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Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

2012

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Copyright 2011 Meghan M. McGinty

All rights reserved

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ABSTRACT

Native forest tree conservation in tropical agroforests: Case study of cacao farms in the Atlantic Forest of southern Bahia, Brazil

Meghan M. McGinty

Agroforests are model systems for ecological conservation in tropical agricultural

landscapes because they integrate biodiversity conservation and rural livelihoods.

Whether agroforests are long-term solutions for conserving biodiversity in agricultural

landscapes may depend sapling regeneration of native forest trees in agroforests. In

this dissertation, I ask two main questions: are native forest trees regenerating in

agroforests and if so, what are the ecological and social drivers? I tested the influence

of potential seed sources from both the landscape and parent trees found in the

agroforest. I also examined how a set of social factors affected native forest tree

regeneration. The social drivers I tested include tree management and use, land tenure

and state-restricted rights to harvest native timber. I found that a number of native

pioneer species are regenerating at relatively high frequencies and abundances. I also

found that many secondary native forest tree species are also regenerating although

their sapling are found less frequently and at lower abundances. Most primary forest

tree species present as adults are not regenerating and lacked sapling in the

agroforests. The influence of the ecological factors was limited. The main drivers of

native forest tree regeneration on farms are the understorey management and the rural

extension services that assisted farms obtain state-restricted rights.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of tables and figures…………………………………………………………ii

Acknowledgements……………………………………………………….………iv

Dedication……………………………………………………………….….…….v

Introduction……………………………………………………………………….1

Chapter 1: Tree management and the diversity of native forest trees in tropical shaded

perennial crop agroforestry systems: A review ……………………………………4

Chapter 2: #$%&'(!)*+(,%!%+((!-*.,(+'$%&*.!&.!%+*/&-$0!$1+&-40%4+(2!!%8(!-$,(!*)!-$-$*!

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Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….135

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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

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CHAPTER TWO

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CHAPTER THREE

Table 1: Internationally and Brazilian federally listed and legally protected native forest trees species found in the cocoa agroforests of the Atlantic coastal forest of southern Bahia, Brazil. Table 2: Summary of analysis of environmental policies that affect native forest tree management in cocoa agroforests in the Atlantic coastal forest of southern Bahia, Brazil in June 2011 Table 3: Summary of percentage of farmers (n=56) with affirmative responses in interviews to different aspects of understanding laws that determine native forest tree management and experiences law enforcement on cocoa farms in southern Bahia, Brazil 2010 Table 4: Summary of p-values of the Chi-square testing for correlation among the different aspects of understanding of the law and experience with law enforcement for cocoa farmers (n=56) in southern Bahia, Brazil 2010. Table 5: Parameter estimates for regression model predicting the species richness of native forest tree saplings (n=56 participants nested in n=20 farms, R2= 0.12, RMSE=0.42, p=0.17) Figure 1: Regression model predicting the species richness of native forest tree saplings (n=56 participants nested in n=20 farms, R2= 0.12, RMSE=0.42, p=0.17) with three categorical variables: contact with law enforcement, prohibited to harvest native timber and legal rights to harvest native timber.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I want to acknowledge all the collaborators that made this project possible. In particular I would

like to thank Dr. Wayt Thomas, Dr. Christine Padoch, Dr. Maria Uriarte and Dr. Regina R.H.

Sambuichi. I would also like to acknowledge the Department of Ecology, Evolution and

Environmental Biology and the Institute for Latin American Studies at Columbia University in

New York City in addition to the Instituto Cabruca, Floresta Viva and the State University of

Santa Cruz (UESC) in southern Bahia, Brazil for their institutional support.

I also want to acknowledge my mother Patricia J. McGinty for her unfailing support and

my aunt Kelly Burnett for her encouragement me to become a biologist.

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this PhD dissertation to all the farmers who took the time to open themselves up to

share their experiences, opinions, concerns, stories, families and farms with me. I also dedicate

this PhD dissertation to the native forest trees of southern Bahia, Brazil for all of their

magnanimous beauty.

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CHAPTER TWO

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1 Department of Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Biology, 1200 Amsterdam Ave, 10th Floor Schermerhorn Extension, Columbia University, New York NY 10027 * Corresponding author !

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*)!7$%4+(!)*+(,%!,/(-&(,!$+(!-+&%&-$0!%*!%8(!-*.,(+'$%&*.!*)!%8+($%(.(5!.$%&'(!)*+(,%!%+((,!&.!

%8&,!0$.5,-$/(!PK*0&7!$.5!38&$+(00*!ASSDR?!

W.!%8&,!,%456<!V(!-*00(-%(5!5$%$!-$-$*!)$+7,!&.!M*4%8(+.!;$8&$<!;+$=&0<!%*!&.'(,%&1$%(!

%8(!+(0$%&'(!&7/*+%$.-(!*)!%8(!5&,%+&G4%&*.!$.5!$G4.5$.-(!*)!-*.[,/(-&)&-!$540%!%+((,!$%!%8(!

)$+7!,-$0(<!%8(!-*7/*,&%&*.!*)!%8(!0$.5,-$/(!,4++*4.5&.1!%8(!)$+7<!$.5!7$.$1(7(.%!

$-%&'&%&(,!&.!5(%(+7&.&.1!%8(!5&'(+,&%6!$.5!$G4.5$.-(!*)!.$%&'(!)*+(,%!%+((!,/(-&(,?!We

hypothesized:

(1) Higher levels of landscape scale native forest tree cover will positively influence

sapling species richness and abundance of most common regenerating native forest tree species.

!

!

ZA!

!

(2) The abundance of con-specific adults at the farm (stand) will positively influence

sapling abundance of regenerating native forest tree species.

(3) Tree management activities in these farms will have the most significant influence on

species richness and abundance for the most common regenerating native forest tree species

relative to the ecological variables.!

!

51%0,-$!

@$62&+.*$(+

The coastal forest in southern Bahia covers about 14,000 km2 located between 14o18' and 15o20'

S latitude and 39o and 39o36' W longitude in northeast Brazil. The regions’ elevation ranges from

50 m to 1000 m above sea level mostly on latosol and podzol soils (Sá et al. 1982). It extends

inland between 100 and 200 km along the entire coastline, gradually transitioning from a dense

sub-montane ombrophilous forest and then to a semi-deciduous moist forest due to gradually

diminishing rainfall as well as changes in the soils and the topography creating many eco-tones

and high endemism (Martini et al. 2007; Thomas et al. 2008). The average monthly temperature

is 24°C, with a relative humidity often above 80%, and an average annual rainfall from 1800 mm

to 2200 mm (Sá et al. 1982). The landscape is a mosaic of pasture, forest and dominated by

agricultural land with agroforests (Saatchi et al. 2001). The cocoa agroforests occupy the most

fertile soils (Martini et al. 2007).

