NAVY IN THE NAPOLEONIC ERA1783-1815

Sea Power & Maritime AffairsLesson 3

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Last Class

American Revolution– Causes– Battles– Outcomes– Role of Navies

Today

1. Navy after American Revolution2. Barbary Wars– Reestablishment of Navy (1794)– Piracy

3. Anglo-French (“Napoleonic”) Wars– Quasi War–War of 1812

8 Key Themes

1. Navy as an instrument of foreign policy2. Interaction between Congress and Navy3. Interservice relations4. Technology5. Leadership6. Strategy & Tactics7. Evolution of US Naval Doctrine8. Future missions of Navy and USMC

WarningFor the sake of clarity, this information is presented in thematic order, rather than chronological order. Please be mindful of this as you study it.

Napoleonic and Barbary Wars

Video

Treaty of ParisUS Independent

– Must organize itself

Key issues– Defense

• GB/Spain/France/Native Americans

• No maritime protection

– Trade• Between states• On oceans

– Brit trade advantage lost– Protection from pirates

– States v. Central Gov’t• Division of power?

1783

Fate of Navy and Marines

Articles of Confederation – Ratified 1781– “No state may maintain a peace-time

standing army or navy.”– Congress must collect taxes to create

Navy

Results– Continental Navy and Marine disbanded– All ships sold by 1785

2nd Constitution Convention

Problems with Articles of Confederation – States too powerful | central gov’t too weak– Saw military as “rifle on mantelpiece”– Federalist Papers

• Federalist No. 11: Hamilton argues for Navy

New Constitution– Ratified 1788– Expands powers of central government– Article 1, Section 8:

• “…Congress shall have Power…to provide and maintain a navy” (but none created until 1794)

Navalists Non-Navalists

Continued Debate

Want large navy for:– Symbol of national

greatness– Balance of power in Europe– Protect commerce

Want small/no navy because:– Expensive– Provocation for war

• Didn’t want drawn into European wars

– Hire fleet if needed

Who are they?– Citizens of merchant towns– Particularly north-east– Federalists

• John Adams, Hamilton, John Jay

Who are they?– Rural farmers– Particularly south– Democrats

• Thomas Jefferson

Barbary Pirates

Drive to re-establish Navy and Marine Corps

(1794)

Barbary Pirates

Reason for Navy/USMC: Barbary Pirates– No Navy to protect commerce– Pirates began capturing American

merchantmen in Med and Atlantic–We create fleet to quash them

Barbary States

Barbary Pirates

Tribute System– Most countries paid a “tribute” to Barbary Pirates– Colonies no longer protected under British tribute– Pirates began attacking American merchantmen

• Started during revolution | increased after• Captured and sold US ships• Sold crew for ransom or into slavery

Reaches a boiling point when– Portugal signs treaty with pirates

• No longer policing them, or keeping them pinned in Med• Pirates take a few American ships in a few weeks

Congress Debates Response

Pay tribute? Declare war on pirates? How to fight without Navy?

Agreement: Naval Act of 1794– Build Navy while seeking treaty• One-time authorization for “6 Frigates”• Explicit purpose to defeat Barbary pirates

– If treaty signed, ships will not be completed– Ships designed with 44 guns because largest

Barbary warship had 44 guns

• Secretary of War responsible for Navy Dept.

Humphrey’s Frigates

3 of 44 guns, 3 of 36 guns– Joshua Humphreys designed them• Highly advanced ribbed design• Made to last 100 years• Georgia live oak exterior• Rated to 50+ guns

– Establish five Navy shipyards to build them• Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Portsmouth,

Baltimore, Norfolk• Logistical mess

Humphreys

Treaty with Pirates

US signed treaties – Algiers (1795) | Tripoli (1796) | Tunis (1797)– Pay tribute for safe passage

Big Question: Complete the ships?• Navalists want all six• Non-navalists want zero

– Settlement: Complete three• United States (44), Constellation (36),

Constitution (44)

All commissioned by 1797

USS Constitution

USS Constellation

USS United States

1st Barbary War

1801-1805

1st Barbary WarShort Video

1st Barbary WarLonger Video

1.5 min

13 min

1st Barbary War

Cause1. Pirates continued to harass American shipping

• Despite treaty and tribute

2. Dey of Tripoli demanded higher tribute

Congress debated– Tribute or war?– Jefferson’s opinion:

