).
Figure 1. Map of Darrang district
Udalguri is located at 26°46´ N 92°08´ E / 26°77´ N
92°13´ E. It has an average elevation of 180 meters
(590 feet). Udalguri district is one of the twenty
seven (27) districts of Assam. Total geographical
area of the district is about 1,985.68 sq. km. (based
on GIS + Atlas), while the population of the district
is 7,56,671 with density of 381 persons per sq. km.
This district is bounded by Bhutan and Arunachal
Pradesh in the north, Sonitpur district in the east,
Darrang district in the south and Baksa district in the
west.
Figure 1. Map of Udalguri district
Materials and methods Different aquatic and semi- aquatic plant species
found in the area were collected carefully and
systematically and identified by the experts of
different localities and also with the help of
Herbarium of Gauhati University. Frequent field
trips were conducted to various localities of
undivided Darrang district regarding the survey of
tea estate area, people and their culture and customs.
Ethnobotanical information was gathered through
personal interviews with the practitioners and
patients of different places. The folk-medicine
among the tea garden communities is an excellent
art, practiced mainly by the old people. After
collection the species were dried properly and
preserved in the herbarium sheet by spraying 0.2%
mercuric chloride over the species. After the
scientific name, the vernacular names or local name
were recorded.
Enumeration of plants In the following enumeration (Table 1), only some
important semi-and aquatic medicinal plants are
mentioned. The species are arranged according to
alphabetical order. Names used by tea tribes or
Assamese wherever available, are given and this is
indicated by T and As. Respectively
Summary and conclusion In undivided Darrang district (Darrang and
Udalguri), particularly in the tea garden area no
work has so far been done on the ethnobotanical
study of aquatic and semi aquatic plants of the tea
garden community and neighbouring area of the
gardens. An intensive study was therefore, felt
necessary to know about the immense wealth of the
different plant species available as well as plant
species used by the tea garden tribe community in
the two districts. It has been observed that varieties
of wild plants are used by the tea garden people and
the surrounding people of the tea garden from the
wetlands and other localities. They use not only the
edible ones but also numerous medicinal and
otherwise economic herbs for curing different
diseases, common to the locality. While considering
the importance of ethnobotanical studies it should be
remembered that many times the natives do not like
to share their knowledge with others. Also, for
majority of the diseases it so happens that not a
single plant is administered but is given in
combination with many plant parts, all of which
again may not be encountered in a particular field
trip. Sometimes, the same plant is suggested for
more than one diseases. In such cases it is very
difficult to assess which plant is actually effective in
curing a particular disease. Only clinical trials on
these plants can give some indications.
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
29
Table 1. Botanical name of plants, family, vernacular name, parts used and its ethnobotany. Scientific name of the Plant/Family Vernacular Name Parts used Ethnobotany
Acorus calamus L
(Araceae)
Boch (T. As.),
Sweet flower flag (Eng.)
Dried rhizome Plant said to purify air and hang on roof of the room.
Rhizome: Juice of rhizome with Curcuma longa is prescribed as expectorant, used in the treatment of
cough, asthma of the children mostly, also in
dysentery, diarrhoea and fever.
Aeschynomene aspera L (Fabaceae) Kunhila
(T. As.)
Wood Woods are used for making ornaments like beads,
moura etc.
Ageratum conyzoides L
(Asteraceae)
Gondhowa –bon (T.
A)
Leaf, root,
flower, seed
Leaf and shoot used as antiseptic on cuts and wounds
and healing to check bleeding. Leaf Juice for piles, uterine disorder.
Alisma plantago (Alismataceae) Pani kaduli (T, As) Rhizome
Tuber
Edible, Vegetable
Alocasia macrorrhiza L G. Don syn. A. indica Lour spach (Araceae)
Man Kochu (As.) Kachu (T) Gaint
taro (Eng)
Leaf, Petiole Petiole cooked and eaten, paste of rhizome is applied on abscesses to expel pus. The juice of petiole is
dropped into the ear of children for toothache and
cough.
Alpinia nigra Gaertn. Burtt, syn. A.
allughas (Retz.) (Zingiberaceae)
Tora (T.As.) Leaf,
Rhizome,
Shoots
Ropes are made from leaf sheath. Rhizome extract is
used as vermifuge to children. Tender shoots are
roasted and eaten as curries, sold in market.
Alternanthera sessilis L. R. Br. Ex. DC (Amaranthaceae)
Mati kanduri (As.) Kanduri
(T)
Shoot. Leaf Tender shoot and leaf boiled or roasted and given in dysentery, used as stomachic and as a digestive.
Tender shoots and leaves used as vegetable.
Arundo donax L. (Poaceae) Nal (As.) Khagari (T) Great reed
(Eng.)
Whole plant Used as suitable fodder
Azolla pinnata (Azollaceae) Puni (T,As) Whole plant Used as Biofertilizer.
Bixa orellana L (Bixaceae) Sendur goch (T, As.)
Seeds, pulp and root.
Seeds and roots are, astringent and febrifuge. Pulp is also astringent.
Centella asiatica L. Urban. syn.
Hydrocotyle asiatica L (Apiaceae)
Manimuni (T)
Bor Manimuni (As.)
Whole plant,
leaf, fruits, root, wigs,
seeds Root is
the most active part
Entire plant is taken as vegetable or in curries
considered to be restorative for women after child birth. Used in chronic dysentery, poultice is applied
on carbuncle, cuts, as antiseptic in wounds.
Carex muricata L. (Cyperaceae) Hunda (T, As.) Rhizome Rhizome is used in marriage ceremony.
Ceratophyllum demersum
(Ceratophyllaceae)
Sirolia (T,As) Leaf
Shoots
Leaf juice is used to stop vomiting, as cooling agent.
Cleome viscosa L. (Capparidaceae) Hulhul (As.) Seeds Seed powder is used in the treatment of round worms.
Colocasia esculenta L. (Araceae) Saru (T)
Kachu (As.) Taro (Eng.)
Leaf,
Stalk Rhizome
Tender leaves along with stalk are cooked with fish
or with other sour vegetables. Curry preparation with leaf stalks goroifish and black pepper or chilli is
given to women after child birth which is a treatment
for anemia.