@*$(+.("(<$*-)>++

9!%*%$0!*)!A"!)$+7,!V(+(!,(0(-%(5!V&%8!%8(!1*$0!*)!-$/%4+&.1!%8(!(-*0*1&-$0!5&'(+,&%6!*)!%8(!

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+(1&*.?!The farms were located in one of 15 municipalities in the southern part of the state of

Bahia: from Mascote in the south, Itubera to the north, Ipiau to the west and Ilheus and Itacare to

the east and all the municipalities in between. :*+!($-8!)$+7<!V(!-*00(-%(5!5$%$!*.!%8(!

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!&1$.8%$!

! Representation of farms in the region: We sampled 21 farms, both estate farms (n=17)

and agrarian reform settlements that have divided the land among many farming families (n=4)

(Table 1). Estate farms are farms owned by landowners who do not conduct labor on the farm

and often do not live on the farm full-time. Sharecroppers or employees carried out manual labor

on estate farms. Sharecroppers farmed nine (9) of the 17 estate farms and employees farmed the

other eight (8) estate farms. Farm size ranged widely from 20 ha to 5000 ha. A multi-national

corporation owned the 5000 ha farm (with sharecroppers); the next largest farm was an agrarian

reform settlement with 913 ha. Excluding the outlier and the two farms that did not report size,

average farm size (n=18) was 361 ha. These farms are representative of the size of farms in the

cocoa-growing region of southern Bahia, Brazil because 80% of all properties in the region are

large-scale (>50 ha) PW;@J!ASSaR?

!

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!

V(+(!(&%8(+!)$,%[1+*V&.1!/&*.((+,!%8$%!N4&-T06!%$T(!$5'$.%$1(!*)!-$.*/6!1$/,!*+!,(-*.5$+6!

*+!/+&7$+6!)*+(,%!,/(-&(,!%8$%!/+*54-(!$G4.5$.%!V&.5[5&,/(+,(5!,((5,?!

+I8(!+$.1(!&.!$G4.5$.-(,!*)!$00!&.5&'&54$0,!7($,4+(5!*.!$00!)$+7,!)*+!%8(!

+(1(.(+$%&.1!.$%&'(!)*+(,%!%+((!,/(-&(,!*--4++&.1!*.!t!E!)$+7,!V$,!)+*7!B"!PJ#<#1#)2#+

467(1"#+Cham.R!%*!BDZ!PK#6%*)*#+,6.<-)(1:*.+(Bong) Steud.R!&.5&'&54$0,!P%=>?@!/R?!I8(!

,/(-&(,!%8$%!V(+(!7*,%!$G4.5$.%!&.!%8(!$540%!,&=(!-0$,,!$-+*,,!$00!)$+7,!V(+(!Senna

multijuga (L. C. Rich.) H. S. Irwin<!!"#$%&'()*#+,-"*-.#+Benth.<!E(<1-4*#+.44>!$.5!E(21("#+

-2-1#$#!Y?!P%=>?@!/R?!I8(!5(.,&%6!*)!%8(,(!+(1(.(+$%&.1!,/(-&(,!5&))(+(5!1+($%06!G(%V((.!

,&%(,!+$.1&.1!)+*7!$!7$\&747!*)!DS!$540%!&.5?`8$!)*+!L"<%-1)(#+*1*<61#)#!Casar.!%*!D!

&.5?`8$!)*+!Jacaranda puberula (Table 2)?!9'(+$1(!,%(7!5(.,&%6!*)!-*.[,/(-&)&-!$540%,!*)!%8(!

+(1(.(+$%&.1!.$%&'(!)*+(,%!%+((!,/(-&(,!*--4++&.1!*.!t!E!)$+7,!V$,!"E!&.5?`8$!!

I8(!,/(-&(,!V(!)*4.5!*.!$%!0($,%!E!)$+7,!8$5!5&))(+(.%!,&=(!-0$,,!5&,%+&G4%&*.,!

P%=>?@!/R?!!M/(-&)&-$006<!Bauhinia fusconervis, Cestrum laevigatum Schltdl., and Alchornea

iricurana!8$5!74-8!8&18(+!$G4.5$.-(,!&.!%8(!,$/0&.1!,&=(!-0$,,!%8$.!&.!%8(!$540%!,&=(!-0$,,!

PI$G0(!AR?!I8+((!/&*.((+!,/(-&(,!PCestrum laevigatum, Cecropia spp. and Alchornea

iricurana) $.5!$.!($+06!,(-*.5$+6!,/(-&(,!Bauhinia fusconervis also showed high stem

densities. The other .$%&'(!)*+(,%!%+((!,/(-&(,!V8*,(!,$/0&.1,!V(+(!)*4.5!&.!$%!0($,%!E!*)!%8(!

,$7/0(5!)$+7,!8$5!0*V(+!,$/0&.1!,%(7!5(.,&%&(,!$.5!&.-045(5!Trema micrantha (L.) Blume,

Schizolobium parahyba (Vell.) Blake, Senna multijuga, Jacaranda puberula, Cedrela odorata,

Plathymenia foliosa), all pioneer and secondary forest species. However, the average sapling

abundance of the early and late secondary regenerating native forest tree species (Schizolobium

parahyba, Jacaranda puberula, Cedrela odorata, Plathymenia foliosa ) was a single

individual/ha. +

!

!

Zb!

!

!

1. HYPOTHESIS 1: Higher levels of landscape scale native forest tree cover will

positively influence sapling species richness and abundance of most common regenerating

native forest tree species.

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)*+(,%!$.5!$1+*)*+(,%+6!0$.5!4,(,R!*+!/$,%4+(!V&%8&.!%8(!-8*,(.!A[T7!G4))(+!$+($!P2MR)!(R?!

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DAc!%*!"SSc!V&%8!$.!$'(+$1(!*)!a"c?!I8(!/(+-(.%!*)!0$.5!&.!/$,%4+(!+$.1(5!)+*7!S!%*!Zbc!

