Natural Imprinting and Vertical Integration in the … Natural Imprinting and Vertical Integration...
Transcript of Natural Imprinting and Vertical Integration in the … Natural Imprinting and Vertical Integration...
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Natural Imprinting and Vertical Integration in the Extractive Industries
Forough Zarea Fazlelahi, Henri Burgers
School of Management, QUT Business School, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
Two traditional lenses applied to explain vertical integration decisions firms make are Transaction Cost Economics and Resource‐Based View. However, they face limitations considering the persistence of such decisions over time, particularly in the extractive industries. Drawing on imprinting theory, this chapter provides a theoretical link between the initial natural resource characteristics surrounding a firm’s birth and its choice of vertical integration. The main argument is that initial natural resource conditions have an imprinting effect on the vertical integration decisions made by firms in the extractive industries. An imprinting process through which imprinting happens is explained. This mechanism acts as the carrier of initial influences as how firms lock‐in a decision for their supply chain management. We discuss the above mechanism and several propositions concerning the kind of influence different initial natural resource characteristics have on firm decisions. Our main contribution is presenting a natural imprinting view that can explain the enduring effect of natural environment characteristics on firms’ ownership structures in the extractive industries.
Introduction
New firms are faced with the inevitable strategic choice of configuring their value chain
activities, which includes a variety of activities from acquisition of raw materials in the
upstream to distribution of the end product in the downstream (Porter, 1985). New firm’s
decisions regarding vertical integration choices are strategically important since they can
affect their competitive advantages in the future (Qian et al., 2012), evolution of
organizational capabilities over time (Helfat and Peteraf, 2003), and their capability to
compete against the uncertainty of supply and demand in the markets (Arrow, 1975). This
maybe in particular important in the natural resources industry, which has little
opportunities to for example differentiate its products, making costs and structural choices
one of the few avenues left to gain competitive advantage.
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Transaction costs economics (TCE) dominated the prior literature on determinants of
vertical integration decisions for decades by arguing that firms vertically integrate to the
activities that are subject to opportunism (Williamson, 1975, Williamson, 1985). However,
there have been critiques to the overemphasis on the TCE based claims by a number of
researchers (cf. Demsetz (1988); Argyres and Zenger (2012)) . While TCE has been strongly
supported by empirical research, it has little regards for firm‐level heterogeneity in terms of
resources and capabilities that can potentially influence firms’ boundary decisions (Argyres
and Zenger, 2012, Leiblein and Miller, 2003). The limitation of this assumption (i.e.,
homogeneity in assets and resources) is that “… all firms given a set of transactional
attributes will reach similar conclusions regarding which activities to execute internally and
which activities to outsource.” (Leiblein and Miller, 2003, p.841). By relaxing the
homogeneity of assets and capabilities assumption, the alternative view suggested by many
researchers is the Resource‐Based View (RBV) that argues firms choose to vertically
integrate to activities where they have comparative advantage (through for example skill
sets or specialized experience or expertise) and outsource activities where they lack
capabilities that give them an edge over competitors (Demsetz, 1988, Argyres, 1996, Barney,
1999).
However, RBV cannot acknowledge the impact of initial historical decisions that led to
development of those capabilities in the first place (Argyres and Zenger, 2012). To address
this a synthesized view of TCE and RBV is proposed by Argyres and Zenger (2012), where
they argue that firms internalize activities that require resources which are uniquely
complimentary to their current capability and resource profile. But what if the resource is
the product? In the extractive industries firms explore new natural resource deposits with
the aim to extract and sell them. A key organisational response in situations of relative
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resource scarcity is to engage in vertical integration to gain control over resource deposits
(Carney and Gedajlovic, 1991, Combs and Ketchen, 1999). Yet, levels of vertical integration
are quite different across types of natural resources and even subject to disintegration
trends despite increasing levels of resource scarcity (Hennart, 1988). For example, a
dominant mode of organising in the oil industry is vertical, which is far less common in
metal mining, in spite of both industries having the extractive nature in common. Recently,
vertical integration patterns in the oil industry have been subject to disintegration whereas
in the metal mining companies seem to opt for a more vertical integration strategy. This
suggests a need for additional explanation of the impact of natural resource characteristics
on organizational responses in the extractive industries.
Only recently have researchers started to focus on founding period (cf. Argyres and Mostafa
(2015); Qian et al. (2012)). Barney (1991) also acknowledges the role of unique historical
events as determinants of firm’s subsequent strategies. Attention to the founding period is
important, since “Decisions made at entry are likely to create differences in competitive
advantages not just then but also over time.” (Qian et al., 2012, p.1330). Such studies have
largely focused on the role of prior knowledge and experience in firm’s governance choices
at founding (Argyres and Mostafa, 2015). Although there are a few attempts that consider
initial resource conditions (such as scarcity and complexity) as drivers of vertical integration
decisions (e.g. Mick et al. (1993) and Carney and Gedajlovic (1991)), natural resource
characteristics have not been extensively taken into account in this literature. Yet, firms in
the extractive industries rely heavily on natural resources and these resources are also their
end products. Thus, one interesting question is: how do characteristics of natural resources
influence the managerial decisions regarding vertical integration structuring?