Commelina benghalensis (Commelinaceae)
Kona simalu (T, As.)
Leaf, Shoot Tender leaves and shoots are eaten cooked as vegetable. Paste is made from stem and leaves and
used in bone fracture, curry made of tender shoots and flesh of Channa orientilis (chengeli) is given in
irregular menstruation (1 tea spoonful twice daily till
cure).
Commelina diffusa Burm (Commelinaceae)
Kona simalu Leaf, Shoot, Latex
To stop bleeding of wounds/cuts, used as fodder.
Cynodon dactylon L. (Poaceae) Dubari bon (As.)
Dub Bon (T)
Bermuda grass
(Eng.)
Whole plant Essential for rituals, juice is used in the treatment of
piles and on cuts and wounds. Its juice is used in the
retention of urine (juice is mixed with sugar and
honey) juice is mixed with rice powder and used in
the delayed puberty (2 teaspoonful twice daily for seven days)
Cyperus aromaticus (Cyperacae) Ghah bon (T, As.) Rhizomes Tubers are medically used in skin disease.
Cyperus rotundus L (Cyperaceae) Keya bon (T, As.) Rhizomes Tubers paste is used as appetizer. Decoction in given
after crushing with root of Solanum torvum, and
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
30
stem of Tinospora cordifolia in the treatment of
puerperal diseases, tubers paste mixing with honey given in dyspepsia
Drymaria cordata L wild ex. Roem
syn. D. diandra (Carryophyllaceae)
Laijabori (T, As.) Leaf, stem,
whole plan
Leaf paste is applied on forehead in headache, Few
drops of leaf extract are instilled into the nose in
sinusitis and epitaxis, used as vegetable, Used for rejoining of broken bones.
Eclipta postrata L syn. E. alba
(Asteraceae)
Kehraj (T, As.) Leaf
Shoot
Shoot juice with few drops of mustard oil is given in
diarrhoea of infants and urinary bleeding of women. Leaf juice mixed with coconut oil is applied to cure
white spots due to burning. It is good for blackening
and strengthening of the hair and for strengthening the gum. Used as vegetable and gives appetite.
Elodea canadensis
(Hydrocharitaceae)
(Water thyme) Flowers,
Roots
Flowers and dried roots are used to increase human
fertility.
Eleocharis plantagina (Poaceae) Ghah bon (T, As) Whole plant Used as fodder.
Eragrostis gangetica (Poaceae) -------------- Shoot Used as fodder.
Enhydra fluctuans Lour
(Asteraceae)
Helonchi Sak (As.) Leaf
Shoot
Tender shoots are eaten fried or eaten cooked with
other vegetables. Juice of the plant is used in
gonorrhea. Paste is applied on body to control prickly heats, juice is given in spermatorrhoea
Euryale ferox (Nymphyaceae) Nikori (T, As) Leaf, Shoots A good vegetable.
Houttuynia cordata Thunb
(Saururaceae)
Machandari (T. As.) Leaf, whole
plant, root
Decoction of entire plant with leaves of Centella
asiatica in equal amount, black pepper and slight salt is given in flatulence and dysentery, blood dysentery.
It is used in colic and bilious pain (juice)
Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. syn.
H. nepalensis HK (Apiaceae)
Saru manimuni
(T. As.)
Leaf, whole
plant, root
About 20 gm plant pounded with equal amount of
tender leaves of Psidium guajava and extracted juice
is given in amoebic dysentery,
Hydrolea zeylanica (Hydrophyllaceae)
Indranil ( As.)
Leaf Shoot
Used as antiseptic in cuts and wounds.
Hydrilla verticillata L
(Hydrocharitaceae)
Pani birina (T, As) Whole plant Fertilizer, Water purifier.
Hygroryza aristata (Poaceae) Dol ghah (T, As)
Whole plant Used as fodder.
Ipomoea aquatica Forsk
(Convolvulaceae)
Kolmou (As.)
Karmi (T.)
Leaf, whole
plant, root
Tender leafy shoots are eaten fried or cooked. About
30 to 50 ml of leaf extract is orally taken to control bleeding during child birth.
Ipomoea fistula (Convolvulaceae) Amarlota (T.As) Whole plant Used as fodder
Jussiaea repens (Onagraceae) Kesori ghah (As.) Whole plant Used as good fodder.
Lemna polyrrhiza (Lemnaceae) Maju puni (As) Puni
(T)
Whole plant Biofertilizer, Duck weed.
Lindernia crustae
(Scrophulariaceae)
Kasidoria
(T, As.)
Whole plant Used in dysentery, ringworm.
Ludwigia adscendens L Hara. syn.
(Onagraceae)
Pani-khutura
(As.) Daicha (T.)
Shoot
Leaf
Tender shoots are eaten fried or cooked with other
vegetables. Paste of leaves applied locally on fresh cuts as antiseptic, juice is useful in dysentery
Ludwigia octavalvis (Onagraceae) Panijalokia(T,As) Leaf
Shoots
Leaf juice is used in intestinal worm, used in
dysentery and fever.
Marsilea quadrifolia
(Marsiliaceae)
Pani tengesi (T, As) Whole plant Used as fodder, vegetable
Monocharia hastata L syn. M. hastaefolia (Pontederiaceae)
Bhat-meteka (T, As.)
Whole plant Juice of Vitex negundo and rhizome of Curcuma longa in equal amount used as stomachic. It is good
fodder, tender petioles, leaves are used as vegetable.
Monocharia vaginalis Burm.
(Pontederiaceae)
Nara-mateka
(As.)
Whole plant Tender petioles, leaves and flowers are used as
vegetables, sold in markets.
Najas indica (Najadaceae) Leaf, Shoots Feed for fish, used as packing material.
Nelumbo nucifera. Gaertn
(Nelumbonaceae)
Padum (T.)
Padum Phul (As.)
Sacred lotus (Eng.)
Seeds
Fruits
Leaf
Seeds are used as raw, flowers and leaves are used in
religious aspect and in rituals. Flowers are eaten raw
specially by the children. Fruits are used for cardiac treatment.
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
31
Nelumbo nouchali. Burm. syn. N. lotus L (Nymphyaceae)
Baga Bhet (T.As.) Red water lily
(Eng.)
