National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide is the result of...

National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide

Commonwealth copyright

© Commonwealth of Australia 2010

This work is copyright. You may download, display, print and reproduce this material in unaltered form only (retaining this notice) for your personal, non-commercial use or use within your organisation. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, all other rights are reserved. Requests and enquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to:

Commonwealth Copyright Administration Attorney-General’s Department Robert Garran Offices National Circuit Barton ACT 2600

Commonwealth copyright email: [email protected] Commonwealth copyright website: www.ag.gov.au/cca

ISBN 9781 921647 109

Copies of the National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide are available from: Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs PO Box 7788 Canberra Mail Centre ACT 2610 Telephone: 1800 050 009

The National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide is also available on the Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs website: www.fahcsia.gov.au and on the Centre for Appropriate Technology website: www.icat.org.au

Compiled by the Centre for Appropriate Technology Technical editing by Biotext

National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide iii

Acknowledgments

The National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide is the result of collaboration between the Australian

Government Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs, the

Centre for Appropriate Technology (CAT), and many other organisations and individuals. Everyone

involved has worked in and with communities of Indigenous people across Australia to improve

access to infrastructure and essential services that underpin health, wellbeing and sustainable

livelihoods.

The material in the Infrastructure Guide was compiled by staff and associates of CAT. CAT is a

national Indigenous science and technology organisation working to secure sustainable livelihoods

for communities of Indigenous people through appropriate technology. Professional staff from CAT’s

offices in Alice Springs, Cairns and Derby contributed to the Infrastructure Guide, ensuring that

diverse communities, jurisdictions and climatic conditions are represented in the material.

The Infrastructure Guide was further reviewed by Indigenous and non-Indigenous contributors from

government and non-government organisations and service providers operating at the national, state

and local levels. These organisations included Indigenous resource agencies, engineering and other

technical professionals, tradespeople and policymakers. Everyone involved has been dedicated to

supporting the wellbeing of Indigenous people through the choice of appropriate technologies for the

supply and maintenance of infrastructure for water, energy, transport, telecommunications and waste

management. The accumulated experience of the contributors is formidable and their dedication has

been invaluable.

Data and feedback collected as a result of this first edition of the Infrastructure Guide will provide

valuable input for future editions and help to shape its future direction and the direction of the

companion National Indigenous Housing Guide. The Housing Guide is already in its third edition

and incorporates data reflecting the involvement of more than 25 000 Indigenous people.

The Australian Government Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous

Affairs is grateful for the time, effort and commitment of everyone who contributed to the inaugural

National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide.

National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide v

Acronyms and abbreviations

AAA ‘triple A’

AAS Australian Accounting Standards

AASB Australian Accounting Standards Board

ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics

AC alternating current

ACCC Australian Competition and Consumer Commission

ACIF Australian Communications Industry Forum

ACMA Australian Communications and Media Authority

ACT Australian Capital Territory

ADSL asymmetric digital subscriber line

AS Australian Standards

AWT aerated wastewater treatment

CASA Civil Aviation Safety Authority

CAT Centre for Appropriate Technology

CEC Clean Energy Council

CFL compact fluorescent light bulb

CSG Customer Service Guarantee

DBCDE Australian Government Department of Broadband, Communications

and the Digital Economy

DC direct current

DN diameter nominal

DSM demand-side management

EE energy efficiency

ESO essential services operator

HF high frequency

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

kbps kilobits per second

kPa kilopascals

kW kilowatt

kWh kilowatt hour

vi National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide

LAN local area network

LCC life-cycle costing

L/p/d litres per person per day

LPG liquefied petroleum gas

Mbps megabits per second

MOU memoranda of understanding

NPV net present value

NSW New South Wales

NT Northern Territory

NWQMS National Water Quality Management Strategy

NZ New Zealand

NZS New Zealand Standards

OH&S occupational health and safety

PIC plastic identification code

PIN personal identification number

PV photovoltaic

PVC polyvinylchloride

Qld Queensland

RABS Remote Area Broadcast Services

RE renewable energy

SA South Australia

SP stand-alone power

SWL standing water level

UHF ultra high frequency

USO Universal Service Obligation

UTP unshielded twisted pair

UV ultraviolet

V volt

VHF very high frequency

VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol

W watts

WA Western Australia

WAN wide area network

National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide vii

Contents

Acknowledgments iii

Acronyms and abbreviations v

Introduction 1How to use this guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Overall structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Lists of further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