V&%8!$!7($.!*)!ac?!!#(&%8(+!*)!%8(,(!'$+&$G0(,!,&1.&)&-$.%06!&.)04(.-(5!.$%&'(!)*+(,%!%+((!

,/(-&(,!+&-8.(,,!*+!%8(!$G4.5$.-(!*)!+(1(.(+$%&.1!,/(-&(,!*--4++&.1!*.!$%!0($,%!E!)$+7,!$%!

.$%&'(!)*+(,%!%+((!-*'(+!]DAc!P%=>?@!7R?!

2. HYPOTHESIS 2: The abundance of con-specific adults at the farm (stand)

will positively influence sapling abundance of regenerating native forest tree species.

g(!(\$7&.(5!%8(!+(0$%&*.,8&/!G(%V((.!,$/0&.1!5(.,&%6!$.5!-*.[,/(-&)&-!$540%,!5(.,&%6?!!I8(!

.47G(+!*)!-*.[,/(-&)&-!$540%,!)*4.5!&.!%8(!,$7(!8(-%$+(!$,!%8(!,$/0&.1,!8$5!$!,&1.&)&-$.%!

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)*4.5!*.!$%!0($,%!E!)$+7,2!,(-*.5$+6!)*+(,%!,/(-&(,!Senna multijuga and Jacaranda puberula!

P%=>?@!:).

7) HYPOTHESIS 3: Tree management activities in these farms will have the

most significant influence on species richness and abundance for the most common

regenerating native forest tree species relative to the ecological variables.!

!

!

Za!

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forest preserves undoubtedly play a critical role as components of landscape corridors and in

connecting populations between forest fragments (Arroyo-Rodriguez et al. 2008).!K(,($+-8!

,8*V,<!8*V('(+<!%8$%!(-*0*1&-$0!-*++&5*+,!$0,*!+(06!8($'&06!*.!%8(!&.%(+,%&%&$0!$1+&-40%4+$0!

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(-*0*1&-$0!-*++&5*+,?!I8(+()*+(<!in addition to preserving forested areas, an increased focus on

policy and funding for regulating the management of native forest tree species on farms in the

landscape corridors is urgent and could also be key in preventing illegal logging in forest patches

(Murniati et al. 2001).

!

!

EA!

!

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Total NFT

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Adult NFT

species richness Chao 1

Sapling NFT

species richness Chao 1

Total NFT stem

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Total NFT basal area

Q 2 FKWX! "ZB! MH3!M(0(-%&'(06!-0($+!V&%8!8(+G&-&5(!%V&-(!$!6($+?!H$+'(,%!)&+(V**5!$.5!%&7G(+?!F0$.%!.$%&'(!%+((,?!

215.50 231.00 15.66 97 23.90

M 2 FKWX! BD! J>F! 30($+!-*7/0(%(06!%V&-(!$!6($+?!H$+'(,%!)&+(V**5?!

181.00 173.56 6.00 99 12.30

U 3 MI>! #K! MIY! M(0(-%&'(06!-0($+!*.-(!$!6($+?!H$+'(,%!)&+(V**5?!

125.50 110.75 62.00 201 17.81

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120.23 78.61 73.57 264 13.73

C 2 MI>! a"B! MIYK! M(0(-%&'(06!-0($+!*.-(!$!6($+?!H$+'(,%!%&7G(+?!

107.54 103.07 27.10 92 19.39

N 2 FKWX! AEb! J>F! M(0(-%&'(06!-0($+!V&%8!8(+G&-&5(!%V&-(!$!6($+?!

92.14 108.50 15.50 112 28.31

E 2 FKWX! #K! J>F! M(0(-%&'(06!-0($+!B!%&7(,!$!6($+?!F0$.%!.$%&'(!%+((,?!

89.08 98.50 48.00 110 12.28

O 3 FKWX! Z<SSS! MH3! 30($+!-*7/0(%(06!D!%&7(,!$!6($+?!

H$+'(,%!)&+(V**5?!88.50 88.50 0.00 37 28.14

P 4 FKWX! ASA! MH3! 30($+!-*7/0(%(06!%V&-(!$!6($+?!H$+'(,%!)&+(V**5?!

88.08 84.12 15.66 67 8.40

S 2 FKWX! AAS! J>F!30($+!-*7/0(%(06!V&%8!8(+G&-&5(!*.-(!$!6($+?!!H$+'(,%!)&+(V**5?!F0$.%!.$%&'(!%+((,?!

87.25 37.90 34.00 39 11.95

D 2 MI>! EAZ! MIY! M(0(-%&'(06!-0($+!%V&-(!$!6($+?!H$+'(,%!%&7G(+?!

80.15 147.16 29.68 174 17.74

J 2 FKWX! EaS! J>F! 30($+!-*7/0(%(06!V&%8!8(+G&-&5(!B!%&7(,!$!6($+?!

75.72 78.55 11.50 83 11.13

G 4 MI>! ZDS! MIY! M(0(-%&'(06!-0($+!*.-(!$!6($+?!H$+'(,%!)&+(V**5?!

74.34 47.16 59.50 108 23.96

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71.80 72.57 11.00 115 18.72

L 2 FKWX! AZ! J>F!M(0(-%&'(06!-0($+!%V&-(!$!6($+?!H$+'(,%!)&+(V**5?!F0$.%!.$%&'(!%+((?!

66.40 66.10 8.25 79 14.64

T 2 FKWX! AS! MH3! M(0(-%&'(06!-0($+!*.-(!$!6($+?!H$+'(,%!)&+(V**5?!

66.16 66.16 na 109 12.37

K 2 FKWX! Z"! J>F!30($+!-*7/0(%(06!V&%8!8(+G&-&5(!%8+((!%&7(,!$!6($+?!!H$+'(,%!)&+(V**5?!

66.00 58.56 13.50 112 16.31

F 4 FKWX! ASS! J>F! 30($+!-*7/0(%(06!B!%&7(,!$!6($+?!H$+'(,%!)&+(V**5?!

57.00 44.00 7.00 67 17.52

I 4 FKWX! B"S! MH3! 30($+!-*7/0(%(06!*.-(!$!6($+?! 51.03 40.00 19.12 69 17.52

R 3 FKWX! AOS! MH3! 30($+!-*7/0(%(06!%V&-(!$!6($+?!!H$+'(,%!)&+(V**5?!