• Always opposed tribute• Maintain a navy squadron in Med for protection

Decision: Sent a squadron to defeat pirates

1801 - 1805

1st Barbary War

1801-1802

Divided fleet– Weak blockade of

Tripoli harbor– Escorted

merchantmen Ineffective, but

– Inadequate force– No US declaration

of war

Richard Dale1802-1803

– 7 frigates, 1 sloop– Family with him

Disobeyed orders– “Lie off Tripoli”– Commits force to

convoy escort Highly ineffective

– Recalled and dismissed from Navy

Edward Morris1803-1805

Adept leader/fighter “Preble’s Boys” Credited with

defeating Pirates

Edward Preble

CommodoresTipoli declared war while Dale enroute

The Man

1st Barbary WarPreble1802-1804

Blunders and Heroes USS Philadelphia Decatur & USS Intrepid Gunfire against fort Gunboats Action at other Barbary States

1st Barbary War

Presley O’Bannon

William Eaton

Eaton, Hamet, O’Bannon

Dey agrees to terms $60,000 for release of prisoners No more tribute payments

1st Barbary War

What it taught U.S.1. Diplomacy• Validates Navy = useful & effective• First example of “gunboat diplomacy”

2. Tactics• Gunboats with forts = effective• Validates blockading

3. Heroes & heroics = national pride

Jeffersonian Naval Policy

President (1801-1809) Wanted navy for:

1. Defense• For ports: Gunboats and forts• For coast: Small cruising frigates & ships-of-

the-line

2. Settle manageable disputes• Ability to fight weak adversaries

– i.e. Barbary Pirates

Congress cuts Navy funding

Gunboat NavyCost:

– Frigate: $300,000– Gunboat: $10,000

Crew: 20

Propulsion: – Small sails and oars

Guns: 2 or 3 cannon– 18-, 24-, and 32-pound

Stationed in major cities 172 at peak, but utter

failure during War of 1812 without support of forts.

Jefferson Presidency: 1807-1809

Anglo-French “Napoleonic” Wars

1792-1815

Anglo-French “Napoleonic” Wars

Resumed with French Revolution (1789)–Monarchy overthrown• French King & Queen beheaded (1793)

– Brits declared war– 7 wars over 22 years• World War: all European nations entwined• Napoleon rises to power (1799)

– Conquers most of Europe

• France controlled the land (5x size British Army)

• Brits controlled the seas (2x size French Navy)

Anglo-French “Napoleonic” Wars

Formal treaty with France American-style revolution Pro: Thomas Jefferson

Trade/heritage with Britain British invasion dangerous Pro: John Adams & Hamilton

France Great Britain

America in the middle – Mixed allegiances and motives

1. Alliance with France2. Trade issues

• British blockaded France across globe• “Orders in Council” – no foreign trade with France• “Continental System” – French response• Difference: British could enforce it

Anglo-French “Napoleonic” Wars

Official US policy: “Neutral”Reasons

1. No appetite for ongoing European wars– 7 Years War, Am Revolution, now more wars

2. Money – Economy booming– Trade with both was enormously profitable

Washington declared 3. American alliance was only with French king

– His execution ended American military obligation

4. US proclaims right to trade with both nations

Anglo-French “Napoleonic” Wars

Neutrality Issues– Adams Administration

• US merchant ships captured by French & British• Adam’s reaction:

– Jay’s Treaty (1797)– Quasi War (1798)

– Jefferson Administration• More merchant ships captured• Jefferson’s reaction: Embargo Act (1807)

– Highly unpopular= destroyed merchant economy– US navy ordered to blockade its own coast – Did not work. James Madison repealed

Anglo-French “Napoleonic” Wars

Neutrality Issues–Madison Administration• Repealed Embargo Act• Passes Non-Intercourse Act of 1809

– Trade with everyone but France and England.

• Macon's bill No. 2 (1810)– Trade with everyone including France and England– US would reward whichever would first repeal its

trade restrictions against US. – Napoleon agreed, and US re-imposed embargo on

England in February 1811

Battles & Wars

7 Wars in 22 years 1792-1815

Land war Culminates in

failed French invasion of Russia

Sea war Culminates at

Battle of Trafalgar (1805)

GB v. France

Quasi War 1798 - 1800 Where?

– Caribbean First US naval

victories

US v France

War of 1812 1812-1815 Where?