A sustainable approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

National Partnership Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Guiding principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Indigenous community distribution and size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

What is ‘community’? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

What services are relevant to communities?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

PART A 13

A1 Community involvement 15Benefits of involving communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Why involve the community? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Who benefits? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Challenges for community involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Cultural protocols and cross-cultural communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Effects of community scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Risks and limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Steps for community involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Understand the community. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Determine what you and the community need . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Identify the type of involvement required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Assess whether you need help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Identify the stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Seek agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

viii National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide

Community involvement in practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Appraising requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Choosing appropriate solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Installing infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Managing and maintaining infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Useful terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

A2 Project management 45Stages of infrastructure project management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Developing the concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Building on experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Establishing clear objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Building the project team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Engaging the stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Being conscious of time and budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Developing the project plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Managing risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Conducting progress reviews and meetings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Key components of infrastructure project management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Flexible planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

The planning sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Useful terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

A3 Management and maintenance 57Asset management challenges for Indigenous communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Objectives of asset management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Demand-side management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Ownership and legacy issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Occupational health and safety issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Asset management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Identify service and delivery needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide ix

Create a system inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Assess the condition of assets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Prioritisation of assets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Remaining operational life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Gap analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Life-cycle cost analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Risk management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Maintenance scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Replacement and disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Audit and review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Relevant Australian guidelines and standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Useful terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

PART B 79

B1 Water 81Guiding principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Systems overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Current service delivery arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Relevant Australian guidelines and standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Involving the community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Appraising community requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

What are the community’s water requirements? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

How can water requirements be managed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Choosing appropriate solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Water sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Storage (tanks) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Reticulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Managing and maintaining services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Useful terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

x National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide

B2 Stormwater 117Guiding principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Systems overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Current service delivery arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Relevant Australian standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Involving the community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Appraising community requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Cultural issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Climatic factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Choosing appropriate solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Stormwater infrastructure options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134


Useful terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

B3 Wastewater 141Guiding principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143


Treatment methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

On-site treatment and disposal systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Off-site treatment and disposal systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145




Community information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Current status of the community’s sanitation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Climatic and geographical factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Landscape and soil factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Site considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151


On-site systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide xi

Off-site systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Effluent transportation and distribution (pipes and pumps) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Constructed wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169


Useful terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

B4 Waste 177Guiding principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179





Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

Current waste collection services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

Landfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

Hazardous waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186


Bins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

Rubbish collection and collection vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Waste deposit and transfer facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

Landfill methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

Transfer stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Separation and recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Management of hazardous materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Useful terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

Useful websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

B5 Energy 215Guiding principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217



Relevant Australian guidelines and standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

xii National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide


Managing energy use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224


Determine the community’s energy requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

Quantify the community’s energy needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

Assess costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

Assess other issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231


Grid supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Stand-alone power systems — 100% renewable energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

Stand-alone power systems — hybrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Useful terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

B6 Telecommunications 255Guiding principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257



Relevant legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Relevant Australian standards and guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260


Appraising community needs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Importance or availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Scoping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

Emergency plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

Flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Privacy and security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Emergency and essential services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

Life-cycle costing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265


Telephones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

Mobile radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide xiii

Computer networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

Broadcast radio and television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285


Useful terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

Contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

B7 Transport 291Guiding principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293



Relevant Australian standards and guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295


Roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

Aerodromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

Waterway landings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297


Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Current status of transport infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

Community transport service needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

Quantifying a community’s transport needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

New technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302


Roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

Aerodromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

Water landings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

Useful terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

Index 323

xiv National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide

Tables

Table 1 Types of technical services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Table 2 Characterisation of technical services by settlement size and type . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Table A1.1 Information sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Table A1.2 Consultation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Table A1.3 Informed decision making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Table A1.4 Negotiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Table A1.5 Ongoing participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Table A1.6 Employment, skills development, education and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Table A3.1 Examples of asset condition assessment tests and measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Table A3.2 A sample rating system for asset assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Table A3.3 Examples of the expected operational life of assets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Table A3.4 Sample preventive maintenance (routine) tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Table B1.1 Organisations responsible for water supply arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Table B1.2 Health authority and legislative arrangements for large water supplies . . . . . . . . . . 86

Table B1.3 Australian guidelines and standards for water system management . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Table B1.4 Common bore casing materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Table B1.5 Storage capacity required for 2-day supply (kilolitres) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Table B1.6 Storage capacity required for 7-day supply (kilolitres) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Table B1.7 Typical pipe diameters for community water distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Table B1.8 Cover required for buried pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Table B1.9 Recommended pump materials for different water quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Table B1.10 Disinfection systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Table B1.11 Water treatment systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Table B1.12 Water supply management tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Table B2.1 Stormwater management on a regional basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Table B3.1 State and territory guidelines relating to wastewater reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Table B3.2 Relevant Australian guidelines and standards relating to wastewater reuse . . . . 148

Table B3.3 Wastewater systems for discrete Indigenous communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Table B3.4 Wastewater problems for remote Indigenous communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide xv

Table B3.5 Advantages and disadvantages of the most common types

of sanitation systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Table B3.6 Strengths and weaknesses of aerated wastewater treatment systems . . . . . . . . . 162

Table B4.1 Responsibilities and arrangements for managing waste in communities

and outstations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

Table B4.2 Relevant Australian guidelines and standards for waste management . . . . . . . . . 183

Table B4.3 External bins used in communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Table B4.4 Major garbage collection infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Table B4.5 Examples of landfill site assessment criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

Table B5.1 Responsibilities and arrangements for electricity supply in major

and minor communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Table B5.2 Australian standards for energy systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Table B5.3 Example of a household energy audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

Table B5.4 Advantages and disadvantages of different energy supply options . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

Table B6.1 Number of remote Indigenous communities with access to public phones . . . . 260

Table B6.2 Remote community public phone services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

Table B6.3 Satellite phone network features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

Table B6.4 Characteristics of mobile radio technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

Table B6.5 Local area network (LAN) technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

Table B6.6 Wide area network (WAN) technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

Table B7.1 Different road options for likely community scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

xvi National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide

Figures

Figure 1 Discrete Indigenous communities and remoteness areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Figure A2.1 General model for a community infrastructure project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Figure A3.1 The process of continual improvement in asset management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Figure A3.2 Typical condition decay curve for infrastructure assets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Figure B1.1 Specifications for a gravity-fed watertank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Figure B1.2 Ideal siting of a watertank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Figure B1.3 Information required to select an appropriate pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Figure B1.4 Example water supply schematic for a small community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Figure B2.1 Average annual rainfall in Australia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Figure B2.2 Aerial view of the case study community showing water flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Figure B2.3 Installation of septic system to cope with stormwater breaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Figure B2.4 Example of a stormwater system design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Figure B2.5 Map showing infrastructure and drainage patterns of case study

community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Figure B2.6 Aerial view of airstrip described in the case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Figure B3.1 Relative components in a typical septic tank system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Figure B3.2 A typical aerated wastewater treatment system flow structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Figure B3.3 Types of constructed wetland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Figure B4.1 Community waste management system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Figure B4.2 Diagram of the trench method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

Figure B4.3 Longitudinal section of a trench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

Figure B4.4 Trench landfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

Figure B4.5 Area fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Figure B4.6 Cell landfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Figure B4.7 Container deposit scheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Figure B4.8 A waste oil facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Figure B5.1 Life-cycle cost comparisons of energy supply systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Figure B5.2 Grid or external power station electricity supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Figure B5.3 Community generator electricity supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Figure B5.4 Stand-alone renewable energy system electricity supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide xvii

Figure B5.5 Stand-alone community hybrid system electricity supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Figure B6.1 Life-cycle costs for telecommunications infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

Figure B6.2 Typical public payphones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

Figure B6.3 Community phone and installation in a remote area cabinet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