Fruits Seeds
Ripe fruits are eaten raw (seeds) specially by the young boys and girls, flowers are eaten fried.
Nymphaea stellata Wild (Nymphyaceae)
Bhet (T.As.) Indian blue water
Lily (Eng.)
Fruits, flowers Ripe fruits are eaten raw by the young boys and girls. Flowers eaten fried.
Nymphoides indica L
(Menyanthaceae)
Batubhet (T,As) Fruits, stem Ripe fruits are taken raw specially by the children.
Oenanthe javanica (BL) DC
(Apiaceae)
Pan tarori
(T.As.)
Shoot, whole
plant
Vegetable, plant extract is used in mild fever.
Ottelia alismodes L Pers
(Hydrocharitaceae)
Pani kola
(T, As.)
Leaf Leaf paste is used as poultice.
Oxalis corniculata L (Oxalidaceae) Tengeshi (As.)
Kedumanjan (T.)
Indian sorrel (Eng.)
whole plant Decoction is given in the treatment of dysentery,
blood dysentery & liver disorder
Oxalis viridis L
(Oxalidaceae)
Bor tengeshi
(T,As)
Whole plant Used in stomach disorder, Ornamental plant.
Panicum maximum L (Poaceae)
Whole plant Forage for animals
Phragmites karka Trin ex. Steud,
(Poaceae)
Ekara (T.As.) Stem, whole
plant, root
Poultice is given on eyes in swelling of eyes and
other eye diseases. It is used as householding
material.
Pistia stratiotes
(Aracea)
Bor puni (T,As) Whole plant Juice is used in asthma and cough. Used as
biofertilizer
Polygonum hydropiper L (Polygonaceae)
Pothowa Bihlongoni (As.)
Jiyanti (T.)
Shoot, root, stem, whole
plant
Five tender shoots ground with 10 cloves of Alliun sativum, 5 dried flower buds of Syzygium
aromaticum mixed with 25 ml water and given in
chest pain used as insecticides
Polygonum orientale L. (Polygonaceae)
Bihlongini Leaf, Shoot
Concentrate infusion of plants used to poison fish, juice prescribed for tubercular swellings and in
acidity.
Polygonum plebejum R. Br. (Polygonaceae)
Bihlongini Root, leaf Crushed leaves are taken in pneumonia, roots are used in bowel complaints.
Potamogeton indica
(Potamogetonaceae)
Potamogeton
(Pond weed)
Tuber Tubers are used in the treatment of gonorrhea.
Ricinus communis L
(Euphorbiaceae)
Eracha (T.)
Eragosh (As.)
Root
Leaf
Root paste of older plant is used for abortion, small
quantity in empty stomach for 2-3 consecutive days,
fresh leaves are laid on the abdomen to relieve in renal complaints. Heated oil leaves are applied for
rheumatic pain, swelling.
Rumex nepalansis Spreng
(Polygonaceae)
Tar bowra
(T, As.)
Leaf
Root.
Leaf juice is used in hopping cough, Roots in
wounds and muscle swelling.
Salvinia cucullata Roxb.
(Salvaniaceae)
Puni (T, As) Whole plant Biofertilizer
Spilanthes paniculata. Wall, ex. Dc.
(Asteraceae)
Jati Malkathi
(As. T.)
Leaf Tender leaves are used in cough and cold.
Spirodella polyrrhiza L
(Lemnaceae)
puni (T)
Soru puni (As)
Whole plant Fodder for fish and duck.
Themeda villosa Dur (Poaceae) Birina (T. As.) Whole plant Suitable fodder for cattle, plants are used as householding and packing material.
Trapa natans L syn. T. bisponosa
Roxb. (Trapaceae)
Singori (T.)
Pani Singori
(As.) Water Chestnut (Eng.)
Seeds
Fruits
Seeds are eaten raw. Raw fruits are used raw in the
treatment of diarrhoea and dyspepsia.
Triphonium trilobatum L shott.
(Araceae)
Chema Kochu
(T. As.)
Shoot The shoots are cooked fried with other vegetable. It
is digestive and used in the treatment of acidity.
Vallisneria spiralis (Hydrocharitaceae)
Fita ghah (As) Whole plant Fertilizer, water purifier, ornamental use.
Wolfia arrhiza Wimm. Puni (T)
Sorupuni (As)
Whole plant Biofertilizer,duck weed.
Xanthium strumarium (Asteraceae) Agora (T,As) Seeds Fruits
Oil from seeds are used to cure pain.
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
32
Nymphoides indica
Xanthium strumarium
Hydrilla verticillata
Monocharia hastate
Salvinia cucullata
Commelina benghalensis
Figure 3. Some important wetland medicinal plants.
References
Ahmed AA and Borthakur SK. 2005. Ethnobotanical
wisdom of Khasis (Hynniew Trips) of Meghalaya,
Bishen Singh, Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.
Alexiades M. 1996. Selected guidelines for Ethno
botanical Research. New York Botanical Garden,
Bronx, USA.
Arya KR. 2006. Important Herbal Remedies from Folklore
of Uttaranchal and their Pharmaceutical application –
Medicinal. Plants: Ethno Botanical Approach (ed.)PC
Trivedi, Jodhpur.
Barua P and Sarma GC. 1987. Studies on the medicinal
uses of plants by the North East tribes – 14. J. Econ.
Tax. Bot. II (I) 71-76
Bhagabati AK, Bora AK and Kar BK. 2007. Geography of
Assam. Rajesh publications, New Delhi.
Boissya CL and Majumdar R. 1980. Some folklore claims
from the Brahmaputra valley (Assam) Ethnomedicine
6: 139-144
Borthakur SK. 1996. Post natal care of women in
traditional system in Assam, Ethnobotany 8: 57-55
Darrangar Lok Sanskriti Samiksha: Darrang Zila Sahitya
Sabha, Mangaldai
Deka D R and Sarma P. 2007. Geo-enverinmental status of
wetlands, a case study on the beels in Demoria region,
Kamrup District (Metro) of Assam proceeding of 52nd
annual technical session of Assam Science Society, 8:
50-57.
Dutta P and Lahon B. 1997. Prospect and potentialities of
beel fishery in Assam, Compendium, Workshop on
development of beel fishery in Assam, 21- 22 April
1997.