– Great Lakes– Chesapeake– Atlantic – Gulf– Europe– Pacific

Stunning victories, but US doesn’t really win or lose war

US v GB

Battle of Trafalgar

Culmination of naval war Napoleon wanted to invade Britain– Had conquered most of Europe except Britain– British Navy was only thing stopping him

Napoleon ordered fleet out of port– French & Spanish reluctantly got underway– Engaged British off Trafalgar, Spain

• British: ADM Horatio Nelson | 27 Ships-of-the-line• French/Spanish: ADM Villeneuve | 33 ships-of-the-

line

1805

Battle of Trafalgar1805

Battle of Trafalgar

British• ADM Horatio Nelson• 27 Ships-of-the-line• Seasoned fighters

French/Spanish • ADM Villeneuve• 33 ships-of-the-line• In port for years

1805

Melee tactics

Formal Tactics

Battle of Trafalgar

Outcome: British decimated French/Spanish– Most one-sided victory since Spanish

Armada– Brits retained absolute dominance of seas• Lord ADM Horatio Nelson made British hero

– No French invasion of Britain– British tightened blockade• Tensions increased with U.S. on seas• Compounded toward War of 1812

1805

Quasi War

Undeclared war with France1798-1800

Quasi War

Who: US v. FranceCauses

1. French anger at US• US refusal to honor Revolutionary War alliance

against Great Britain• Jay’s Treaty: GB “most favored [trade] nation”

2. Economic embargos• Continental System | Orders in Council

3. French privateering • Attacking American merchants in Caribbean

Quasi War4. XYZ Affair (1797)

• French refused to receive American ambassador• Adams sent a delegation to peacefully settle issues• French Foreign Minister demanded $250,000 to

speak to him• Americans outraged

– “millions in defense, but not one cent in tribute.”

Angry Congress reacted– Formally annulled Treaty of Alliance with France– Authorized

• Attacks on French warships• Letters of Marque & Reprisal

Main Players

President during war Outraged at French

impudence, but avoids official declaration of war

Appointed 1st SECNAV Oversees:

– Naval war effort– Ambitious ship-building

Very adept SECNAV

John Adams Benjamin Stoddert

Benjamin StoddertJohn Adams

Main Players

First COMMO of US Navy– Oversees operations in

Caribbean

USS Constellation Hero of Quasi Wars

– Two victories in frigate duals with French

COMMO John Barry COMMO Thomas Truxton

COMMO Thomas TruxtonCOMMO John Barry

Quasi War1798 - 1800

Defeated: L’Insurgente Damaged: La Vengeance

Defeated: Le Berceau

USS Constellation (Truxton)

USS Boston

Only one US warship captured– USS Retaliation off NJ.

Later recaptured by US. Multiple amphibious ops Both nations engaged in

– Privateering – Guerre de course

Other Action

American Advantage1. Most of French fleet stuck in

Europe behind British blockade

2. Brits also fight French Navy

Outcome of WarNo formal declarations of war

– But was effectively war for navies

Treaty of Mortefontaine (Paris, 1800)– France agreed to end of alliance– Both countries returned captured ships– Free passage of goods (no embargo)

Navy outcome: Boon for US Navy– All-Navy war – Navy is source of national pride– Tripled size of fleet

• Even now have ships-of-the-line

Outcome of War

Problem for Navy Thomas Jefferson elected president– Expected to completely eliminate navy– Navalists voluntarily reduced Navy size to

forestall more draconian reductions Peace Establishment Act (1800)– Congress cut Navy from 50 to 13 ships– Only 17 ships at beginning of War of 1812

War of 1812

1812-1814 (1815)

War of 1812

Causes1. Economic trade sanctions• British Orders in Council• Blockade of France (only legal if effective)• GB violation of neutral commerce

2. Sanctity of US ships• Merchantmen:

– GB stopped and searched US ships for contraband and deserters. Felt they could do it anywhere

• Warships:– Illegal search of US warships for British deserters

War of 1812

Causes3. Impressment• Chesapeake-Leopard Affair (1807)• HMS Little Belt (1811)

4. Native American Uprisings Great Lakes• Blamed on British

5. Warhawks in Congress• Interest in annexing Canada

Chesapeake-Leopard Affair1807

USS Chesapeake• CAPT James Barron• 2 British deserters on boardAffair1. British hail and demand to

board. Barron refuses.2. British open fire3. Barron strikes flag4. British board, take 4 sailors,

then sail away5. Chesapeake hobbles back

into port and Barron relieved for failure to clear guns for action

6. Ignites diplomatic crisis over impressment and legal sanctity of US warships

7. British return 2 of 4 sailors, but 1 had been already executed and another died in prison

President v. Little Belt1807

USS President• CAPT John Rodgers

Affair1. HMS Guerriere stopped US

ship and impressed an American sailor.