Figure B6.4 Typical cabling for a residential connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Figure B7.1 Factors to consider when choosing a transport system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Figure B7.2 Kerbed and bitumen-sealed formation access roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

Figure B7.3 Bitumen-sealed formation access roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

Figure B7.4 Gravel formation access road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

Figure B7.5 Gravel formation road — typical dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

Figure B7.6 Typical stormwater drain system used for types 1, 2 and 3 roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

Figure B7.7 Type 2 — formed formation access road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

Figure B7.8 Formed formation access road typical dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

Figure B7.9 Type 1 flat-graded formation access road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

Figure B7.10 Flat-graded formation access road (unformed road) cross section . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

Figure B7.11 Flat-graded formation access road: (a) on level ground and (b) on a slope . . . . . 313

Figure B7.12 Alternative airstrip maintenance equipment — types of drags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide 1

Introduction

What happens when the cistern doesn’t flush and there isn’t any water at the household tap?

The solar bore is pumping, but water is only just trickling into an empty storage tank. A household

water supply splits, sending a fountain of water into the air. You’ll have to isolate the whole water

main because you can’t find the isolation valve at the branch. The valve box is hard to find. You

think it’s near the generator shed under a mass of grass and vegetation, though there aren’t any

markers to identify where. Eventually, you find the remains of the valve box, broken by a bobcat

during a rubbish clean-up. The valve shaft is filled with soil and the area is contaminated by waste

engine oil, which was dumped on the ground after the generator was serviced. And now the

phone connection has dropped out again …

All communities require suitable and sustainable infrastructure. Attempts to build the capacity of

a community are hampered when infrastructure is inadequate, inappropriate or malfunctioning,

because these limitations affect fundamental social services such as health and education. To create

sustainable communities in remote Australia and to build the capacity of Indigenous communities,

it is critical to understand infrastructure provision.

The National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide provides an integrated framework for understanding

major infrastructure provision issues for remote Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities.

It focuses on how to install and maintain infrastructure that is appropriate and sustainable for remote

Indigenous communities across Australia. Integral to the Guide is an emphasis on community

involvement, especially in the maintenance and management of infrastructure.

The National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide was inspired by the success of the National Indigenous

Housing Guide. Communities and those working with them expressed a need for a similar resource

to promote an understanding of sustainability and service issues beyond the house. The National

Indigenous Infrastructure Guide complements both the National Indigenous Housing Guide and the

Environmental Health Handbook. There is some overlap in the material covered by these guides;

however, the National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide provides more comprehensive information than

has previously been available in one volume on technology choice, design, installation and support

for a range of remote community infrastructure.

The National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide brings together existing research, codes and standards,

resources and information on community infrastructure. Rather than being a comprehensive ‘how

to’ manual, it seeks to provide the user with an awareness of the issues that need to be considered

when working with various aspects of infrastructure. Its modest technical scope can be expanded as

demand requires.

2 National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide

The National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide is available in hard copy and electronically at

www.icat.org.au/niig. Comments and suggestions for improvements are welcomed, and can be

lodged online at the same location. It is proposed that the electronic version will be updated annually

to reflect input from users and changes in regulations, legislation, standards and the policy context.

The hard copy will be updated every three years, depending on use, data availability and funding.

The National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide has been sponsored by the Australian Government

Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs (FaHCSIA). It has been

compiled by experienced practitioners at the Centre for Appropriate Technology (CAT); CAT has been

researching and designing technological solutions to promote sustainable livelihoods for Indigenous

communities since 1980. Consultants, service providers and community workers have also been

included in developing and testing the Guide. The next edition will be shaped by user experience over

the next two years.

How to use this guideThe National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide (the Guide) will assist people who are working with

infrastructure in Indigenous communities: community managers, local and state government officers,

and those working in planning and developing infrastructure projects. ‘Infrastructure’ in this context

refers to the fixed physical assets used to deliver a service to a community or region.

What readers want from the Guide will vary, depending on their needs. Those working in Indigenous

communities may want an overview so that they are better informed in the choice, design,

installation, function, maintenance and management of infrastructure. Technical personnel (project

managers, essential services officers) may want to know how to best incorporate their technical

knowledge into Indigenous community projects.