32.50 21.16 10.00 43 10.78

H 5 FKWX! EES! MH3! 30($+!-*7/0(%(06!V&%8!8(+G&-&5(!%V&-(!$!6($+?!H$+'(,%!)&+(V**5?!

25.00 19.00 7.00 32 16.32

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CHAPTER THREE TITLE Potential for increased conservation policy effectiveness: native forest tree habitat in cocoa farms in southern Bahia, Brazil AUTHOR Meghan M. McGinty Department of Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Biology, 1200 Amsterdam Ave, 10th Floor Schermerhorn Extension, Columbia University, New York NY 10027 ABSTRACT Governments have become increasingly involved in natural resource management,

particularly through environmental policies that dictate the conservation of species and

natural habitat. This research project explores the potential effects of environmental

policies on how farmers manage native forest trees on cocoa farms in the tropical Atlantic

coastal forest of southern Bahia, Brazil. An analysis of the policies affecting native forest

tree conservation on farms in the region indicate they fail to address non-conventional

land uses like cocoa agroforests that are both agriculturally productive and important

habitat for threatened species. The results indicate that rural extension services are crucial

to both farmers’ understanding of the complicated policies but also to law compliance.

Farmers that received education and assistance from rural extension agents were more

likely to manage native forest trees in their cocoa agroforests. Specifically, those farmers

that received assistance with the bureaucratic processes of law compliance conserved a

greater species diversity of regenerating native forest trees. Environmental policies that

are not complemented with rural education and assistance with law compliance are not

likely to protect threatened habitat and species.

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INTRODUCTION Privately owned land is the site of the most difficult disputes over natural resources in the

tropics (Brannstrom 2005; Schmitt et al. 2009; Yee and Ralisch 2007). In the cocoa-

growing region of the Atlantic coastal forest of southern Bahia, Brazil this is particularly

the case because privately owned land represents all of the threatened habitat types and

80% of the land area (Araújo et al. 2004; Schiavetti et al. 2010). High quality timber

hardwoods are the region’s most symbolic trees and the most at risk. Dozens of tree

species are in danger of extinction, and some 430 native plant species are associated with

the valued timber species, ranking the Atlantic coastal forest of southern Bahia in the

worldwide top most threatened and biological diverse habitats (Martini et al. 2007; Myers

et al. 2000; Santos et al. 2007; Thomas et al. 2008). The quantity and quality of habitat

for native forest tree species have been steadily dwindling because the region’s fertile

soils have been ideal for growing cocoa (Theobroma cacao Sterculiaceae) (Johns 1999;

Lopes et al. 2009; Ministerio de Meio Ambiente 2002). The remaining Atlantic coastal

forest only occupies 5% to 10% of its original extent (Saatchi et al. 2001).

Conservation practices on private land have become progressively more

noteworthy (Cocklin et al. 2007; Fischer et al. 2010; Lehrera and Becker 2010).

However, we have limited understanding of how different environmental policies and

institutional strategies are implemented, not to mention their success (Gotmarka et al.

2009; Newton et al. 2009). The degree to which people understand the policy and have

experienced its consequences will determine the effectiveness of any policy effort

(Fischer and Bliss 2007). Landowners are likely to behave dependent on the knowledge

they have about what is legally allowed and whether there are consequences for breaking

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the law (Fischer and Bliss 2007; Marcussen and Speirs 1998). In this research project, I

investigate punitive conservation policies in relation to the species richness of native

forest tree saplings in agroforests to understand their potential for forest conservation in

tropical agricultural landscapes.

Tropical agroforests with perennial crops, common in tropical agricultural

landscapes, are often maintained by tree management practices that remove native forest

trees and suppresses their re-growth in favor of non-native crops (McNeely and Schroth

2006; Schroth et al. 2004; Whitmore 1997). Many agroforestry practices have detrimental

effects on native forest trees, including a decrease of landscape forest cover (Zomer et al.

2009), low stand-level species diversity (Johns 1999; Sambuichi 2002), and soil erosion

(Montagnini et al. 1995). Presently an average cocoa agroforest in southern Bahia may

only have 85 native forest tree species greater then 10 cm diameter at breast height

(DBH) in a single hectare but the majority have <40 species (Sambuichi 2006) McGinty

and Sambuichi unpublished data), compared to the natural forests which may contain

over 300 species of native forest trees of the same size (Martini et al. 2007; Murray-

Smith et al. 2008; Thomas et al. 2008). This number may continue to decline if the

regeneration of native forest tree species is suppressed through agroforestry management

practices (Johns 1999). This region and the cocoa agroforests provide an ideal

opportunity to examine the conservation of national and international policies that protect

threatened and endangered native forest tree species and prohibit the suppression of the

regeneration of legally protected trees. To provide context for the research, I briefly

summarize the history of conservation policy in Bahia, Brazil.

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Background on conservation policy in southern Bahia, Brazil

Two main sets of policies directly affect how landowners of forested land are

legally allowed to manage native forest trees of the Atlantic coastal forest of southern

Bahia, Brazil: 1) Lists of protected tree species including international lists (the

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List and the Convention on

International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) and the Brazilian federal list (Lista

Oficial de Especies da Flora Brasileira Ameacadas de Extincao, LOEFBAE) and 2)

Brazilian federal environmental policies including the Forest Code of 1965 (O Codigo

Florestal) and the New Atlantic Forest Law of 2006 (Nova Lei da Mata Atlantica, Federal

Law Number 11.428, passed on December 22, 2006.)

The IUCN Red List and the CITES list are internationally protected species

protected by the United Nations (UN) governing body while the LOEFBAE is a list of

Brazilian flora protected by the Brazilian federal government. Species can be added,

removed or re-categorized over time based on their vulnerability. I complied a list of

native forest tree species from the Atlantic coastal forest of southern Bahia, Brazil that

may be found naturally regenerating in cocoa agroforests of southern Bahia, Brazil by

cross-referencing the three lists and the New York Botanical Garden (NYBG) herbarium

(Table 1.) For example Dalbergia nigra (Vell.) Allemao ex Benth. (listed as category I in

the CITES list), Cariniana legalis (Mart.) Kuntze and Cedrela odorata L. (listed as

category III on the CITES list) are all listed legally protected species historically found in

cocoa agroforests in southern Bahia, Brazil (Johns 1999).

