Psychology - Nature of thought

THOMAS GOUARD

Thinking, or cognition

(From a Latin word meaning “to know”), can be defined as mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is processing information---organizing it, understanding it, and communicating it to others

Mental imagery

Mental images are representations for objects or events used in mental activities

Concepts

Ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities.

People use concepts to think about objects or events without having to think about all the specific examples of the category.

Concepts defined by specific rules or features are called formal concepts, and are quite rigid.

Natural concepts- concepts people form not as a result of a strict set of rules, but rather as the result of experiences with these concepts in the real world

Prototype

A concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of the concept

Problem solving

Problem solving - Decision making

Occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.

Problems range from figuring out how to cut a recipe in half to understanding complex mathematical proofs to deciding what to major in at college.

Problem solving is one aspect of decision making, or identifying, and choosing among several alternatives.

Problem solving - Decision making

Problem solving - Trial and error

Also known as a mechanical solution. Trial and error refers to trying one solution after another until finding one that works

Problem solving - Algorithms

Specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems. Algorithms will always result in a correct solution, if there is a correct solution to be found, and you have enough time to find it.

Problem solving - Heuristic

Or “Rule of thumb” is a simple rule that is intended to apply to many situations.

(Example) If a student is typing a paper in a word-processing program and wants

to know how to format the page, he or she could try to read an entire manual on the word-processing program. That would take a while. Instead, the student could use an Internet search engine or type “format” into the help feature’s search program. Doing either reduces the amount of information the student will have to look at to get an answer.

Different types of Heuristics

Representativeness-Used for categorizing objects and simply assumes that any object (or person) that shares characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category.

Availability-Based on or estimation of the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or how easy it is for us to think of related examples.

Availability vs. Representativeness

Different types of Heuristics

Work backward from the goal- A useful one that does work much of the time. (Example) Finding a shorter route to achieve goal, such as using a GPS, smartphone to find a location. Used for math problems also!

Subgoals- A goal broken down into subgoals, in order to make the final solution easier to reach.

Insight- When the solution to a problem seems to come suddenly to mind. “aha!” moments when solution seems to appear in a flash. Usually based on reorganization of information.

Problem solving - Problems

Functional fixedness- Thinking about objects only in terms of their typical uses. (Example) A butter knife is only used for buttering bread! Wrong! It can be used to tighten a screw as well : )

Mental set- The tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past. Confirmation bias- The tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence to the contrary.

Creativity

Solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways.

Creativity

Convergent thinking- a style of thought that attempts to consider all available information and arrive at the single best possible answer

Divergent thinking- The reverse of convergent thinking (Examples) Brainstorming, Keeping a journal, Freewriting, and Mind orSubject mapping

Intelligence

The ability to learn from one’s experience, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems

Theories of intelligence

Spearman’s G Factor: intelligence comprises two different abilities G factor: general intelligence S factor: Specific intelligence

Sternberg’s triarchic theory: intelligence comprises three different aspects Analytical- Ability to break down into component parts, or analysis, for problem

solving Creative- Dealing with and different concepts, and coming up with new ways of

solving problems Practical- Best described as “street smarts”, or the ability to use information to get

along in life

Theories of intelligence

Gardner’s multiple intelligences: Overall intelligence comprises nine different types Verbal/linguistic, Musical, Logical/mathematical, Visual/spatial,

Movement, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist, Existentialist (a candidate intelligence)

Measuring intelligence

First formal test created by Alfred Binet and Theodor Simon to help identify French students who needed more help with learning

Intelligence quotient (IQ)- an intelligence test score that is obtained by dividing mental age, which reflects the age-graded level of performance as derived from population norms, by chronological age and multiplying by 100

IQ=MA/CA X 100 (IQ=15/10 X 100 = 150) Stanford- Binet Intelligence Scales yield an IQ score Allows testers to compare intelligence levels of people from different age

groups

Measuring intelligence

Tests Binet’s Mental Ability Test- Key element to be tested was child’s mental age

Stanford – Binet- Uses a variety of verbal and nonverbal subtests to provide an overall estimate of intelligence and scores related to five areas of cognition

Wechsler Tests- Uses a variety of verbal and performance subtests to provide an overall score of intelligence and index scores related to four specific cognitive domains.

Test constructed

Reliability- Producing consistent results each time it is given to the same individual or group of people.

Validity- The degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure.

Standardization- The process of giving the test to a large group of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed. Norms- The scores from the standardization group Normal curve- Distribution in which the scores are the most frequent

around the mean, or average, and become less and less frequent the further from the mean they occur.

Test constructed

Deviation IQ scores- Based on the normal curve distribution IQ is assumed to be normally distributed with a mean IQ of 100 and a

typical standard deviation of about 15 (the standard deviation can vary according to the particular test).

IQ of 130 would be two standard deviations above mean IQ of 70 would be two standard deviations below the mean

Test constructed

Cultural bias- People raised in a different culture, or even a different economic situation, from the one in which the designer of an IQ test is raised are not likely to perform well on such a test---not to mention the difficulties of taking a test that is written in an unfamiliar language or dialect.

Usefulness of IQ tests- IQ tests are generally valid for predicting academic success and job performance - Neuropsychology Sheds Light on head injuries

Intellectual Disability

A person exhibits deficits in mental abilities, which is typically associated with an IQ score approximately two standard deviations below the mean on the normal curve, such as below 70 on a test with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15 Adaptive behavior is severely deficient for a person of a particular

chronological age Formerly known as mental retardation or developmentally

delayed Can vary from mild to profound

Intellectual Disability

Causes of developmental delay include deprived environments, as well as chromosome and genetic disorders, alcohol, dietary deficiencies and toxins in the environment.

Giftedness

The 2% of the population that fall on the upper end of the normal curve; typically possessing an IQ of 130 or above.

Stanford University psychologist Lewis Terman was able to demonstrate not only that his gifted children were not more susceptible to mental illness than the general population, but he was also able to show that they were actually more resistant to mental illnesses than those of average intelligence.

Terman’s study was also critized for a lack of objectivity, because he became too involved in the lives of his “Termites” as they came to be called.

Giftedness

Emotional intelligence- The accurate awareness of and ability to manage one’s own emotions to facilitate thinking and attain specific goals, and the ability to understand what others feel.

Language

A system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an infinite number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others. Grammar- The system of rules governing the structure and use of a

language Phonemes- The basic units of sound in a language Morphemes- The smallest units of meaning within a language Syntax- A system of rules for combining words and phrases to form

grammatically correct sentences.

Language - continued

Semantics- Rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences. Pragmatics- The practical aspects of communicating with others, or the

social “niceties” of language.

Language and thought

Linguistic relativity- The words people use determine much of he way in which they think about the world around them.

Cognitive universalism- Theory that concepts are universal and influence the development of language, rather than linguistic relativity.