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To address the above question, we draw on imprinting theory, which in its core it tries to
explain, how prominent environmental features such as initial resource conditions are
embodied in organizational choices during a brief sensitive period such as founding, and
how these choices persist long after the sensitive period and when environmental
conditions have changed (Marquis and Tilcsik, 2013). As such, imprinting is uniquely
equipped as a theory to address our research question. In doing so, we identify and discuss
“management mindset” as the imprinting mechanism through which natural resource
characteristics influence vertical integration decisions. Since our focus is on the firms in the
extractive industries, characteristics of the natural resources that will be evaluated in this
chapter are availability, accessibility, commoditization, dispersedness and capital intensity
during the establishment and first few years of firms in extractive industries.
This paper thus aims to shine light on decision making process that leads the new firms’
managers to choose a specific strategy and will help explain how initial motivations in
combination with surrounding environment affect strategic decisions in a way that they
persist lengthily. We will discuss the mechanism through which the initial characteristics of
the natural environment influence the long term structural development and behaviour of
organizations. We will also contribute to the imprinting theory by adding a natural
imprinting perspective by considering natural resource characteristics. No study has to the
best of our knowledge, considered natural resource characteristics as a source of imprinting
on the firm strategic decisions.
The first section of this chapter discusses the vertical integration decisions and initial
environmental conditions. The natural imprinting view of the firms is then developed by
explaining the proposed imprinting mechanism and process. Next, propositions are made to
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explain the vertical integration in extractive industries through natural imprinting lens. We
will conclude the chapter by suggestions for future research.
Vertical integration
At time of founding, firms need to make strategic decisions that can deal with their present
and future competitive environment (Argyres et al., 2015). One of the important decisions
that could provide firms with future competitive advantage is configuration of their supply
chain (Argyres and Mostafa, 2015). The literature on vertical integration has discussed the
choice of boundary decisions from a diverse range of perspectives, which can be divided
into two categories: economic costs and capabilities view.
There are two major theories regarding the economic costs explanations: economics of
scale (Stigler, 1951), and transaction costs economics (Williamson, 1979, Williamson, 1985).
Stigler (1951) proposes a life cycle theory of vertical integration based on market size and
associated division of labour over the time periods. He suggests new industries start off as
vertically integrated, which is then dominated by vertical disintegration patterns as soon as
the market grows and economics of scale are justifiable. This trend is subsequently followed
by reintegration patterns as the industry begins to decline. Although certain industries are
compatible with his model, there are industries that do not follow these patterns, such as
automobile industry that was quite differentiated in its early stages (Langlois and Robertson,
1989). The emphasis of Stigler’s model is on the production and manufacturing costs, which
cannot provide enough evidence on why firms decide to stay vertically integrated while they
can independently or conjointly make profits by pressuring the downstream (Langlois,
1988). Suggested by Coase (1937, p.390, 391) for the first time, “cost of using price
mechanism”, “costs of negotiating” and “concluding a separate contract for each exchange
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transaction” are brought into the picture to explain the extent of firm boundaries.
Williamson (1985) shows that vertical integration firm structures minimize both the
transaction and production costs. High uncertainty associated with necessary coordination
and negotiations between buyers and suppliers due to underdevelopment of manufacturing
designs in early stages of an industry can raise transaction costs (Williamson, 1975,
Williamson, 1971). There are also asset specificity considerations that can increase the
negotiation costs and therefore give rise to more vertically integrated structures
(Williamson, 1985, Klein et al., 1978). However, the ignorance of TCE to the heterogeneity of
resources and capabilities, limits its explanatory power of persistent financial advantages
(Argyres and Zenger, 2012). Specifically, TCE faces challenges to explain how vertical
integration decisions can lead to sustained advantage for firms over time.
The second trend in the vertical integration literature is towards theories with perspectives
on resources and capabilities. Prior research acknowledges the role of organizational
resources and capabilities in evolution of vertical firm structures (Helfat and Campo‐
Rembado, 2016). Based on this view, firms tend to internally govern activities of supply
chain when they possess comparative capabilities, and outsource the ones when they lack
required competencies (Barney, 1999, Kogut and Zander, 1992). However, “…, causality in
the relationship between capability and boundary choice may be precisely the reverse of
the common articulation” (Argyres and Zenger, 2012, p.1644), which suggests ignoring
historical explanations for developing capabilities that facilitate the vertical integration
decisions in the first place. This contradicts with the RBV assumptions that acknowledges
the “…unique historical events as determinants of subsequent actions” (Barney, 1999,
p.108). Thus, recent interest of the literature in vertical integration is towards synthesized
theories that consider the historical explanations, particularly time of founding. For
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instance, Argyres and Mostafa (2015) discuss the process of knowledge inheritance from
parent firms to spin‐offs and how this early source of capabilities can help new firms decide
on their boundary strategies. And Qian et al. (2012) examine firm’s boundary choices at
their entry time drawing on organizational economics, organizational capabilities and
industry evolution. The former article focuses on the human capital resources and the latter
also considers organizational capital as sources of organizational capabilities at time of
founding. Some of physical dimensions of environment in a general sense, such as scarcity
and complexity, have also been considered as determinants of vertical integration choices
by prior literature (e.g. Mick et al. (1993) and Carney and Gedajlovic (1991)). However, often
a taken‐for‐granted source of capabilities considering vertical integration decisions are
natural resources. Hart (1995) suggests firm’s relationship to natural environment can affect
its strategic decision making and, thus, providing it with a competitive advantage.