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Brazil has a long history of environmental policies that influence how landowners

may legally manage native forest trees on their land in the Atlantic coastal forest of

southern Bahia, Brazil. The Forest Code of 1965 requires that all landowners in Brazil

have a documented and government registered legal reserve (Reserva Legal, RL) of

forest occupying > 20% of the property and forested areas of permanent protection

(Areas de Protecao Permanente, APPs) covering all steep slopes and water sources, no

exceptions. The New Atlantic Forest Law of 2006 builds on the Forest Code by

additionally regulating the management of native forest trees outside of the RL and APPs.

Unfortunately and most importantly to this study, the policy fails to address

agricultural land uses that maintain native forest trees and are habitat for the regeneration

of legally protected tree species. On one hand the law states it does not apply to

agricultural land but on the other hand the law clearly prohibits the suppression of the

regeneration of protected species, many of which are found in cocoa agroforests in

southern Bahia. The policy is very difficult to interpret in relation to such unconventional

land uses. However, non-compliance with these environmental policies is punished with

fines over US$ 1,000. An analysis of the environmental policies and the lists of protected

species that apply to cocoa farms in the Atlantic coastal forest of southern Bahia, Brazil is

summarized in Table 2.

This set of policies primarily employs control by law (legal instruments) and does

not incorporate any of the complementary conservation policy tools proposed by Wynne

(1998). The government has employed very little educational outreach, limited economic

instruments and scant persuasion through advocacy as strategies to inform the public or

make the policy more effective. With such a difficult to interpret set of environmental

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policies, the extent to which these policies may be effective at conservation may depend

on people’s understanding of the law and whether they have experience with law

enforcement (Marcussen and Speirs 1998).

I assess the impacts of environmental policies, including the listed species and the

New Atlantic Forest Law, which may have affected native forest trees in cocoa

agroforests in this region. To do this, I compare the species richness of native forest tree

saplings, collected through forest surveys, on farms where farmers have different

understandings of the policy and different experiences with law enforcement. Unlike

other research projects, I did not investigate management intensity (McGinty and

Sambuichi unpublished data), food security (Johns and Sthapit 2004), attitudes (Fischer

and Bliss 2007), economic costs (Naidoo et al. 2006), or biodiversity (Paillet et al. 2010).

I focus this research on saplings of native forest trees because they represent the potential

for longevity of native forest canopy in an agricultural landscape, such as the Atlantic

coastal forest in southern Bahia, and the long-term conservation value of agroforest land

uses like cocoa agroforests (Guariguata et al. 1995; Johns 1999; Rolim and Chiarello

2004).

Specifically, I investigate two question and test associated hypotheses:

(1) To what degrees do cocoa farmers understand the law? What aspects of the

law are misunderstood? The hypothesis is that farmers’ understanding of the law and

enforcement experiences will be correlated.

(2) To what degree has the policy led to enforcement events with farmers? The

hypothesis is that farmers who understand the law and have had law enforcement

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experiences will manage higher species richness of native forest tree saplings in the

sampled cocoa agroforests.

METHODS

Study site

I selected the cocoa-growing region of the Atlantic coastal forests in southern Bahia,

Brazil as a study area because it is an internationally recognized priority conservation

spot for Atlantic coastal native forest trees (Myers et al. 2000). Additionally, it is a region

with a particularly high level of biodiversity and a agricultural system that includes

protected native forest tree species (Martini et al. 2007; Murray-Smith et al. 2008;

Sambuichi and Vidal 2008; Thomas et al. 2008) The cocoa-growing region of southern

Bahia is also an exemplar context to research to an increasingly important topic in

conservation policy: weak governance of strict punitive environmental laws.

The coastal forest in southern Bahia covers about 14,000 km2. It extends inland

between 100 and 200 km along the entire coastline, gradually changing its natural

characteristics as it moves inland. The regions’ elevation ranges from 50 m to 1000 m

above sea level mostly on latosol and podzol soils. It is a legally protected moist

transition zone between the tropical coastal restinga forests on sandy soils to the east and

the dry tropical caatinga to the west (Centro dos Recursos Ambientais 2001). From the

east heading west inland, it gradually transitions from a dense sub-montane ombrophilous

forest and then to a semi-deciduous moist forest due to gradually diminishing rainfall as

well as changes in the soils and the topography creating many eco-tones and high

endemism (Martini et al. 2007; Thomas et al. 2008). The landscape is a mosaic of pasture,

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forest and dominated by agricultural land with agroforests (Saatchi et al. 2001). The

cocoa agroforests occupy the most fertile soils (Martini et al. 2007). A few hundred years

ago, a large diversity of hardwoods of extremely high quality timber including Dalbergia

nigra (Vell.) Allemao ex Benth. Cariniana legalis (Mart.) Kuntze and Cedrela odorata

L. were commonly found in the cocoa agroforests but humans quickly over-exploited

their timber resources (Johns 1999). Presently most cocoa agroforests lack any signs of

these historically harvested hardwood species (Johns 1999; Sambuichi and Vidal 2008).

The entire study area is designated as the Central Corridor of Atlantic Forest (Corredor

Central da Mata Atlantica (CCMA)) established by the Bahia state (CONAMA

Resolution 240_1998)(Ministério do Meio Ambiente 1999).

Sample selection

In collaboration with a team of researchers twenty cocoa farms were sampled to capture

the ecological diversity of the region. The sampled cocoa farms are dispersed throughout

the region. A 1-hectare plot was sampled in 4 sub-plots dispersed within each farm to

capture the effects of elevation gradients on tree communities. Between 2 to 5 people

were selected and interviewed for each farm. In cases where one person worked on the

farm but another one owned the land, both the owner and worker were interviewed. In the

cases of family farmers living on agrarian reform settlements, the farmer for each

sampled plot was interviewed. Farm supervisors were also interviewed on farms with

sharecroppers. Two sets of data were gathered: 1) individual interviews and 2) tree

surveys at the farm level.

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Interviews

I interviewed a total of 56 farmers using semi-structured individual interviews. In

the interviews I explored the farmers’ knowledge about the law and experiences with law

enforcement. Interviews with research participants ranged from 1-5 hours each, after

hiking into the cocoa agroforest, allowing us to converse about the tree species while

viewing their habitat. Understanding of the law was determined by asking questions

about three aspects of the law: (1) Whether farmers believed they had legal rights to

harvest native timber, (2) Whether the law has different regulation for different species

and (3) Whether the law has different regulation for different tree products.