2. USS President pursued3. Stumbled upon British sloop

HMS Little Belt in middle of night, mistaken it for Guerriere.

4. President opened fire5. Little Belt returned fire, but

then ceased—severely damaged.

6. Ships parted ways7. British angered, but

Americans saw it as just revenge for Chesapeake-Leopard Affair.

Looming War

Army preparations1. US calls up militia2. Sends US troops to Canadian border3. Supply, logistics, production

Navy preparations– Nothing • Congress repeatedly rejects appropriation bills

to increase ships and funds• Unprepared for war

Declaration of War

1. US declared war on Great Britain2. Britain declared war on U.S.– But must fight with hand tied behind back

because of European war– Declare blockade (“paper blockade”)

Primary Battleground: Canadian border– Both fixated on invasion along border–Most fighting occurred there

June 18, 1812

New Orleans (Dec 1814 - Jan 1815)

Washington D.C. (24 Aug 1814)Baltimore (13 Sept 1814)

Lake Erie (Sept. 10, 1813)

Lake Ontario (1812-1814)

Lake Champlain (11 Sep 1814)

Naval Blockade (1812 - 1814)Major Battles

Strategies

Land focus (not seas)– We can’t hope to control

the seas, but we can control the land

Army Strategy– Invade Canada– Strengthen costal defenses– Hold boarders

Navy Strategy– Gunboats for costal

defense– Guerre de course– Privateering

Balance Military Forces– Still at war with France.

Cannot commit total effort to US.

Army Strategy– Defend Canada– Counter-offensive from

Canada Navy Strategy

– Blockade– Commerce convoys– Army Support

• Supply & Transport

United States Great Britain

David vs. Goliath

Blue Water Navy

War on the Atlantic

US Naval Debate

What naval strategy?1. Guerre de course– USS Argus and Wasp in English

Channel– USS Essex in Pacific– Privateering (Letters of Marque and Reprisal)

2. Guerre de escadre– Cruise of the US Fleet– Frigate duals

Rodgers

Decatur

Bainbridge

US Naval Debate

How to deploy naval forces?

1. Squadron Sailing – CAPT John Rodgers (senior)– Argument: Concentrated fleet will force British

warships to concentrate, allowing merchant ships to escape blockade.

2. Singles or doubles– CAPT Stephen Decatur & William Bainbridge– Argument: No chance of competing with British

sea power. Only hope is guerre de course, and one-on-one engagements with smaller ships.

Rodgers

Decatur

Bainbridge

Naval Debate

Who Wins?

1. Rodgers– At start of war– “Cruise of the US Fleet” (1812)

2. Decatur & Bainbridge– After frigate victories and

Rodger’s unsuccessful fleet cruise– Policy: depart port as squadron,

then disperse at sea

Rodgers

Decatur

Bainbridge

Cruise of the US Fleet

Jamaica Convoy

Jun – Aug 1812

Returns having captured zero ships

Frigate Duals

Constitution v. Java• 29 Dec 1812• Defeats frigate HMS

Java off coast of Brazil.

United States v. Macednoia• 25 Oct 1812• Defeats frigate HMS

Macedonia in mid-Atlantic

Constitution v. Guerriere• 29 Dec 1812• Defeats frigate HMS

Guerriere off New England coast.

British Order: No more one-on-one frigate battles

Decatur

Bainbridge

Isaac Hull

Cruise of the EssexDavid Porter

Frigate USS EssexAtlantic• Commerce raidingPacific• First US warship to round

Cape Horn• Obliterates GB whaling

fleet (never recovers)• Defeated by two British

frigates off Valparaiso• Inspiration for book

“Master and Commander”

Guerre de Course

Privateers and Commerce Raiders– US warships ordered to prey on shipping,

not engage the enemy Captured 1,300 ships Drove up shipping insurance rates– Agitated British people

Blue Water Navy

Take-aways1. British Navy still dominant

• Blockade strong• Fleet bigger

2. U.S. Navy is victorious 1-v-1 only• US Frigates are better• Source of national pride

3. Guerre de course mostly ineffective• Commerce Raiding (Essex)• Letters of Marque & Reprisal• Marginally successful at harassing British trade

Costal Defense

“Sea Fencibles”

Costal Defense

Half of sailors involved in war– 6,500 of 10,000 sailors in Navy

– 3,250 Great Lakes, 450 at sea, and 405 in British prisons in 1814

–Manning gunboats and barges• Only 63 of 177 gunboats in service at

beginning of war

– Protecting forts and water choke-points– Unpopular service• No glory or prizes

Costal Defense

Highly ineffective– Lacked professionalism• Manned by militia volunteers• Poor leadership

– Easily defeated by British Navy• Needed forts/shore batteries for support• Most vessels captured, scuttled or burned

Only successes–Where forts/batteries also defended coast• Major ports like NYC, Portsmouth, Boston, etc.