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
33
Hajra PK. 1991. Nature conservation in Khasi folk belief
and taboos, In SK Jain (Ed.) Contribution to Indian
Ethnobotany, Sci. Publ. Jodhpur.
Islam M. 1995. Certain less know wild edible plants of
North East India, J. Bot. Sci. Soc. 2: 42-48
Jain SK. 2004. A manual of Ethnobotany. Sci. Publ.
Jodhpur.
Kanjilal UC, Das A, Kanjilal PC and DC, RN. 1934-1940.
Flora of Assam vols. 1-5, Govt. of Assam, Shillong
(Vol. 5; by N.L. Bor.)
Mahanta PK and Gogoi P. 1988. Ethnobotanical studies on
Assam, survey of unusual Vegetables. Advances in
Plant Sci. 1 (2): 329-334
Rao RR. 1991. Ethnobotanical studies on some Adivashi
tribes of North East India with special refernce to the
Naga people. In SK Jain (Ed.) Contribution to India
Ethnobotany. Sci. publ. Jodhpur.
Sarkar S and Sarma CM. 2006. Ethnobotanical studies on
indigenous medicinal plants used by immigrant
Muslims of Bongaigaon District. In : Trivedi PC (ed.)
Medicinal Plants ethno botanical approach, Agrobios,
Jodhpur, PP-219-228
Tiwari KC and Majumdar R. 1998. Medicinal plants from
upper Assam border having specific folk uses.
Sachitra Ayurved 49 (3): 207-215
Wood Ward EE. 1956. Literature search for uses of new
botanical drugs. Adv. Chemser. 16: 162-167.
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
34
Valuation of bivalves of Aghanashini estuary, Indian west coast
Ramachandra T.V.*, Boominathan, M. and Subash Chandran M.D
Energy & Wetlands Research Group, Centre for Ecological Sciences
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, India
Corresponding author: [email protected]
© NECEER, Imphal
ABSTRACT
Estuaries are highly productive, dynamic and unique ecosystems providing food,
transport, recreation, etc. Mangrove vegetation, ranking high in productivity, is often
associated with tropical and sub-tropical estuaries. Estuaries play predominant role in
the socio-economics of the coast by providing valuable resources like fishes, bivalve
molluscs, crabs, shrimps, etc. This case study focuses on bivalves of the Aghanashini river
estuary of South Indian west coast, is an effort to document the edible bivalve diversity
and the often neglected socio-economic life based on it. Estimates have been made of
people involved in bivalve collection and trade, quantity and species collected and the
overall role of bivalves in sustaining a rural economy. Bivalves harvested are Paphia
malabarica, Katelysia opima and Meretrix meretrix, M. casta and Crassostrea sp. The
estuary provides diverse kinds of habitats (in terms of water depth, salinity, rockiness
and soil nature) for different bivalve species. Harvests are higher during post-monsoon
(November-May) compared to monsoon (June-October). The bivalve-based economy
has an estimated turnover of Rs. 57.8 million per year. It generates direct employment
for about 2,347 people, and nutritional security of millions more along the Karnataka
coast and also in neighbouring states. This study was undertaken at a time when an
ultra-thermal plant was to be set up in this estuarine base inconsiderate of its ecology
and economics.
KEYWORDS: Bivalves, livelihood, nutrition security, socio-economic valuation,
shellfishery, Aghanashini estuary
Bivalves belong to Mollusca which is the second
largest phylum among the invertebrates. They have
been exploited worldwide for food, ornamentation,
pearls, etc. throughout human historywrong way of
writing reference and its everywhere in this paper.
Mainly, bivalves of orders ostreids, mytilids and
pectinids are harvested for food globally. Annual
harvests of bivalves for human consumption
represent about 5% by weight of the total world
harvest of aquatic resources
(Roberts,1999).
Geological evidence from South Africa indicates that
systematic human exploitation of marine resources
started about 70,000 to 60,000 years ago (Volman,
1978). In India, 5,070 species of Mollusca have been
recorded of which, 3,370 species are from marine
environment (Venkataraman & Wafar, 2005). These
also include economically important edible species
of bivalves such as oysters Crassostrea madrasensis
and C. gryphoides, clams Meretrix casta, M.
meretrix, Paphia malabarica and Villorita
cyprinoides and green mussel Perna viridis
(Chatterji et al, 2002). Eight species of oysters, two
of mussels, 17 of clams, six of pearl oysters, four of
giant clams and one of window-pane oyster are
exploited extensively from the Indian marine regions
(Venkataraman & Wafar, 2005) . Rushikulya
estuary, Orissa has 317 species of molluscs Ghosh,
1992). 34 of 70 creeks of Maharashtra support clam
fishery (Mane, 1973) and clam fishery in
Maharashtra is mainly dependent on M. meretrix,
Ramachandra 34 -41
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
35
Katelysia opima and Paphia laterisules (Ranade,
1964). Molluscs especially clams, are abundant in
South Kanara district, Karnataka and are harvested
by traditional methods during non monsoon period
(James et al, 1975; Chatterji et al, 2002). The
CMFRI (Central Marine Fisheries Research
Institute) estimate shows of increasing trend with
4,583 t of bivalves (in 2006), compared to 905 t (in
1997). Total molluscs collection in Karnataka shows
similar trend with 16,225 t (in 2006) and 239 t in
1985 (www.cmfri.com/html/cmfriDATA01.html).
The bivalves are rich in nutrients, particularly
proteins, fats and minerals. The Indian edible
bivalves have protein content ranging from 5-14%,
fats (0.5-3%), calcium (0.04-1.84%), phosphorus
(0.1-0.2%) and iron (1-29 mg/100 g) of the fresh
weight (CSIR, 1962a). In this paper, we present a
case study of the traditional bivalve fishery of
Aghanashini river estuary situated towards the center
of south Indian west coast, in the State of Karnataka.