Particularly, firms in the extractive sector face the inevitable choice of dealing with the
characteristics of natural resources since their supply chain begins with the acquisition of
natural resources and these natural resources are further their end product. Accordingly,
our interest is in understanding what aspects of the natural resources can affect the vertical
integration decisions of firms at time of founding and how these characteristics have an
enduring effect. Thus, we need to first understand the framework that offers to explain the
process that forms these initial lasting impacts.
Imprinting
There has been an ongoing and growing debate about the role history plays in the
management and organization research (Kipping and Üsdiken, 2014). Started by the seminal
work of Stinchcombe (1965), imprinting is becoming one of the dominant explanations of
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persistence of early conditions (Marquis and Tilcsik, 2013). Stinchcombe’s (1965) insights
made two main propositions as the foundations of imprinting theory. First, the impact of
founding conditions is reflected on the organization structure. Stinchcombe’s (1965)
emphasis is on the “social history” and “economic conditions” and how these forces
surrounding firms at birth are imprinted on the firm structure. The second point made by
Stinchcombe, is the “stability of those structural characteristics”, which links contemporary
manifestations of organizational forms to initial environmental conditions and constraints at
their formation. He mentions “traditionalizing forces, the vesting of interests and the
working out of ideologies” as the persistence functions that maintain the initial frameworks
through time. The initial outlines suggested by Stinchcombe are expanded by several
successors of imprinting theory. Prior research emphasize on the founding conditions by
considering the imprinting effect of economic constraints (Kriauciunas and Kale, 2006),
cultural entrepreneurship (Johnson, 2007), institutional settings (Oertel and Söll, 2016),
external organizations (Perkmann and Spicer, 2014), alliance networks (Milanov and
Fernhaber, 2009), parent organizations (Ferriani et al., 2012, Agarwal et al., 2004) and prior
affiliations of founding team (Beckman, 2006). One of the ignored areas is the natural
environmental sources of imprints. Particularly in the extractive industries where there is an
undeniable dependence on the natural resources and natural environment. George et al.
(2015, p.1595) discuss that: “However, while scholarly research on business and the
environment has been growing (Berchicci and King, 2007), our understanding of the
management and the organization of natural resources remains limited, especially regarding
its industrial ecosystem of use and trade and its implications for individual behaviour,
organizational performance, and quality of life.” Therefore, for employing imprinting lens
for developing arguments in regard to organizational decision making, we need an
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integrated framework that is able to engage managerial tools into the challenges of the
natural resources (George et al., 2015).
There has not been a strong integrated framework presented to cover the prior research on
imprinting before the two systematic reviews were published by Marquis and Tilcsik (2013)
and Simsek et al. (2015). Most scholars take the imprints as “given”, and try to explain the
phenomenon of enduring past influences (Kipping and Üsdiken, 2014). Their propositions on
how imprinting process works are highly dependent on the sources of imprinting they
identify and how the features of these sources are mapped onto the organizational
structures and behaviours. And it is through this lens that attempts to explain how
imprinting occurs are different. As a result, driven by the outcomes, they depend on their
preferred level and source of imprinting, taking alternative views into their investigations for
granted. Therefore, the two review papers by Marquis and Tilcsik (2013) and Simsek et al.
(2015), have an important effect on unifying the fragmented research ground after
Stinchcombe (1965) and bringing new insights into the field. Marquis and Tilcsik (2013,
p.199) define imprinting as: “… a process whereby, during a brief period of susceptibility, a
focal entity develops characteristics that reflect prominent features of the environment, and
these characteristics continue to persist despite significant environmental changes in
subsequent periods”. Prior literature seems to agree on the core concept of imprinting in
considering the three main building blocks outlined by Marquis and Tilcsik (2013), namely
(a) sensitive periods, (b) manifestation of prominent environmental features, and (c)
persistence of traits. In a similar way, Simsek et al. (2015) presents a multiprocess
theoretical framework for imprinting research that consists of 3 main processes that are:
genesis (the process leading to formation of an imprint), metamorphosis (evolution of an
imprint) and manifestation (manifestation of imprint in firm outcomes). The perspectives
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presented by previous imprinting research seem to be similar in accepting the founding
conditions and to some extent similar subsequent sensitive periods such as transitions
originated from shocks and crisis. However, as highlighted by Simsek et al. (2015, p.298):
“…insufficient attention has been paid to the actual processes by which imprints form”. The
emphasis on imprinting as a process rather than a once‐off influence is the salient focus of
Simsek et al. (2015) framework that helps develop more focused arguments for building
work on imprinting. For the purpose of this chapter, we will employ Simsek et al. (2015)
framework which is elaborated in the next section.
