Nationalism, Revolution, and Reform

The eighteenth century marked the beginning of an intense period of revolution and rebellion against existing governments, and the establishment of new nation-states around the world.

• Enlightenment thought and the resistance of colonized peoples to imperial centers shaped this revolutionary activity.

• These rebellions sometimes resulted in the formation of new states and stimulated the development of new ideologies.

• These new ideas in turn further stimulated the revolutionary and antiimperial tendencies of this period.

The rise and diffusion of Enlightenment thought that

questioned established traditions in all areas of life often preceded

the revolutions and rebellions against existing governments

The Enlightenment

• Applied reason to the human world, as well as to the rest of the natural world

• Stimulated religious tolerance• Fueled democratic revolutions around the

world

Enlightenment thinkers and their ideas

• Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan: Humans exist in a primitive “state of nature” and consent to government for self-protection.

• John Locke’s Two Treatises on Government: People are sovereign and consent to government for protection of natural rights to life, liberty, and property.

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• Montesquieu’s The Spirit of Laws: The best form of government includes a separation of powers.

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s The Social Contract: Government is a contract between rulers and the people.

• Voltaire: Religious toleration should triumph over religious fanaticism; separation of church and state.

• Thinkers (Voltaire, Rousseau) applied new ways of understanding the natural world to human relationships, encouraging observation and inference in all spheres of life.

• Intellectuals critiqued the role that religion played in public life, insisting on the importance of reason as opposed to revelation.

• Enlightenment thinkers (Locke, Montesquieu) developed new political ideas about the individual, natural rights, and the social contract

• The ideas of Enlightenment thinkers influenced resistance to existing political authority, as reflected in revolutionary documents

Influence of the Enlightenment

• Political philosophies of the Enlightenment fueled revolution in the Americas and France.

• Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence incorporated Enlightenment ideas.

• The Constitution of the United States of America and Bill of Rights incorporated Enlightenment ideas

Revolutionary Documents

• The American Declaration of Independence• The French Declaration of the Rights of Man

and Citizen• Bolivar’s Jamaica Letter

Impact of Enlightenment Ideas

• These ideas influenced many people to challenge existing notions of social relations.

• Led to the expansion of rights as seen in expanded suffrage, the abolition of slavery and the end of serfdom, as their ideas were implemented.

Representative composers, artists, philosophers, and writers

• Johann Sebastian Bach: Baroque composer• Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Classical

composer• Voltaire: Philosopher• Miguel de Cervantes: Novelist• Eugène Delacroix: Painter (transition to the

Romantic School of the nineteenth century)

New schools of art and forms of literature

• Painting depicted classical subjects, public events, natural scenes, and living people–portraits

• New forms of literature evolved, such as the novel –Cervantes’ Don Quixote

Technologies

• All-weather roads improved year- round transport and trade.

• New designs in farm tools increased productivity – agricultural revolution

• Improvements in ship design lowered the cost of transport.

Nationalism

• Beginning in the eighteenth century, peoples around the world developed a new sense of commonality based on language, religion, social customs and territory.

• These newly imagined national communities linked this identity with the borders of the state, while governments used this idea to unite diverse populations.

Increasing discontent with imperial rule propelled reformist and

revolutionary movements

Revolutions• Subjects challenged the centralized imperial

governments – challenge of the Marathas to the Mughal Sultans

• American colonial subjects led a series of rebellions, which facilitated the emergence of independent states in the United States, Haiti, and mainland Latin America.

• French subjects rebelled against their monarchy. Required examples of rebellions

• Slave resistance challenged existing authorities in the Americas– establishment of Maroon societies

• Increasing questions about political authority and growing nationalism contributed to anticolonial movements – Indian Revolt of 1857– Boxer Rebellion

• Some of the rebellions were influenced by religious ideas and millenarianism

• Taiping Rebellion• The Ghost Dance• The Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement

Responses

• Responses to increasingly frequent rebellions led to reforms in imperial policies–Tanzimat Reforms– Self Strengthening Movement

The global spread of European political and social thought and the increasing number of rebellions stimulated new

transnational ideologies and solidarities.

Discontent with monarchist and imperial rule encouraged the development of

political ideologies

• Liberalism• Socialism• Communism• Conservatism

The Women• Demands for women’s suffrage and an

emergent feminism challenged political and gender hierarchies –Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the

Rights of Women–Olympia de Gouges's Declaration of the

Rights of Women and the Female Citizen–The Resolution passed at the Seneca Falls

convention in 1848