Although this kind of informal shellfishery (Kyle et
al. 1997) is a major activity here, there is hardly any
study carried out on it. The Aghanashini originating
in the Western Ghats and joining the Arabian Sea is
one of the most unpolluted rivers of the west coast,
having no industry or townships situated alongside
it. It has been a center for the traditional gazni fields
growing salt tolerant Kagga variety of rice. Many of
these fields have been converted into shrimp farms
in the recent decades. The shrimps form a major
source of foreign exchange for the region. In
addition to these, there are regular fishing activities,
bivalve fisheries and salt production. The estuary is
also home to about three million mangrove trees,
most of them recently planted, which form a major
attractant for over 100 species of birds; a substantial
percentage of them are migrants from northern
latitudes during the winter season. The estuary plays
an important role also as spawning grounds for
several marine fish and shrimp species.
Notwithstanding its biodiversity and ecosystem
values and role as food bowl of the region, the
estuary was chosen for establishing an ultra-mega
thermal power plant. However, this project was kept
in abeyance due to opposition from local people and
environmentalists. The present study was carried out
in this background as a part of our overall efforts to
understand and estimate the biodiversity and
ecosystem values as well as the magnitude of goods
and services that the estuary contributes towards
human welfare.
Study Area
The Aghanashini or Tadri River (total length 121
km) originates in the Sirsi taluk of Uttara Kannada
district in the central Western Ghats of Karnataka
State. Winding its way through deep gorges and
valleys the river meets the tides of the Arabian Sea
and forms an estuarine expanse (13 km long and 0.2
to 6 km wide) in the Kumta taluk. The estuary has its
outlet into the sea between the villages of
Aghanashini in the south and Tadri in the north. The
study area lies between the lat. 14.391° to 14.585° N
and long. 74.304° to 74.516° E. Located alongside
this estuary are about 25 villages. Bivalve harvesting
people are confined to 19 of these villages (Figure
1).
Figure 1. Sampling points in the study area Aghanashini Estuary.
Methods
The survey (both household and field) was
undertaken during June 2006 to March 2007.
Diversity and distribution of edible bivalve species,
was documented by field observations. Bivalve
harvesting villages were identified by interviewing
people living closer to Aghanashini estuary. In the
bivalve collecting villages, household surveys were
undertaken using questionnaires. Within the
identified villages we located the hamlets of
communities which have bivalve collection as major
activity. The local gram panchayath also guided us
regarding bivalve collecting families. About 10% of
these households of the bivalve collecting families
were surveyed primarily to estimate:
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
36
1. Number of individuals involved in bivalve
harvesting
2. Number of bivalve harvesting months and
3. Number of bivalve harvesting days per month.
In addition to these, 5% of the bivalve collecting
community households in each village was subjected
to another level of survey to elicit the following
information:
1. Quantity of bivalve collection per person per day
2. Valuation of bivalves collected and
3. Expenditure incurred in collection (including
local transport and processing).
We also estimated the additional income generated
from the sale of bivalve shells as well as from dried
bivalve meat, which constitute smaller components
of the economy. There is also a shell mining industry
in operation which mines for deposits of empty
shells from another part of the estuary where live
bivalves are not normally available. This industry
also procures from bivalve collectors, a small
quantity of empty shells incidentally gathered or
disposed off after removing the meat. Employment
generated from this activity is also estimated.
Results and discussion
Distribution of bivalves
The bivalve harvesters of Aghanashini estuary
normally collect eight species of edible bivalves.
However, yet another edible species, Arca granosa
known as blood clam, is rare and not of significance
to the collectors. The edible bivalves are popularly
categorised as clams, mussels and oysters. Table 1
provides species-wise habitat and distribution and
use of these bivalves in Aghanashini estuary and also
elsewhere in India. Spatial distribution of these
bivalves is given in Figure 2. All the harvested
bivalve species, except V. cyprinoides are found
within a distance of 4 km from the river mouth. In
this part of the estuary the summer (in April) salinity
at high tide, as estimated by Bhat (2003) is almost
closer to the sea water at 32-34 ppt. Of the bivalves
here the green mussel P. viridis (Figure 3a), grows
on steep rocky substratum towards the river mouth in
the sub-tidal zone in close proximity to the sea. Two
oyster species of Crassostrea (Figure 3b) occupy
inter-tidal zone on mud-flats mixed with sand and
shell fragments. P. malabarica (Figure 3c) inhabits
deeper water with sandy substratum normally not
exposed during low tides. K. opima (Figure 3d), M.
meretrix (Figure 3e) and M. casta (Figure 3f) are
associated with mud-flats of this zone. A. granosa
(Figure 3g) also occurs here. K. opima has its
distribution zone extending up to Paduvani (7 km
away) where summer (in April) salinity is 31-32 ppt.
The clam V. cyprinoides (Figure 3h) inhabits the
farthest part of the estuary that is 10 km away from
the river mouth (salinity 26-34 ppt (Bhat, 2003)) and
beyond into the freshwater zone more than 18 km
away.
Figure 2. Spatial distribution of Calms, Mussels and Oysters in Aghanashini Estuary.
Figure 3. a P. viridis, b. Crassostrea sp., c. P. malabarica, d: K. opima, e: M. meretrix, f M. casta, g A. granosa, h. V. cyprinoides
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
37
Table 1. Species-wise habitat and distribution of edible bivalves in Aghanashini estuary and elsewhere in India
Scientific name Common
name
Habitat in Aghanashini
estuary Distribution and habitat in India Uses
Paphia malabarica False clam At water depth >1 m at low tide
East and west coasts sandy bottom, mid-littoral
Food for humans, lime production and poultry feed
Katelysia opima Mud-flats or sandy
bottom
Marine and estuarine shallow
waters, mud-flats or sandy bottom -do-
Meretrix meretrix Bay clam Mud-flats or sandy
bottom
West coast mud-flats or sandy
bottom, mid-littoral -do-
M. casta Backwater clam
Mud-flats or sandy bottom
Estuaries and backwaters of east and west coasts, mud-flats or sandy
bottom, mid-littoral
-do-
Villorita cyprinoides Black clam At water depth <1 m
at low tide
West coast backwaters and
estuaries -do-
Arca granosa Blood clam Sandy bottom inter-tidal
Back-waters and estuaries along the Indian coast, sandy bottom, inter-
tidal
Crassostrea sp. Oyster Inter-tidal mud-flats mixed with sand and
shell fragments
East and west coast estuaries, and backwaters
Food for humans, lime production fertilizer and
poultry feed
Perna viridis Green mussel Sub-tidal: steep, rocky areas near river mouth
East and west coast marine intertidal, sub tidal and estuarine,
rocky shores
Food for humans
Source: Apte 1998; Chatterji et al. 2002; CSIR 1962.