Imprinting Process, Sensitive periods, imprinters, and imprinted
Simsek et al. (2015) considers a couple of construct for clarification of the his three‐phase
imprinting model; namely, imprinter, imprinted, sensitive periods and imprinting process,
that are discussed in accordance with our proposed natural imprinting model as presented
in Table 1.
Imprinter‐ While imprinting researchers have investigated a diverse range of imprinters, our
study focuses on the initial natural environment characteristics at time of founding.
Although extensively studied as a source of imprints since the emergence of imprinting
theory (e.g. Stinchcombe (1965)), there are still some aspects of the environment that need
further investigation. Natural resource are the corner stone for most industrial activities.
Most industrial sectors are directly or with some intermediaries dependent on the use of
natural resources. So, a lot of issues associated with natural resources generally, and
extractive industries in particular, affect a wide range of economic activities. Depletion and
non‐renewability of natural resources has urged the need for more understanding of the
management of natural resources and their reciprocal relationship with organizations,
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industries and nations (George et al., 2015). While our focus is on the extractive industries,
we aim to provide a better understanding of the enduring impact of natural resource (i.e.,
minerals and, oil and gas) characteristics on the firms’ strategic behaviour specifically at
time of founding. We chose five characteristics to be influential of the vertical integration
decisions of firms: availability, accessibility, commoditization, dispersedness and capital
intensity.
The impact of natural resource availability has been studied extensively by management and
economic researchers. Prior research considers the natural resource scarcity to be both a
threat and an advantage for firms (Bell et al., 2013). Researchers consider the availability of
raw material to be crucial for firm performance and survival (Schoolderman and Mathlener,
2011). In addition to the natural barriers that limit the availability of natural resources,
political disputes have also risen as a factor in firm’s access to raw materials (George et al.,
2015) that affects their supply chain (cf. Coffman et al. (2011); Schoolderman and Mathlener
(2011)). There is still a need for further insights into availability and supply chain
configuration decisions. Natural accessibility has also been considered as a factor that
affects the vertical integration decisions since it is associated with the technical barriers to
entry into extractive industries (Hennart, 1988). Since vertical integration decisions are
made partly for economic considerations, capital intensive nature of natural resources has
also been taken into account as an influential element with such decisions and strategies
(Acemoglu et al., 2009). While firms in high‐tech sector deal with the commoditization of
their products as industries matures, the end products of the extractive industries
considering the same commodity have always been identical (Beyazay, 2015). Specifically in
regard to downstream market, commoditization is considered to influence the vertical
integration strategies firms employ (See for example Osegowitsch and Madhok (2003)).
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Finally, agglomeration is discussed to facilitated the vertical integration decisions of firms
(Díez‐Vial, 2007) but there is little insights on how dispersedness of natural resources can
affect such decisions. This is important since mines and deposits of natural resources are
scattered in diverse and distant areas and firms need to plan for mobilizing their
technological and expertise to reach to them.
Imprinted‐ Many imprinting researchers have studied organization level imprints. Simsek et
al. (2015) categorize prior studied organization‐level imprints into 4 categories: cognitions,
structures, culture and resources. For instance, in the first category, imprinters influence the
content, endurance and scope of organizations cognitive frameworks. In second category,
imprinters influence the firm‐level structures. And finally, in third category, imprinters
impact the culture of organization such as paradigms (Zyglidopoulos, 1999). In our study, we
will focus on the first.
Sensitive periods‐ For this chapter, our attention is on the founding period of new firms
established in extractive industries and how the initial natural conditions affect the choice of
their ownership structure in their supply chain.
Imprinting process‐ While we are still in the genesis phase, we will argue how the initial
conditions shape the cognitive frameworks of firms as management mindset. We also prefer
to discuss the metamorphosis, particularly the persistence process in this section since it will
clarify why the imprints initiated influence the vertical integration decisions:
Management mindset‐ Pioneered by Stinchcombe (1965), imprinting theory suggests that
environment stamps particular features onto new organizations. There are several
approaches to understand the imprinting process and how it persists through time despite
changes to initial environmental conditions. Considered by Johnson (2007) as an agent‐
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based process, the process of stamping environmental elements is shown to be facilitated
by individual agents when they establish their new venture. Certain elements from their
historical contexts and environmental conditions are imprinted on individuals who carry
them to new ventures and imprint them on their organizations. A recent approach in the
literature also considers imprinting to be a phenomenon that takes place on the individual
level (e.g. Ellis et al. (2016), Favero et al. (2016)). However, the imprinting of the
environment characteristics onto the organization happens through not any people but
influential stakeholders such as founders and executives (Boeker, 1988). Prior literature
argues the role of “cognition” in shaping the entrepreneur’s mindset (Tetlock, 1990).