Understanding of the enforcement consequences of non-compliance were examined by

asking whether farmers had (1) Experienced any contact with law enforcement agents

(informational contact or enforcement), (2) Received punishment for breaking the law,

(3) Been prohibited from harvesting native timber.

Tree sapling data

Tree data was collected in 1 ha on 20 farms in 2010. All native forest tree saplings

! 1.5 meters tall and " 10 cm DBH were measured for its diameter at breast height

(DBH) and identified. Most tree individuals were identified in the field and a sample was

collected and identified in the UESC herbarium and/or by local experts.

The species richness of saplings represents both the suitability of habitat for

multiple species to regenerate and the tree management practices of the farmers (Okuda

et al. 1997; Pinedo-Vasquez et al. 2001). In tropical forests with very high levels of

biodiversity like the Atlantic coastal forest of southern Bahia, Brazil, it is common for

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botanists of under-studied habitats to be restricted to identifying trees to the genus or

even family level of the nomenclature hierarchy when reproductive structures are

unavailable (Martini et al. 2007). Therefore I use species richness based on some

morpho-species, identified to families or genera, in an attempt to capture the potential

habitat for the naturally regenerating native forest trees.

The species richness was calculated for native forest trees greater than 1.5 meters

tall but less than 10 cm DBH considered the sapling size class. Most species are rare and

many species in our plots presented only a single individual. For these reasons, we used

EstimateS software to calculate Chao’s 1 estimate of diversity based on the abundance

data in addition to the low density of rare species, which increased the estimate of species

richness (Chao et al. 2009; Gotelli and Colwell 2001). The maximum, minimum and

mean values for species richness across all sampled farms were calculated. For

hypothesis testing, the logarithm was estimated of species richness values to normalize

the distribution of the values.

Data analysis

I answered my two questions by analyzing the farmers’ responses from the

interviews. The proportion of farmers who accurately understood the various aspects of

the law was calculated. Aspects of the law that were understood by a small proportion of

farmers were determined. Additionally, the proportion of farmers who had informational

and punitive experiences with law enforcement was also calculated. These proportions

were compared to determine if the majority of farmers understand the law and have had

law enforcement experiences.

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Hypothesis testing can be summarized in two main analyses: (1) Chi-square test

(aka Likelihood ratio, when comparing two dichotomous categorical variables) to

determine if any of aspects of the farmers’ understanding of the law or experience with

law enforcement are correlated with each other and (2) Mixed regression model of 56

farmers nested in 20 farms testing the significance of the influence of categorical

interview responses on the continuous numerical logarithm of species richness of tree

saplings, to determine the influence of farmers’ understanding of the law and experience

with law enforcement on the species richness of native forest tree saplings.

RESULTS

Representation of farms in the region

I sampled 20 farms, both estate farms (n=16) and agrarian reform settlements that have

divided the land among many farming families (n=4). Estate farms are farms owned by

individuals who do not conduct labor on the farm and often do not live on the farm full-

time. Sharecroppers or employees carry out manual labor on estate farms. Sharecroppers

farmed eight (8) of the 16 estate farms and employees farmed the other eight estate farms.

Farm size ranged widely from 20 ha to 5,000 ha. A multi-national corporation owned the

5,000 ha farm (with sharecroppers); the next largest farm was 913 ha. Excluding the

outlier and the two farms that did not report size, average farm size (n=17) was 361 ha.

These farms are representative of the size of farms in the cocoa-growing region of

southern Bahia, Brazil because 80% of all properties in the region are large-scale (>50

ha) (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, IBGE.) The sample captured a wide

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range of species richness values for saplings ranging from 0 to 73.6/ha, with a mean of

24.0/ha and a standard deviation of 21.7/ha.

Understanding of the law and experiences

The majority of research participants do not understand the conservation policy (Table

3). Five participants accurately stated they both had rights to harvest native timber and

knew that the farm had the required Reserva Legal (RL). The other nine (16%)

participants stating they had rights either did not know if the farm had an RL or stated

that it did not. The 74% of participants that responded they did not have rights to harvest

native timber either were aware that they failed to comply with the legal RL requirement

or were not allowed permission by their supervisors or the landowner. Two farmers

claimed they did not know if they had rights to harvest native timber. A quarter of the

participants said they did not know if there are different laws for different forest tree

products. However, the majority of participants (63%) answered affirmative and knew

that timber harvest is prohibited, not the harvest of other non-timber forest tree products.

The least understood aspect of the law was how different conservation policies apply to

different native forest tree species. Most farmers, in error, cited that all native trees are

equally protected, and 5 stated they did not know whether there are different laws for

different tree species. The few that accurately understood that were able to identify that

“noble” high-quality timber species have more strict policies on use but that “white” or

poor quality wood species, mostly pioneer species, can be cut.

Regarding contact with policy enforcement agents, the majority of participants

that had contact with law enforcement agents were either informational visits or

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landowners who had sought out the enforcement agents for information, permits or

complaints. The three participants that had received punishment were reported to the

authorities by their neighbors and fined for illegal clearing of the forest. The participants

that had been prohibited at some point to harvest native timber included the three that

received punishment and the others were employees and sharecroppers whose bosses had

prohibited the practice.

The result of the first hypothesis test is that understanding the conservation policy

does have a correlation to experiences with law enforcement. Participants that understand

there are different policies for different native forest tree species are significantly more

likely to also understand there are different laws for different forest tree products and

have had contact with a law enforcement agent (Table 4). Also, having contact with law

enforcement is significantly correlated to having received punishment for harvesting

native timber. This is a more obvious result since to receive punishment there has to be

some contact with law enforcement. Interestingly, having legal rights to harvest timber

and having been prohibited to harvest native timber do not correlate to any of the other

aspects of understanding or experiences with the law.

Impacts of understanding of the law on native tree sapling species richness

The results of the second, and last, hypothesis test is that understanding of legal

rights to harvest native timber and contact with law enforcement had the largest effects

on the sapling species richness of native forest trees in cocoa agroforests. To select

variables for the standard least squares regression model, I first tested the significance of

each individual variable on the species richness of native forest tree saplings with

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ANOVA analyses. Based on the results of the ANOVA tests and the Chi-square tests

from the previous hypothesis, I selected the variables that were most likely to

significantly influence species richness and least likely to be correlated with other

predictor variables in the model. The most robust regression model included three

categorical variables: contact with law enforcement, prohibition to harvest native timber

and having rights to harvest native timber (n=56 participants nested in n=20 farms, R2=

0.12, RMSE=0.42, p=0.17; Table 5; Figure 1). Of the three different predictor variables

in the model, contact with law enforcement had the most significant influence of native

forest tree sapling species richness (Table 5).