Bivalve harvesting and trade
Both men and women are engaged in harvesting of
bivalves, except P. viridis which only men harvest.
Women normally avoid dangerously deep waters and
rocky substratum towards the interface of the sea,
which is the preferred habitat of P. viridis.
Harvesting is done by hand, feet or with the aid of a
small hand-held digging stick. The collectors work
for three to four hours per day during the low tides.
Bivalves are collected in cone shaped nets, baskets,
plastic boxes, cement bags, etc. Small non-
mechanised crafts are normally used for collection
from deeper waters and for transport of bivalves
from the collection site to the villages. The boats
may be steered by men or women. Harvesting
methods, for various bivalves are briefly discussed
below:
• Clams: P. malabarica is most common in
Aghanashini estuary followed by K. opima, M.
meretrix, M. casta and V. cyprinoides. Searching
for P. malabarica is done in shallow water by
using hands or feet. K. opima, M. meretrix, M.
casta, associated with mud-flats are picked by
hand or dug out using sticks, mostly by women.
V. cyprinoides is collected from shallow water,
through direct searching using hands or feet
mostly by women.
• Mussels: P. viridis, the only edible mussel of
Aghanashini is usually found attached to the
steep sub-tidal rocky parts of the river mouth.
The species adheres to the substratum by thread
like structures called byssus and is manually
picked by men.
• Oysters: Crassostrea sp. form beds on the mud-
flats and also attach to the inter-tidal rocks.
Usually women extract the meat by opening the
oyster shell using a knife.
Processing
Dead bivalves and empty shells are removed from
the collection before marketing. These empty shells
are used for making lime and poultry feed. Small
quantities of bivalves, especially P. malabarica, are
boiled for couple of hours along with shells and then
meat is removed and sundried for preservation and
subsequent usage. An estimated 2,347 individuals
from 1,202 households are associated with bivalve
harvesting; of these 1,738 are men and 609 are
women, who belong to 19 estuarine villages, 1,202
families (Table 2 and Figure 1). The majority who
harvest bivalves for trade belong to local fishing
communities such as Harikanthras and Ambigas.
Halakkivokkals, Namdharis, and Gramvokkals, who
are traditionally agriculturists, also gather bivalves
mostly for domestic consumption and sometimes for
trade. Bulk of the harvesters are from Aghanashini
village (35.15%) followed by Divgi (18.75%),
Gokarn (9.67%), Torke (7.84%) and Mirjan (7.63%).
Aghanashini closer to the river mouth has a
substantial production of bivalves and also accounts
for the largest number of harvesters (825).
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
38
Table 2. Village-wise estimated number of bivalve collecting
(BC) households (HH) and number of individuals involved in bivalve harvesting
Village No. of
HH**
BC
HH
% of
BC HH
BC
men
BC
women
Total BC
persons
Hiregutti 596 1 0.17 1 1
Bargigazani 14 5 35.71 5 5
Aigalkurve 120 5 4.17 2 6 8
Bargi 359 7 1.95 7 4 11 Paduvani 331 13 3.93 3 11 14
Balale 213* 10 4.69 14 14
Betkuli 316 22 6.96 25 25 Lukkeri 280 32 11.43 34 34
Kodkani 407 29 7.13 25 10 35
Hegde 1311 31 2.36 29 19 48
Kagal 711 33 4.64 44 9 53 Madangeri 279 20 7.17 56 56
Morba 180 34 18.89 81 10 91
Toregazani 38 38 100 69 28 97 Mirjan 630 89 14.13 85 94 179
Torke 261 72 27.59 158 26 184
Gokarn 2,532 98 3.87 205 22 227 Divgi 524 323 61.64 237 203 440
Aghanashini 579 340 58.72 692 133 825
Total 9,681 1,202 12.42 1,738 609 2,347
**http://zpkarwar.kar.nic.in/CensusKumtaVWP.htm
Total number of bivalve collecting days in a year is
140 for male and 147 for females. Hence, bivalve
harvest in the estuary alone generates 332,843 days
of human employment per year. Bulk of the
employment for men is through the collection of P.
malabarica, which is found in deeper parts of the
estuary (water depth >1m at lowtide). However,
collecting P. viridis from steep and rocky parts of the
river mouth being a riskier tasks only a small
number of men (2.11% of men collectors) venture to
do it. V. cyprinoides is collected from shallow waters
by both men and women. Collection of the K. opima,
M. meretrix, M. casta and Crassostrea sp. from the
mudflats is mostly woman’s domain. Village and
season-wise estimated quantity of bivalves harvested
per day is listed in Table 3.
Table 3. Village and season-wise average quantity (Kg. wet
weight with shells) of bivalves harvested per day
Village Jun-Oct % of total
harvest Nov-May
% of total
harvest
Hiregutti 105.00 0.09 105.00 0.07
Aigalkurve 300.00 0.25 300.00 0.20
Bargigazani 337.50 0.28 337.50 0.22 Bargi 412.50 0.34 412.50 0.27
Balale 420.00 0.35 420.00 0.28
Lukkeri 431.25 0.36 637.50 0.42
Paduvani 489.00 0.41 588.00 0.39 Betkuli 708.75 0.59 843.75 0.56
Hegde 851.25 0.71 2,062.50 1.37
Kodkani 1,275.00 1.06 2,175.00 1.45 Madangeri 1,680.00 1.40 1,680.00 1.12
Morba 2,497.50 2.08 3,060.00 2.04
Toregazani 2,551.50 2.13 6,014.25 4.01 Kagal 4,890.00 4.08 4,230.00 2.82
Torke 5,782.50 4.82 7,188.00 4.79
Mirjan 5,940.00 4.96 7,320.00 4.88
Gokarn 9,945.63 8.30 11,922.00 7.95 Divgi 23,565.00 19.66 30,465.00 20.31
Aghanashini 57,683.20 48.12 70,270.96 46.84
Total 119,865.58 150,031.96
The quantity of bivalves harvested per day is 11.17%
more during November to May. Aghanashini and
Divgi village people alone contribute 67% of the
bivalve harvested per day. Village, season and
gender-wise average quantity of bivalves harvested
is given in Table 4a and 4b. The post monsoon
period of November to May is more congenial for
bivalve harvesting. Women collect bivalves from
shallow regions and mudflats compared to men who
harvests from deeper regions. Bivalves are abundant
in deeper parts of estuary compared to shallow
regions and mudflats. The average quantity
harvested is 65±24.78 kg/individual/day for men and
22±13.46 kg/day/individual for women. Spot
purchases of bivalves harvested are made by traders
who transport them to nearby towns and even to
neighboring states, especially to Goa. The local
marketing is usually carried out by the women of
fishing communities, who make household sales in
Kumta town and nearby villages. Some female also
carry the bivalves to the local fish markets. The
harvesters also use small part of the collection for
domestic use.