Individuals’ mindset is shaped based on the interaction of motivations and inputs from the
environment (Haynie et al., 2010). Haynie et al. (2010, p.221) suggest that this interaction is
a two‐way street where “motives influence how the environment is perceived and
interpreted” and “At the same time, environment may define an individual’s motives…”
There could be considered two motives that in combination with initial natural challenges
and conditions can mould the management mindset in the founding periods that influence
the firm strategic decisions for long periods, namely “liability of newness” suggested by
Stinchcombe (1965) and “liability of smallness” as noted by Aldrich and Auster (1986).
Despite differentiating the effects of these two factors can be empirically difficult, they can
affect the new firms process of strategic decision making in order to survive (Kale and Arditi,
1998). “liability of newness” considers the early years of firm formation to be crucial for its
survival (Stinchcombe, 1965). Studies show that survival rates for firms in their first five
years is much lower compared to those for established ones (Starbuck, 1989, Kale and
Arditi, 1998). From an open system view of organizations, Kale and Arditi (1998) argue that
liability of newness is associated with establishing firm’s external processes such as setting
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new stable ties with outside organizations and acquiring access to the resources in the
firm’s environment; and internal processes such as learning and defining new roles and
developing internal competences (Stinchcombe, 1965). Therefore, the firms are more
susceptible to their environment in the first few years (Marquis and Tilcsik, 2013). Since
dealing with internal and external liabilities at birth are of utmost importance to managers
(Pennings and Kimberly, 1980), they can leave a lasting influence on how the management
mindset is oriented towards management of natural environment’s conditions and
constraints. Accordingly, natural environment can also have an enduring effect on the
management mindset in how to deal with the liabilities at founding by opting for key
strategic decisions. Such an interaction leads to a lock‐in a specific mindset that guides the
entrepreneurial decision making in focusing on strategies that can achieve desirable
outcomes. Therefore, management mindset influences the firm strategies regarding
configuration of supply chain by making managerial decisions about internalizing or
outsourcing certain activities of the firm.
“liability of smallness” also considers the size of a new organization to impact the its survival
chances (Kale and Arditi, 1998). Despite newness has shown to have a stronger effect on
failure (Halliday et al., 1987), smallness can arise from restricted financial resources,
managerial shortcomings and inability to employ competent personnel. Thus, they can have
strategic implication on the firms level regarding supply chain ownership structures (Aldrich
and Auster, 1986) by influencing the management mindset.
Although the initial imprints are transmitted through generations of employees and persist
despite time passing and environment changing (Marquis and Tilcsik, 2013), they might be
subject to decay (Simsek et al., 2015). Ellis et al. (2016) defines the decay process a result of
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misalignments between mindset of knowledge transmitters and knowledge receivers.
However, the decay process does not mean radical changes in the content of imprints
unless there is a crisis that can make changes onto the initial mindset (Scherpereel and
Lefebvre, 2014).
Proposition 1:
Initial natural environmental characteristics influence the vertical integration decisions that
firms make at time of founding.
Manifestation‐ Manifestation phase depicts the imprinting impacts on entity’s behaviour
and outcomes. Here our attention is focused on the vertical integration decisions of firms.
As suggested by (Beyazay, 2015), there are two divisions in the oil supply chain: upstream
(that is exploration activities, forecasting, logistical management for delivery of crude oil
from remote oil wells to refineries) and downstream (that is from processing of crude oil in
refineries to consumable products and distribution). Integrated oil companies are
considered to be active at both ends of the supply chain (Beyazay, 2015).
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Table 1. Proposed imprinting framework
Phase Concepts
Genesis Imprinter:
Natural resource characteristics:
a) Availability the extent to which access to natural resources is limited/approved by natural conditions, governments or ruling authorities
b) Accessibility the extent to which the natural settings and conditions facilitate the accessibility to natural resources
c) Commoditization the extent to which the end‐product is similar to that of other companies’
d) Dispersedness the extent to which the producing/ extracting sites are far from the production/ consuming locations
e) Capital intensity the extent to which funds are needed to start the exploration and exploitation of natural resources for business purposes
Imprinted:
firms in extractive industries
Imprinting Process:
Cognitive framework: Management mindset
Metamorphosis
Persistence: Lock‐in to management mindset
Manifestation Impact:
vertical integration decisions
Initial natural environmental conditions:
Decisions on supply chain configuration are considered as conscious managerial choices
(Stonebraker and Liao, 2006). Several studies have shown the impact of firms’ environment
on their management decision making process (Stonebraker and Liao, 2006, Kriauciunas and
Kale, 2006, Duncan, 1972, Zyglidopoulos, 1999, Burgers and Covin, 2014). Thus, we expect
that initial natural conditions can influence firms’ strategic decisions making regarding
ownership structures and discussed the imprinting process through which this happens. In
this section, we will delve into the effects natural resource characteristics can impose on
this process in more details.