Fresh Water Navy

War on the Great Lakes

War on the Great Lakes

Largest naval contribution of war– To be expected given mutual obsession

over Canadian boarder– Disproportionate assets go to Great Lakes• Ships, officers, sailors, guns, etc.

3 Major battles– Lake Ontario– Lake Erie– Lake Champlain

1812-1814

Lake Ontario

Lake Ontario (1812-1814)

Toronto(Burned 27 Apr 1813)

Chauncey’s HQ(Sackett’s Harbor)

COMMO Isaac ChaunceyCOMMO Sir James Yeo

• Both conservative officers and warfighters• Engage in arms race (rather than battles)• Never a decisive battle or tactical advantage• Chauncey earns strategic victory because the

British never feel able to launch an offensive into the US because they never control the Great Lakes.

1812-1814

Battle of Lake Erie

Lake Erie(Sept. 10, 1813)

Perry’s HQ(Presque Isle, Erie)

Master Commandant Oliver Hazard PerryCAPT Robert Barclay

• Perry sets sail with crew of army soldiers, forcing Barclay to fight.

• USS Lawrence devastated and sinking.• Perry takes command of the Niagara to

complete continue fighting.• Barclay surrenders.• “We have met the enemy and they are

ours.”• Victory prevents British invasion.

Sept 1813

Battle of Lake Erie

Battle of Lake Champlain

Lake Champlain (11 Sep 1814)

Master Commandant Thomas MacdonoughCAPT John Downie

• Gen Prevost refuses to continue campaign until Champlain secured

• British have longer guns, so Macdonough must force close action

• American sailors inexperienced • Macdonough’s brilliance: anchors

south of Plattsburg • “Kedge Anchors”

Sept 1814

aka “Battle of Plattsburg”

Battle of Lake ChamplainSept 1814

aka “Battle of Plattsburg”

Washington D.C. (24 Aug 1814)Baltimore (13 Sept 1814)

Washington Campaign Gunboat Flotilla

– COMMO Joshua Barney– Battle of St. Leonard's

Creek Battle of Bladensburg Sack Washington DC

– Burnt Capitol Baltimore

– Ft. McHenry– Francis Scott Key– Star Spangled Banner– Baltimore never falls

Summer 1814

Washington CampaignSummer 1814

Baltimore CampaignSummer 1814

Treaty of Ghent

Treaty Terms– “Status Quo Ante Bellum”– No more Orders in Council– No more impressment

Dec. 24, 1814

New Orleans (Dec 1814 - Jan 1815)

Battle of New OrleansDec 1814 - Jan 1815

Battle of New OrleansDec 1814 - Jan 1815

Andrew Jackson

Assessment of Navies

War of 1812

Navy Influences

1. Victory on the Great Lakes– Created strategically

valuable stalemate– Prevented invasion

2. Commerce raiding– Ultimately ineffective

3. Single ship engagements– Boost national morale– Ineffective against

blockade

4. Gunboats Ineffective

1. Dominant throughout– Unfettered troop

movement– Commerce raiding– Blockade effective

2. Only failure: Great Lakes

3. Only Weakness: Divided forces because of war in Europe

US Great Britain

Impact on U.S. Navy

1. Navy was American darling– No demobilization of Navy after war– “Act for the Gradual Increase of the Navy”• Largest appropriations yet• 9 new ships-of-the-line• USS Pennsylvania – 120 Guns

2. Experienced Navy & USMC– Officers and sailors

What did we learn about strategy, tactics, or naval strength?

8 Key Themes

1. Navy as an instrument of foreign policy2. Interaction between Congress and Navy3. Interservice relations4. Technology5. Leadership6. Strategy & Tactics7. Evolution of US Naval Doctrine8. Future missions of Navy and USMC

Review

1. Navy after American Revolution2. Barbary Wars– Reestablishment of Navy (1794)– Piracy

3. Anglo-French (“Napoleonic”) Wars– Quasi War–War of 1812

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Additional Slides

Great Lakes