The National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide deals with similar topics to those dealt with by the

National Indigenous Housing Guide at the household level. When there is an overlap in the subject

matter of these guides, such as with new housing installation, readers should refer to both guides.

References to relevant sections of the National Indigenous Housing Guide have been provided.


Overall structure

The document is divided into two sections, A and B.

Section A provides context for the Guide, explains why comprehensive, planned approaches

are beneficial, and outlines the objectives and appropriate strategies for engaging effectively with

communities to ensure the smooth functioning of infrastructure over the long term. Section A

includes overviews of activities that are important for sustainable infrastructure in Indigenous

communities. These are:

community involvement■■

project management■■

management and maintenance.■■

Section B focuses on the key components of infrastructure in Indigenous communities in remote

settings. These are:

water■■

stormwater■■

wastewater■■

waste■■

energy■■

telecommunications■■

transport.■■

Users of the Guide should become familiar with the concepts outlined in Section A, and refer to them

when considering the specific infrastructure components in Section B.

The chapters in Section B have the following structure:

1. Introduction

2. Current service delivery arrangements (including relevant standards and guidelines)

3. Involving the community

4. Appraising requirements

5. Choosing appropriate solutions (including maintenance and installation requirements that

should be considered when selecting infrastructure solutions)

6. Managing and maintaining services

7. Useful terms

8. Further reading.

The structure represents a staged approach to infrastructure development that should be followed.

Case studies have been included to help identify the sorts of factors users should consider in seeking

solutions to infrastructure issues.


Checklists

Points of significance are presented using an ‘ensure/consider’ framework, as in the National

Indigenous Housing Guide:

‘ensure’ points are vital for infrastructure function and/or safety■■

‘consider’ points are desirable, but not vital.■■

Both categories can be used as checklists in the course of an implementation or

maintenance program.

Lists of further reading

The Guide does not claim to be a comprehensive, detailed engineering design guide, especially given

the diversity of infrastructure projects in remote Indigenous contexts. There are already technical

manuals and texts for service professionals in each area; these are available in state government or

service provider offices.

The lists of further reading included at the end of each chapter or topic should be used as a starting

point for consulting technical details, codes and standards. Not all industry or Australian Standards

are listed; rather, the reader is referred to the most relevant. Details are only provided in special cases

where particulars are vital to issues such as safety or quality control, and can be consistently applied

across all Australian jurisdictions.

A sustainable approachSustainability is the foundation of the Guide; this approach is supported by a number of guiding

principles that are outlined below. The Guide also contributes to the implementation of the

principles embodied in the national partnership agreements on remote indigenous housing and

remote service delivery.

National Partnership Agreements

The national partnership agreements on remote indigenous housing and remote service delivery

were agreed by the Australian and select state and territory governments in November 2008. The

agreements outline the driving principles for development of remote Indigenous communities over

a 10-year period, in conjunction with other national agreements, such as the National Indigenous

Reform Agreement. These principles include addressing the issue of social inclusion in the context

of Indigenous disadvantage, and meeting Council of Australian Governments (COAG)-endorsed

targets, including ‘Closing the Gap’. With regard to housing, the Agreement seeks to reduce severe

overcrowding, increase housing supply, improve housing conditions and ensure that rental houses

are well managed and maintained.


The remote services delivery model outlined in the National Partnership Agreement on Remote

Service Delivery clearly identifies service standards, roles and responsibilities and service delivery

parameters. This will ensure that Indigenous Australians living in remote communities receive and

participate in services that close the gap of disadvantage. Access to government services such

as health, housing and welfare will be through a single government interface. The objectives of the

Agreement are to:

improve the access of Indigenous families to a full range of suitable and culturally inclusive ■■

services

raise the standard and range of services delivered to Indigenous families, to be broadly consistent ■■

with those provided to other Australians in communities of similar size and location

improve the level of governance and leadership within Indigenous communities and Indigenous ■■

community organisations

provide simpler access and better coordinated government services for Indigenous people in ■■

identified communities

increase economic and social participation wherever possible and promote personal ■■

responsibility, engagement and behaviours consistent with positive social norms.