Availability
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Prior literature has considered the resource munificence and scarcity to be influential on the
firm level decisions (Zyglidopoulos, 1999, Stonebraker and Liao, 2006, Davies and Walters,
2004). Here, we refer to the availability of natural resources from physical and political
views, which are both important factors considering the nature of firm’s operations in this
sector. It is noteworthy to say that we refer to physical availability that is determined by the
trade‐off between the demand of the market and the available resources in the ground. In
case the imbalance is in favour of the market demand, there is surplus or munificence;
otherwise, there is insufficiency or scarcity. The level of availability of natural resources have
a salient impact on the decision makers (Aldrich, 2008). Davies and Walters (2004) discuss
that munificent environments motivate managers to seek gains. However, this can only be
true if the levels of supply and demand are both high while the supply is relatively higher.
Thus, in environments where the physical availability is higher, the management mindset is
focused on long‐term profits (Zyglidopoulos, 1999). When natural resources are more
physically available, this can provide the firms in the downstream with a competitive
advantage. In order to make the most of this initial advantage, which can help improve the
survival chances of the firm, managers will be interested in investing in more exploration
projects in the upstream (Miller et al., 2006) and at the same time increase their activities in
the intermediary and downstream market. Vertically integrating into the intermediary
market allows firms to control their lead‐time and quality of their deliverables to the
downstream market. Also, integrating into the downstream market can improve their
understanding of the downstream market needs. The transmission of this management
mindset to the following managers will fortify the initial strategic decisions despite
environment changing. This can been seen in the oil industry, as Bindemann (1999, p.12)
says: “…during the period 1920‐35 when a remarkable series of oil discoveries yielded more
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supply than the market could rapidly absorb. The result was tough competition in both the
retail and wholesale markets as companies saw themselves forced into forward integration
to gain and/or secure market outlets.” Also in that period managers saw a growing and
highly demanding market in the automobile and chemical industries that used oil and
petroleum as their feedstock (Macher and Mowery, 2004) which also reinforced the
management mindset for long‐term planning and choosing a vertically integrated
organizational form which was channelled to the next generations of managers. So, the new
firms in the extractive industries in early periods of this industry enjoyed a great advantage
from the availability of natural resources which was mapped into their organizational
structures for a long time.
Proposition 2a:
Companies in extractive industries that experience initial natural munificence conditions will
adopt vertically integrated supply chain strategies.
However, firms established in the periods after the 1970s, experienced additional external
forces imposed by their environment. The scarcity issues raised in this period were mostly
political and resulted from the nationalization of oil in the Middle‐East countries (Beyazay,
2015, Ross, 2012). As suggested by George et al. (2015, p.1600): “What these modern
interpretations of scarcity show are that the geochemical or biophysical availability of
natural resources is not the focal constraint on resources’ availability”. In terms of scarcity,
political forces are not permanent but they are likely to be enforced upon firms any time
and last for as long as governments decide. Scarce environments persuades managers
mindset to avoid loss (Davies and Walters, 2004). Therefore, managers in new firms prefer
to follow exploitation projects rather than exploring without knowing the outcome. They
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will also focus on more efficient ways of doing things. Thus, it is expected to be focused on a
narrower range of the supply chain to gain better results. Managers might also decide to
outsource certain activities to increase the efficiency and decreasing a fixed term
investment. This could be seen in the oil industry in the 70s which was the beginning period
of outsourcing to Oil Service Companies (OSC) by international oil companies (Baxter, 2009).
Proposition 2b:
Highly political forces on the availability of natural resources drives newly formed firms in
the extractive industries to adopt a more specialized structure rather than a more vertical
integrated one.
Capital intensity and firm size
Natural resource industries are known for the capital‐intensive nature of their industries
where their projects cost billions of dollars to establish (Goldstein et al., 2006, Sadorsky,
2001). Studies show there is a positive association between prevalence of vertical
integration and capital intensity of industries (Acemoglu et al., 2009), but there are
differences between smaller and larger companies at founding. Capital‐intensive
characteristic of the natural resources could dictate different pathways for new firms
regarding their initial size. One of the most important inherent risks involved in the
environment of capital‐intensive industries that larger companies face is opportunism. The
capital‐intensive nature of these industries impacts the mindset of managers in new firms to
be more risk averse. Therefore, managers in larger companies opt for a vertical integration
mode to buffer against opportunism (Hennart, 1988, Williamson, 1975, Williamson, 1985).
This mindset guides the next generations in providing more security to their supply chain by
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avoiding high risk exploration projects. This can lead to shift their integration direction
towards forward integration.