Table 4a. Village and season-wise average quantity of bivalves
harvested (in kg. wet weight with shells) by men
Village QHD:
Jun-Oct
BCD
Jun -
Oct
Total harvest
(kg) -
Jun-Oct
QHD:
Nov-
May
BCD
in Nov
- May
Total harvest
(kg) -
Nov-May
Hiregutti 105 44 4,620 105 154 16,170 Bargigazani 338 32 10,800 338 64 21,600
Bargi 263 26 6,825 263 96 25,200
Aigalkurve 165 13 2,145 165 182 30,030
Paduvani 225 100 22,500 225 140 31,500 Balale 420 9 3,780 420 108 45,360
Betkuli 709 9 6,379 844 85 71,719
Hegde 638 13 8,288 1,849 120 221,850 Morba 2,475 8 19,800 3,038 78 236,925
Kodkani 1,125 10 11,250 1,875 132 247,500
Madangeri 1,680 96 161,280 1,680 168 282,240
Kagal 4,620 18 83,160 3,960 80 316,800 Toregazani 2,498 48 119,880 5,951 96 571,320
Mirjan 3,960 40 158,400 4,500 138 621,000
Torke 5,760 45 259,200 7,110 102 725,220 Gokarn 9,430 33 311,190 11,378 78 887,445
Divgi 15,960 10 159,600 21,330 90 1,919,700
Aghanashini 56,689 71 4,024,951 67,278 117 7,871,580
Total 107,058 5,374,047 132,307 14,143,159
BCD – Bivalve collecting days; QHD – Quantity harvested per day
Table 4b. Village and season-wise average quantity of bivalves harvested (in kg. wet weight with shells) by women
Village QHD:
Jun-Oct
BCD
in
Jun - Oct
Total
harvest (kg)
- Jun-Oct
QHD:
Nov-
May
BCD
in
Nov - May
Total
harvest
(kg) - Nov-May
Morba 23 34 765 23 119 2,678
Toregazani 54 30 1,620 63 96 6,048
Torke 23 51 1,148 78 102 7,956 Aigalkurve 135 10 1,350 135 133 17,955
Bargi 150 36 5,400 150 126 18,900
Kagal 270 7 1,890 270 98 26,460 Paduvani 264 10 2,640 363 90 32,670
Hegde 214 12 2,565 214 168 35,910
Kodkani 150 10 1,500 300 126 37,800 Gokarn 516 75 38,672 545 105 57,173
Lukkeri 431 10 4,313 638 102 65,025
Aghanashini 994 49 48,694 2,993 114 341,145
Mirjan 1,980 48 95,040 2,820 161 454,020 Divgi 7,605 11 83,655 9,135 120 1,096,200
Total 12,807 289,251 17,725 2,199,939
BCD – Bivalve collecting days; QHD – Quantity harvested per day
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
39
Table 5. Village, season and gender-wise income per year from
bivalve collection
Village
Men Women
Total (Rs.) June - Oct
Nov -
May June - Oct
Nov -
May
Aghanashini 14,247,842 17,979,543 158,992 704,600 33,090,977
Divgi 568,830 4,428,772 291,182 2,378,217 7,667,001
Mirjan 563,418 1,422,253 328,839 967,109 3,281,619
Gokarn 969,601 1,836,715 135,472 130,651 3,072,439
Torke 795,644 1,427,533 62,813 285,116 2,571,106
Toregazani 431,482 1,333,506 86,293 201,571 2,052,852
Madangeri 588,305 672,031 1,260,336
Kagal 289,145 719,192 6,867 62,622 1,077,826
Kodkani 41,044 589,468 5,036 79,019 714,567
Hegde 29,770 515,903 9,405 86,184 641,262
Morba 60,376 425,015 36,535 77,000 598,926
Paduvani 75,219 65,406 9,579 77,161 227,365
Betkuli 21,459 150,423 171,882
Aigalkurve 7,714 69,957 4,950 43,092 125,713
Balale 13,589 105,607 119,196
Lukkeri 11,397 89,487 100,884
Bargi 14,748 22,534 19,365 43,839 100,486
Bargigazani 38,767 50,173 88,940
Hiregutti 16,848 38,485 55,333
Total 18,773,801 31,852,516 1,166,725 5,225,668 57,018,710
Bivalve harvested in this estuary is estimated at
22,006 t/yr, which generates a total primary annual
net income of about Rs. 57.8 million (Rs. 57,018,710
from bivalve collection and Rs. 816,267 from
supplementary products like empty shells and dried
meat). Aghanashini village, which accounts for the
highest production of bivalves alone earns about Rs.
33 million (58% of total income). More details about
village, season and gender-wise income per year is
given in Table 5. The average income for the male
was Rs. 29,129 from 140 collection days for the
study year 2006-07, whereas it was Rs. 10,497 for
the female from 147 collection days. Some quantity
of bivalves collected is used for the production of
dried meat, which earns marginally more profit than
sale of fresh bivalves. The estimated annual income
from the sale of empty shells is Rs. 483,850 (Table
6) and from dried bivalve meat is Rs. 334,983 (Table
7).