Guiding principles

The Guide endorses and integrates the following guiding or good practice principles that contribute

to the sustainability of communities:

access and equity ■■

environmental health ■■

health and safety■■

appropriateness ■■

affordability ■■

sustainable livelihoods.■■

Access and equity

Every resident of Australia should have access to an equitable share of available resources,

particularly resources managed by the government on behalf of the community. Programs and

services should reflect this principle and be culturally and physically accessible, recognising the

diversity of regional, remote and urban needs.

To make the principles of access and equity a reality for Indigenous Australians in relation to services,

strong and effective action is needed. This principle must take into account the remoteness of many

Indigenous communities. A program or service that is appropriate for an urban community is not

always appropriate in the remote context; thus, standards are to be broadly consistent, but

not identical.


Environmental health

The Australian Charter for Environmental Health (National Environmental Health Strategy 2007–12)

declares:

The quality of life and the health of Australians are underpinned by having clean water and

air, safe food and housing, protection from pollutants and a program to intervene in the

environment to prevent and control disease. (p. 4)

Ensuring a healthy environment includes actively protecting the community from problems in the

environment and encouraging healthy living practices. In Indigenous communities in particular (see

Stephenson 2003), it is promoted through activities including:

maintaining housing standards (as described in the National Partnership Agreement on Remote ■■

Indigenous Housing)

effective rubbish collection and disposal■■

drinking water treatment and supply■■

sewerage and disposal■■

animal control■■

insect (disease vector) control■■

food safety■■

dust and pollution control.■■

Health and safety

For those who maintain or upgrade community infrastructure, the community is a workplace.

Ensuring worker safety contributes to the sustainability of the infrastructure. Health and safety are

important considerations for employers, employees and everyone whose actions may have an impact

on working and living environments.

Working in remote areas does not mean that occupational health and safety (OH&S) issues are less

important, although it may seem more difficult to adhere to occupational health and safety priorities.

The priorities identified by the National OH&S Strategy 2002–2012 to achieve short and long-term

OH&S improvements are applicable to workplaces everywhere: urban, regional, remote and very

remote. The five priorities are to:

reduce the impact of risks at work■■

improve the capacity of business operators and workers to manage OH&S effectively■■

prevent occupational disease more effectively■■

eliminate hazards at the design stage■■

strengthen the capacity of government to influence OH&S outcomes.■■


Appropriateness

Appropriate technology and infrastructure solutions contribute to sustainability through:

incorporating actual needs and user behaviours in infrastructure design■■

improving wellbeing■■

enabling people to apply their resources and skills■■

facilitating work, enterprise and trading■■

helping to secure these opportunities.■■

Affordability

It is important to ensure that infrastructure projects in remote areas have adequate funding and

resources for both development and ongoing maintenance. For example, developing a detailed

response to a problem that has very restricted funding may create unrealistic expectations, result

in funds being spent on management rather than works, and be unsustainable over the long term.

Careful planning that takes into account the initial budget and the community’s ability to pay for

maintenance over the life cycle of the product should be part of planning any new or upgraded

infrastructure. Upgrades should not mean that communities are disadvantaged financially beyond the

usual cost of an upgrade.

Sustainable livelihoods

Infrastructure should support the development and maintenance of sustainable livelihoods. These are

the range of activities that support improved wellbeing through work, enterprise and trading, and that

can be maintained without undermining the natural resource base.

The sustainable livelihoods approach takes into account the skills, status and possessions of people.

It seeks to understand the interconnectedness of these assets and how they can be deployed to

meet people’s various needs and aspirations. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and

recover from stresses and shocks, and maintain and enhance its capabilities and assets both now

and in the future.

Indigenous community distribution and sizeMuch of Indigenous Australia is defined in terms of its remoteness and small community sizes. In

2006, 1008 discrete Indigenous communities (85%) were located in very remote areas. Just over

three-quarters (76%) of these very remote communities had a population of fewer than 50 people

(ABS 2007). (For definition of remoteness areas, determined by road distance from urban centres,

see ABS 2001 and Figure 1). Of the people living in discrete Indigenous communities, 45% were in

the Northern Territory, with 30% in Queensland and 15% in Western Australia (ABS 2007).


Figure 1: Discrete Indigenous communities and remoteness areas

Darwin

Perth

Melbourne

Canberra

Brisbane

Torres StraitIslands

SydneyAdelaide

Hobart

Remoteness areas

Very remote AustraliaRemote AustraliaOuter regional AustraliaInner regional AustraliaMajor cities of Australia

Kilometres

0 1000

Discrete Indigenous communities

Note: Remoteness areas refer to Australian Standard Geographical Classification Remoteness Structure 2001.