Smaller firms, on the other hand, are often active in the upstream. This is because
exploration mining projects face several other risks than opportunism, as well. First, mining
projects are often characterized with higher amounts of capital needed and lower chances
of success (Schodde, 2015, Hennart, 1988). Second, it takes a minimum of 5 years for the
mining projects to move from the prospecting stage to the exploitation stage (Burgers et al.,
2016). This is a long time before making financial profit during which the cash flow is all
negative. Third, it happens many times in exploring minerals that exploring for one ore body
results in discovery of another type of minerals which have a more capacity for exploitation.
Then, the problem is finding available markets and evaluating the exploitation
opportunities. Specifically for the exploration activities, higher costs and efforts are not
always rewarded with profits. To face with such implications, managers’ mindset is set to
choose more flexibility in firm’s activities (Osegowitsch and Madhok, 2003). In order to be
more flexible, managers make decisions to specialize in one stage rather than being active in
several stages that are chained to one another. This can explain the tendency of larger
companies to do brownfield exploration while junior miners (or smaller companies) are
more active in the greenfield exploration areas1 (Schodde, 2015).
Thus, we can conclude that new firm size works as a moderator on the association between
capital intensity and vertical integration decision.
Proposition 3:
21
The firm size at founding positively moderates decision to vertical integration of firms in
capital‐intensive industries. Larger firms in capital intensive industries tend to be more
vertically integrated, while smaller firms prefer to be specialized in the exploration end.
Natural accessibility
Some of natural resources are in more accessible sites than others and the natural
conditions do not impose a high barrier to their extraction. This is a different characteristic
compared to scarcity but highly correlated with capital‐intensive inherent in natural
resource sector projects. For instance, tin can be found in more alluvial deposits near the
surface and it is a more accessible element compared to aluminium in spite of the fact that
tin is a more scarce element (Hennart, 1988). Higher barriers to exploration and exploitation
of natural resources leads to using more sophisticated techniques and equipment which
necessitates assimilation of experience and expertise in different areas. Higher levels of
inaccessibility set managers’ mindset towards avoiding spillovers and protecting the
expertise. This can lead to avoiding outsourcing contracts in order to keep their competitive
advantage in‐house (Beyazay, 2015). While the mindset is transferred to the next
generation of managers, the accumulation of knowledge regarding exploration and
exploitation activities in certain areas and for certain mines and minerals, makes it more
difficult for firms to share their information by outsourcing their supply chains.
Proposition 4:
Lower natural accessibility guides new firms to decide on vertical integration.
Commoditization
22
Despite the need for advanced technologies and equipment for prospecting and
exploitation of natural resources, the end‐product is often the same2. In other words, oil is
oil and the extent of investment in the upstream or the complexity and expenses of
equipment applied for exploration and exploitation does not add to the value of the end‐
product in the extractive industries. This characteristic of natural resources could be
explained by “commoditization” (Langlois and Robertson, 1989). Managers of new firms
that step into such industries face cut‐throat competition for finding customers in the
downstream which necessitates firms to be more efficient (Aldrich, 2008). So, the
management mindset will be oriented towards forcing more control on the supply chain.
And this can be achieved through a vertical integrated supply chain. Because it is easier to
control for exploration capital, delivery and facing the demands of the market. So, over
time, firms will accept projects that are in the direction of their main activities and reject or
spin off the ones that are aiming different targets. Thus, all the elements will be oriented in
a certain way and next generation managers will face the inevitable choice of continuing the
trend.
Proposition 6:
The firms having a commoditized product will select vertical integrated supply chain.
Dispersedness
Being localized gives the firms the opportunity to benefit from specialized services from one
another (Díez‐Vial, 2007, Holmes, 1999, Diez‐Vial and Alvarez‐Suescun, 2010). As mines and
extraction sites are often in areas far from industrialized concentrated areas and sometimes
they are spread in different countries, managers face the risk of opportunism. Because it is
risky to hire local services from different companies to provide them with exploration and
23
exploitation and even transportation services. Also, coordination of these activities requires
a substantial amount of funding and time (Osegowitsch and Madhok, 2003). Specifically,
when the contract finishes and the provider demands more money to renew the contract.
And there are expenses for shifting to a new provider. Considering all these costs, managers
decide to assign resources to own the whole supply chain. This can direct the managerial
mindset to lock‐in the way of thinking that owning is cheaper and less risky. Considering the
high amounts of investment for designing such an orientation, following managers also have
to apply strategies that keep the supply chain as was designed in the earlier periods.
Proposition 7:
New firms with dispersed extractive sites tend to adopt vertical integration patterns.
Discussion
The main purpose of this chapter is to provide a theoretical link between the firm’s initial
natural environment characteristics and its vertical integration decisions. This theoretical
link is of interest to two areas of organizational researchers. First, it helps to improve the
perspective of TCE and RBV theorists, who argue the historical events and resource
heterogeneity influences on the firm’s boundary choices decisions. Second, this theoretical
link is of interest to those organization researchers who are examining the enduring effect
of environment on the firm strategic decision making.