Table 6. Village-wise income (Rs.) per year from shell sale
Village BHH SHH
No. of basket
(Shells) sales /
family
Rs. / basket Income (Rs.) /
family
Total (Rs.) /
village
Hiregutti 1 1 25 10 250 250
Aigalkurve 5 3 28 10 280 840
Kodkani 29 20 11 11 121 2,420
Balale 10 10 28 11 303 3,025
Paduvani 13 7 35 13 438 3,063
Hegde 31 19 16 11 176 3,344
Bargigazani 5 5 50 15 750 3,750
Madangeri 20 20 40 10 400 8,000
Mirjan 89 36 23 11 256 9,207
Torke 72 18 75 9 638 11,475
Gokarn 98 33 41 12 488 16,088
Toregazani 38 19 148 11 1,623 30,828
Kagal 33 26 118 12 1,416 36,816
Morba 34 26 143 12 1,710 44,460
Divgi 323 226 35 14 490 110,740
Aghanashini 340 139 118 12 1,416 196,824
Total 1,141 609 10,752 481,129 BHH – Bivalve collecting households; SHH – Shell selling households
Table 7. Village-wise income (Rs.) per year from dried meat sale
Village BHH DHH kg sales /
family Rs. / kg Expense (Rs.)
Income (Rs.) /
family
Total (Rs.) /
village
Bargigazani 5 5 2 200 300 1,500
Hiregutti 1 1 18 150 2,625 2,625
Paduvani 13 3 9 250 110 2,140 6,420
Torke 72 13 4 160 20 620 8,060
Aigalkurve 5 3 20 150 135 2,865 8,595
Kagal 33 13 6 175 200 894 11,619
Morba 34 17 8 166 88 1,159 19,709
Balale 10 5 40 100 25 3,975 19,875
Madangeri 20 20 8 175 150 1,163 23,250
Divgi 323 129 2 120 13 183 23,543
Toregazani 38 29 17 150 147 2,353 68,247
Aghanashini 340 170 8 127 175 834 141,696
Total 894 408 19,110 335,138 BHH – Bivalve collecting households; DHH –Dried meat selling households
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
40
Shell Mining
Parts of the estuary are leased out for the mining of
empty shells, which are used by various industries
for the production of poultry-feed, lime, fertilisers,
etc. The annual production of shells is around 80,
000 to 100,000 t and the market price ranges from
Rs. 750 to 950/t. About 600 persons (only men,
especially those operating native boats) are engaged
in shell mining in addition to transporters (about 200
persons). As shell mining depends largely on the
deposits of dead shells, in the long run it is not going
to be sustainable. Sustainable harvest has to be
limited to procurement of shells of live bivalves and
annual deposits of dead shells of unexploited
bivalves which needs further investigation. The
gross annual value of the shells is about Rs. 76.5
million.
Valuation of estuary based only on bivalve
production
The annual harvest of bivalves in Aghanashini
estuary is estimated to be 22,006 t (edible portion
about 9% of fresh weight). On an average an
individual consumes 50 g of meat for about 200
days a year. Therefore the bivalves of this estuary
alone contribute substantially towards protein and
mineral rich nutrition of about 198,000 people of the
west coast. About 186 ha of the estuary is estimated
to be used for bivalve harvesting (Figure 4).
Therefore the average annual income per every
hectare of bivalve harvesting area can be put at Rs.
306,552. It is an amazing yield/ha compared to any
other natural ecosystem or agricultural systems, and
that too this yield is without input of any kind into
the system by humans. Majority of the 105
harvesters whom we interviewed opined that over
the years, despite the harvests, there has been hardly
any change in the availability of bivalves. However,
a small number of harvesters expressed that there
has been a declining trend in recent years. It is learnt
that during 2007 – 08 period overharvesting due to
rising demand from Goa has created local scarcity
and spiraling of bivalve prices. Shell mining is done
in an area of 100 ha per year out of a total lease area
of 809.37 ha (20 years lease period). The shells
mined at prevailing market prices are worth Rs.
765,000/ha/yr. Hence, the total value of the estuary
based on live bivalve and shell production is worth
Rs. 1,071,552/ha/yr. This demonstrates the high
productive potential of the estuary compared to any
other economic sectors. This valuation does not
include other goods that the estuary provides such as
production of shrimps, fish, crabs, salt, mangroves,
etc. in addition to services such as fish spawning
grounds, nutrient cycling, hydrology, flood control,
soil protection, sink for carbon, etc. Estuaries are
ranked among the highest productive natural
ecosystems of the world. Based on all goods and
services that estuaries provide Costanza et al. year
(Costanza et al. 1997) estimated the value of an
estuary as USD 22,832/ha/yr. The west coast of
India is dotted with the estuaries of numerous rivers
which originate in the Western Ghats, one of the
global biodiversity hotspots. Yet there has been an
almost callous neglect and misuse of these high
ranking productive ecosystems causing inestimable
losses.
Figure 4. Bivalve harvesting and shell mining areas.
Conclusion Unplanned developmental activities based on ad-hoc
approaches in planning in recent decades have
telling effects on the Aghanashini estuary. In the
early 1970’s about 728.44 ha of productive estuarine
ecosystem areas were leased for industrial salt
production and subsequently abandoned due to
failure of the project. Thereafter in a frenzied drive
to promote shrimp production for export substantial
portion of the estuary was put to intensive shrimp
farming, destroying much of the mangroves as well
as the traditional salt tolerant Kagga rice fields.
There has also been a sharp decline in the rich bird
and fish fauna following these perturbations. The
most recent threat to the estuary has been from the
proposed Ultra Mega Power Plant. However, this
project has been shelved due to protests from the
NeBIO (2011) Vol. 2(1)
41
ecosystem people whose livelihoods were to be
imperiled by such an establishment and also from
environmentalists. The study underscores the need
for greater sensitivity and vision on the part of
planners and decision makers towards conservation
and sustainable management of pristine and
productive ecosystems, particularly of Western
Ghats west coast region. This study is an initial
attempt to evaluate some important aspects of
estuarine goods, which has a major role in livelihood
aspects of ecosystem people.. However, valuation of
the estuary services and goods of a estuary requires
further investigations for a comprehensive
understanding of various components.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to Dr Prakash Mesta, Dr Nayak, V
N, and Dr Kusuma Neelakantan, Dept. of Marine
Biology, Karwar for the help extended in the
identification of bivalves and valuable suggestions.
Ravish, helped in the fieldwork. We thank the
villagers for their co-operation during survey. We
thank the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India for the financial assistance.
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