DISCUSSION

The results show that two outreach activities show great potential to increase the long-

term viability of native forest tree canopies in cocoa agroforests in southern Bahia. These

are 1) holding informational workshops and rural extension education outreach activities,

and 2) providing landowners with legal rights to harvest native timber. This is consistent

with previous research that demonstrates the importance of complementary

implementation strategies for conservation policies to influence sustainable land use

management (Fischer and Bliss 2007; Gotmarka et al. 2009).

High-quality native timber species are viewed as vanishing heritage from forest

and farmlands of a long time ago by most of the participants. Historically over-exploited

native forest trees from the region that are now legally protected are so rare that they have

taken on a noble, nostalgic and increased value to farmers. Luxury, tropical hardwood

native forest tree species may fall into the rarity paradox where rare species have higher

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(market) value than common species are often caught in a fatal loop of (black market)

exploitation. The participants of this research project acknowledge that their ability to

recognize the seedlings of these highly valued native forest tree species is very limited.

Therefore they feel constrained in their ability to know whether such species are naturally

regenerating in their agroforests, let alone allow such species to mature into canopy trees.

There is a chance, however, that this is an easy excuse used by participants to fail to

identify their cocoa agroforests as potential habitat for legally protected species. This

possibility makes unenforced, punitive, conservation policies potentially ineffective if

they provide perverse incentives to destroy habitat of protected native forest tree species

in agricultural areas.

Perverse incentives to destroy protected species habitat, especially in

agriculturally productive areas are tragic flaws in endangered species conservation

policies (Lueck and Michael 2003; Polasky et al. 1997; Wade et al. 2010). By putting

species preservation before landowner rights and interests at whatever the cost, punitive

policies may exacerbate conflict between people and conservation goals with deleterious

consequences (Lindquist 2003; Stroup 1995). These type of policies can actually provide

perverse incentives for a landowner to reduce the conservation value of their property

(Polasky et al. 1997). This is may be a result of environmental laws that do not capture

the local contexts of agricultural practices and institutional capacity. The New Atlantic

Forest Law policy fails to address the cocoa agroforest land use realities of the southern

Bahia, Brazil priority conservation region. This is an example of how poor regulation and

weak governance limits the ability of scientific research to inform policy (Ashley et al.

2006; Blundell and Gullison 2003). In particular, this research project highlights how

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confusion can surround policies that fail to address local land-use realities and are not

explained efficiently to landowners.

Even though the vast majority of participants sampled had no contact with law

enforcement agents and did not understand that legally protected native forest trees have

different policies than other native trees, the results suggest there is potential for

information and education about conservation policies to increase their effectiveness.

Farmers that attend lectures, workshops or seek out information may manage a higher

species richness of native forest tree saplings in their cocoa agroforests. There is

enormous potential for alternative policy tools described by Wynne (1998) such as

motivation through understanding and persuasion through advocacy. Although these

strategies appear to have great potential at increasing conservation policy effectiveness,

the government does not appear to have the capacity to conduct such complementary

policy practices. Informing and educating participants about the nuances of complex

conservation policies may be better employed by non-government agencies. In particular,

in southern Bahia, it has been suggested that private organizations can play an essential

role in forest conservation on private land (Schiavetti et al. 2010). In addition to

education extension, obtaining and understanding legal rights to harvest native timber

also shows potential to conserve native forest trees in cocoa agroforests in southern

Bahia.

This research project provides evidence that those farmers who have legal rights

to harvest native timber may be incentivized to manage a higher species richness of

native forest tree saplings on their farms. By providing legal rights to harvest native

timber to those landowners who comply with all the conservation policies, the

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government is providing and an economic incentive. Economic instruments are another

one of the alternative conservation policy tools proposed by Wynne (1998). Obtaining

and understanding legal rights to harvest native timber however, is not an easy task.

These rights may specifically be restricted by the state, but often the politics of

inconsistent laws and enforcement are also important (Nygren 2004). In tropical forest

regions, there is often a conflict between the law and its practical implementation as well

as local interpretations or understandings of rights to native tree resources. Biodiversity

conservation policies in landscape mosaics composed of tropical rainforest remnants and

agricultural patches may be most effective if they emphasize the development of

institutional capacity to offer tangible incentives for the management of in-farm

biodiversities.

Without alternative conservation policy tools, landowners are likely to remain

confused about how they are legally allowed to manage native forest trees and perversely

incentivized to suppress the natural regeneration of legally protected native forest tree

species in their agroforests. Additionally, continued erosion of native forest tree species

diversity is likely in southern Bahia, like other historically agriculturally productive

forests (Dawson et al. 2007; Lawrence 2004). Conservation of protected tree species in

tropical agroforests like cocoa agroforests and their habitats in forests like the Atlantic

coastal forest of southern Bahia also has significant impact on engendered fauna

(Acharya 2006; Faria et al. 2007; Raboy et al. 2004; Rice and Greenberg 2000). The

importance of educational rural extension and clearly communicated rights to native

forest tree timber resources will arguably increase as strict punitive conservation laws

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continue to pass in regions where agricultural practices suppress the growth of legally

protected native forest tree species.

CONCLUSIONS

Results from this research lead to two conclusions about conservation policy and two

conclusions about the impacts on the long-term conservation of native forest species

private land. Conservation policies that fail to recognize and address agricultural land

uses that provide habitat for legally protected species will not only be extremely difficult

to understand for landowners but will also present logistical challenging to implement

and enforce for governments. Also, literal interpretation of such tragically flawed

conservation policies would mean farmers would be legally obliged to abandon

agriculturally productive areas that are habitat for protected species to allow the forest to

regenerate without compensation from the government. However, the conservation

policies are unlikely to have such an impact. The influence of conservation policy on the

natural regeneration of legally protected species will greatly be enhanced if rural

extension agents could educate landowners about the nuances of the policy and assist

them with law compliance so they can take advantage of the economic incentives buried

in the law. The incentive to legally harvest native species for on-farm use has the

potential to be an excellent policy tool but must be complemented by effective

monitoring in addition to being very cautiously utilized in regions of weak governance

and insufficient law enforcement.