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006)

What is ‘community’?

In the Guide, the term ‘community’ refers to:

the residents of a particular location■■

the agencies, bodies and individuals who support residents’ interests and future prospects ■■

(who may or may not be residents).

In policy discussions about remote areas, communities are often described in terms of population

size, rather than spatial area or number of dwellings. Population size is an important factor in

determining the levels of service delivery, and knowledge of and control over infrastructure in

a settlement.

Typically, the larger the community or settlement:

the more access a community is likely to have to services such as health, schooling, social ■■

security and policing, as well as commercial and technical services

the less likely it is that residents have a working knowledge of infrastructure.■■


The following is a general outline of community sizes as they relate to service provision type. It should

be noted that there can be some variation depending on the service; for example, the water supply

system is often determined by whether community size is above or below 100 people, rather than

the more general 200 people as described below.

Major communities generally have a core population of at least 200 people, with a permanently

staffed office, school, clinic and store. These communities operate as service centres for surrounding

outstations and usually have obligations to them for essential and municipal services.

Most essential services to major communities are delivered through state or territory arrangements,

with standards of service provision similar to those for towns and cities. Mainstream standards

are achieved by technical specialists, working in accordance with developed procedures and

practices. A locally employed essential services officer usually provides day-to-day management and

maintenance.

Minor communities are settlements of fewer than 200 people. As a result of reduced access to

funding, residents often have greater responsibility for and knowledge of their infrastructure, and less

servicing by resource agencies or contractors. Therefore, there tends to be a greater history of self-

reliance.

Minor communities are more likely to have stand-alone power and water systems, which they own or

which are owned on their behalf by a resource agency. These systems are usually managed through

local service support or by the associated resource agency. There are some exceptions in which

minor communities and outstations are connected to reticulated mains power, water and sewers with

mainstream consumer service levels and obligations.

Homelands and outstations (these terms are used interchangeably) are usually the smallest

settlements. The term ‘outstation’ refers to an Indigenous settlement that relies on another

community or resource agency to manage municipal or essential services, grant funding and

associated service delivery. An outstation may have more than 50 residents, but is distinguished from

a community in that it does not operate as an organisational centre from which services are provided.

(In rare cases, small outstations grow to the population size of minor and even major communities,

but are still subject to the same resourcing arrangements as other outstations.) Some outstations

have associations with resource agencies that are located in townships.


What services are relevant to communities?

Table 1 lists the three types of technical services relevant to communities: essential, municipal and

domestic (or household).

Table 1: Types of technical services

Essential services Water supply

Power supply

Sewerage

Telecommunications (traditionally telecommunications are not defined as an essential service, but they provide essential lifelines in the case of remote communities)

Municipal services Waste management

Access (access roads, internal roads, airstrips, barge landings)

Amenity (dust control, stormwater management, landscaping)

Domestic services Housing maintenance

Yard maintenance

Liquid waste management (de-sludging septic tanks)

The Guide focuses on the technical services — essential and municipal — that support infrastructure,

rather than social services such as health, education and welfare. Although the capacity to access

these technical services is largely experienced at the domestic level, their operation and management

can affect entire populations. Social services such as schooling, clinics and stores can be interrupted

when essential and municipal services fail or become unavailable.

Awareness of the relationship between effective isolation (some communities are more ‘remote’ than

others classified in the same category), settlement size and organisational co-location (for example,

some communities are also responsible for outstations and homelands) is required to understand

technical service provision to remote settlements (Table 2).


Table 2: Characterisation of technical services by settlement size and type

Population Settlement type Technical services

10 Family outstation Household water supply

Household power supply

Household septic system

20 Outstation Household/reticulated water

Household/reticulated power


50 Outstation or a minor community Reticulated water

Reticulated power


Less than 200 Minor community — may have a resource agency or services manager with responsibility for housing, Community Development Employment Projects (CDEP) program, outstations, etc

Reticulated water

Reticulated power


More than 200 Major community (usually with staffed office, school, clinic, store) — service centres for outstations

Reticulated water

Reticulated power

Sewer or common effluent system


Further readingABS (Australian Bureau of Statistics) (2001). Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) — 2001, Cat. No. 1216.0, ABS, Canberra. www.abs.gov.au

ABS (Australian Bureau of Statistics) (2006). 4710.0 Housing and Infrastructure in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Communities, ABS, Canberra.