A synthesized view of TCE and RBV that argues a firm, with heterogeneous assets, integrates
a supply chain activity when the required resources and capabilities that argues firms are
more likely to integrate activities that require resources and capabilities which are already
complimentary to what they have (Argyres and Zenger, 2012). However, historical
24
conditions can also play a role in determining firm boundaries. Since vulnerability to outside
environment conditions is the highest at time of founding, it is logical to think that firms in
the extractive industries are sensitive to the natural resource conditions and constraints at
time of founding. For these firms, there are several unique characteristics in regard to their
relationship with natural resources. First and foremost feature is that their supply chain
starts from extracting natural resources and these resources are in fact their end products.
This chapter shows how this double‐edged strategic importance of natural resources for
firms in the extractive sectors affects the initial strategies at time of founding by employing
the notion of imprinting.
In addition, the theoretical link discussed between the initial natural resource characteristics
and firm vertical integration decisions provide a new perspective on the application of
imprinting theory to firm strategic decision making process. It has been argued that the
management mindset formation is the mechanism that can explain how imprinting process
happens at time of founding.
Implications
A number of implication can be derived from the work presented in this chapter. First, it
highlights the potential importance of initial natural resource characteristics on the vertical
integration decisions that firms make at time of founding. RBV researchers that have
considered the importance of entry conditions on vertical integration decisions have not
taken natural resources into account. Instead they have investigated the role of human
resources and organizational capital to be influential on the decisions on firm’s boundary,
considering the related transaction costs.
25
Second, considering the natural resource characteristics as sources of imprints on the firms
in the extractive industries offers the opportunity to study the double‐edged feature of
resources. RBV research so far has not considered the impact of resources that are also a
part of firm’s end products. This is important since it suggest that other than the initial
impact resources have on the firms’ structures and procedures, they can move through the
value chain and contribute throughout. This characteristic has so far been neglected by the
RBV literature.
Third, While researchers have found a diverse extent of imprinters such as individuals
(Burton and Beckman, 2007, Boeker, 1989), teams (Beckman et al., 2007), organizations
(Klepper and Sleeper, 2005), and networks (Milanov and Fernhaber, 2009), “Early scholarly
work on imprinting focused on the environment as the source, origin, and force for the
imprinting process” Simsek et al. (2015, p.293). One environmental imprinting source, that
has been constantly taken for granted, is the natural characteristics. This chapter extends
the initial environmental imprinting sources to contain initial natural resource
characteristics. In a way, it presents a “natural imprinting” view.
This paper has also implications for practising managers. First, it suggests managers of firms
in the extractive sectors to be cautious of the initial strategic decisions they makes
considering the enduring effect of those decisions on the frim performance and survival.
Second, this framework can help them to make better firm boundary decisions regarding
the natural resource initial conditions and constraints.
Limitations and future research
Despite the salient theoretical link this paper provides, it contains a number of limitations.
First, only five characteristics of natural resources are the centre of focus in this chapter.
26
Second, this is a conceptual paper that provide a number of propositions which could bring
more in‐depth understanding if they were empirically tested. Third, our focus was mainly on
the management mindset as an imprinting mechanism, while there could be identified other
mechanisms on different levels of analysis.
Beyond the five characteristics of natural resources that we considered here, there could be
other aspects of natural resource to be taken into account as influential factors on the
strategic firm boundary decisions. For example, environmental consequences have become
an important factor in strategic management (Garrod and Chadwick, 1996). Whether
voluntarily or involuntarily, firms have to comply with the environmental protection laws
and legislations. While the objective of these laws are to eventually protect the
environment, they might have necessitate different levels of action for firms, specifically
considering the extractive sector. For instance, level of attention and capital needed for
radioactive elements extraction is quite higher compared to coal mines. Beyazay (2015)
reports it might take up to 10 years to clean the remaining of a depleted oil rig off‐shore. So
it is possible that environmental consequences also affect the firm’s strategic decision
making process.
A quantitative approach can be employed to test the proposition empirically by
operationalizing the concepts of initial natural resource characteristics and degree of
vertical integration of firm’s activities. It would also be useful to define relative concepts for
operationalization of initial characteristics by considering various commodities and deposits.
Literature has offered use of other imprinting mechanisms as well as management mindset
(See for example Zyglidopoulos (1999)). While our attention was limited to the individual
level of imprinting process, organizational and collective levels also can offer interesting
27
insights for the imprinting process. However, the direction of literature on this issue is still
one of the hot topics in the imprinting literature.
In conclusion, drawing on imprinting literature this paper provides a theoretical link
between the initial natural resource characteristics and vertical integration decisions of
firms at time of founding. This link is explained through the mechanism of ‘management
mindset’. This paper provides a new perspective in considering the role of resources and
capabilities in firm’s boundary decisions.
1 Greenfield exploration activities aim to find mineral deposits in previously unexplored areas or in areas where they are not already known to exist. Brownfield exploration activities look for deposits near or adjacent to an already operating mine. (source: Minerals Council of Australia) 2 By the end‐product we refer to the product that is consumed by the customers in the downstream.
28
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