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APPENDIX Table 1: Internationally and Brazilian federally listed and legally protected native forest trees species found in the cocoa agroforests of the Atlantic coastal forest of southern Bahia, Brazil.

Family Genus Specific epithet Author List Annex/Category

Arecaceae Euterpe edulis Mart. LOEFBAE I

Fabaceae Dalbergia nigra

(Vell.) Allemao ex Benth. LOEFBAE I

CITES I Fabaceae Melanoxylon brauna Schott. LOEFBAE I

Lecythidaceae Cariniana legalis (Martius) Kuntze IUCN Vulnerable

Meliaceae Cedrela odorata L. LOEFBAE II

IUCN red list Vulnerable

CITES III Morpho-species from the below genera found in this study. Species were not found in current study but cited by other published source as potential species found in the Atlantic coastal forest of southern Bahia, Brazil Annonaceae Guatteria reflexa R.E. Fr. LOEFBAE II Bignoniaceae Tabebuia obtusifolia (Cham) Bureau LOEFBAE II Combretaceae Terminalia kuhlmannii Alwan & Stace LOEFBAE II

IUCN red list Vulnerable

Fabaceae Macherium obovatum Kuhlm. & Hoehne LOEFBAE I

Fabaceae Swartzia glazioviana (Taub.) Glaz LOEFBAE I

Fabaceae Swartzia pickeli Killip ex Ducke LOEFBAE I

Lauraceae Nectandra micranthera Rohwer LOEFBAE II

IUCN red list Vulnerable

Lauraceae Ocotea cryptocarpa Baitello LOEFBAE II

IUCN red list Vulnerable

Lauraceae Ocotea odorifera (Vellozo) Rohwer LOEFBAE I

Lecythidaceae Cariniana ianeirensis R. Knuth LOEFBAE I

IUCN red list Endangered

Lecythidaceae Cariniana parvifolia S.A. Mori et al. LOEFBAE I

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Lecythidaceae Eschweilera alvimii S.A. Mori LOEFBAE II

IUCN red list Vulnerable

Malpighiaceae Byrsonima alvimii W. R. Anderson LOEFBAE II

Meliaceae Cedrela lilloi C.DC. LOEFBAE II

IUCN red list Endangered

Moraceae Brosimum glaucum Taub. LOEFBAE I Moraceae Brosimum glaziovii Taub. LOEFBAE II

Myrtaceae Myrcia folii G.M. Barroso & Peixoto LOEFBAE I

Myrtaceae Myrcia gilsoniana G.M. Barroso & Peixoto LOEFBAE I

Myrtaceae Myrcia isaiana G.M. Barroso & Peixoto LOEFBAE I

Rubiaceae Simira gardneriana M.R.V.Barbosa & Peixoto LOEFBAE II

Sapotaceae Chrysophyllum imperiale

(Linden ex Koch) Benth. & Hook. LOEFBAE II

Sapotaceae Pouteria

psammophila var. xestophylla (Miq.) Baehni LOEFBAE I

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Table 2: Summary of analysis of environmental policies that affect native forest tree management in cocoa agroforests in the Atlantic coastal forest of southern Bahia, Brazil in June 2011 Landowners of farms with native forest trees in cocoa agroforests in southern Bahia, Brazil: 1) Must have a forested legal reserve (RL) and forested areas of permanent protection (APPs), no exceptions. ! The size of RL and APP is negotiable for traditional communities,

family farmers and landowners of small-scale (< 50ha) farms. 2) Cannot, with no exceptions, cut or suppress the growth of any legally protected tree species. ! Includes all species on IUCN red list, CITES and LOEFBAE lists 3) Can collect leaves, seeds, bark and fruits as long as maintaining trees’ function for local native fauna 4) Cannot cut or suppress native, naturally occurring trees with the following exceptions: ! Non-commercial, non-transported, on-farm use of - Firewood at 15 m2/year/family unit, preferably pioneer species - Timber at 20m2/3 years/family units with maintenance of enough tree

individuals to provide function for native local fauna 5) May apply, if provide abundant detailed information including species name, location of harvest and sale, quantities of products, management plans etc, for a permit from government authorities to (reiteration: must have RL, APPs and respect the listed legally protected species): ! Clear forests, cut trees and transport and commercialize products

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Table 3: Summary of percentage of farmers (n=56) with affirmative responses in interviews to different aspects of understanding laws that determine native forest tree management and experiences law enforcement on cocoa farms in southern Bahia, Brazil 2010 Has legal

rights to harvest native timber

Understands there are different laws for different species

Understands there are different laws for different products

Has had contact with law enforcement agents

Has received punishment for timber harvest

Has been prohibited from harvesting timber

Percent farmers with affirma-tive response (yes)

26% 16% 63% 36% 5% 27%

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Table 4: Summary of p-values of the Chi-square testing for correlation among the different aspects of understanding of the law and experience with law enforcement for cocoa farmers (n=56) in southern Bahia, Brazil 2010. Chi-square tests, n=56

Has legal rights to harvest native timber

Under-stands there are different laws for different species

Under-stands there are different laws for different products

Has had contact with law enforce-ment agents

Has received punishment for timber harvest

Understands there are different laws for different species (d.f.=2)

0.26

Understands there are different laws for different products (d.f.=2)

0.35 0.00

Has had contact with law enforcement agents (d.f.=1)

0.32 0.02 0.10

Has received punishment for timber harvest (d.f.=1)

0.71 0.81 0.41 0.07

Has been prohibited for harvesting timber (d.f.=1)

0.17 0.24 0.24 0.13 0.71

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Table 5: Parameter estimates for regression model predicting the species richness of native forest tree saplings (n=56 participants nested in n=20 farms, R2= 0.12, RMSE=0.42, p=0.17)

Term Estimate Standard Error t- ratio P-value Intercept 1.37 0.12 11.20 0.00 Prohibited to harvest timber [yes]

0.05 0.07 0.82 0.42

Rights to harvest timber [doesn’t know]

0.17 0.21 0.82 0.42

Rights to harvest timber [yes]

0.15 0.12 1.28 0.21

Contact with law enforcement [yes]

0.14 0.06 2.21 0.03

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Figure 1: Regression model predicting the species richness of native forest tree saplings (n=56 participants nested in n=20 farms, R2= 0.12, RMSE=0.42, p=0.17) with three categorical variables: contact with law enforcement, prohibited to harvest native timber and legal rights to harvest native timber.

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0.75 1 1.25 1.5Log Sapling species richness

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