ABS (Australian Bureau of Statistics) (2007). Housing and infrastructure in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, Australia, 2006 (Reissue), Cat. No. 4710.0, ABS, Canberra. www.abs.gov.au

ASCC (Australian Safety and Compensation Council) (2002). National OHS Strategy 2002–2012, ASCC, Canberra. www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au

COAG (Council of Australian Governments) (2007). National Partnership Agreement on Remote Indigenous Housing, COAG, Canberra. www.coag.gov.au

COAG (Council of Australian Governments) (2007). National Partnership Agreement on Remote Service Delivery, COAG, Canberra. www.coag.gov.au

DHAC (Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care) (1999). National Environmental Health Strategy 1999, DHAC, Canberra. www.health.gov.au

DHAC (Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care) (2007). National Environmental Health Strategy 2007–12, DHAC, Canberra. www.health.gov.au

FaHCSIA (Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs) (2007). National Indigenous Housing Guide, 3rd edition, FaHCSIA, Canberra. www.facsia.gov.au

Harris G (2001). Environmental Health Handbook: A Practical Manual for Remote Communities, Menzies School of Health Research, Darwin.

Stephenson P (2003). Environmental Health Planning and Action: A Handbook for Indigenous Practitioners, Batchelor Press, Batchelor.

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A1 Community involvement

In this guide, the term community involvement refers to involving the community members in

choosing appropriate technology and making appropriate decisions about how infrastructure is

installed, maintained and managed, using a process that also maximises skills development and

employment opportunities for community members. These outcomes cannot be achieved without

the involvement of the end users of the technology and infrastructure: the community.

The community will usually be involved in one or more of the following components of infrastructure

development: problem identification, design, decision making, construction, management and

maintenance.

When developing infrastructure in remote communities, there can be pressure to get the job done

and move onto the next project, so the focus is on choosing the best technology or design for

the circumstances and arranging logistics for the team doing the construction or repairs. Although

this may seem the quickest and most efficient way to achieve results, there are significant risks

associated with this business-as-usual approach, which can be costly in the long run. Such an

approach can also be disempowering for the community.

Benefits of involving communitiesThis section discusses why it is important to involve the community and the benefits of doing so

when developing infrastructure in Indigenous communities.

Why involve the community?

Community involvement has a number of critical functions that contribute to successful outcomes,

reduced costs and reliable ongoing operation of installed equipment. For this reason, any contractor

or project manager should prioritise community involvement as a form of risk management. Even

small steps to involve the community can improve the reliability of technology while minimising risk

of failure.



Community involvement has often been ignored or treated as a ‘side issue’ by contracted

technicians, engineers or other external experts working in Indigenous communities. This mistake

has led to many poorly realised infrastructure projects across remote Australia. There are many

examples of how a lack of community involvement has resulted in regular failure of systems, use of

technology that cannot be supported or serviced adequately, lack of understanding in the community

about how to maintain and use their infrastructure, and many missed opportunities for skills building

or local employment. Often, the outcomes desired by funding bodies are not achieved, money is

wasted and community aspirations cannot be realised. Evidence-based reporting and evaluation are

becoming common requirements from funding bodies, so accountability for the downstream impacts

of infrastructure is likely to become more of a risk management issue for project managers. Many

projects will also have mandatory Indigenous employment outcomes as a requirement of government

funding, requiring a higher degree of community involvement.

Who benefits?

Indigenous communities, funding bodies, and contractors and managers all benefit from involvement

of the community in infrastructure supply, development and maintenance.

Indigenous communities

Community involvement can achieve some important social outcomes for Indigenous communities:

It can assist communities and their support agencies to reach greater levels of autonomy by ■■

increasing their capacity to manage their own affairs.

It can contribute to a sense of ownership, helping communities move from being passive ■■

recipients to active participants in the design, application and management of technology and

services.

It can ensure that infrastructure development provides opportunities for effective hands-on skills ■■

development, capacity building, work experience and employment that are otherwise rare in

remote regions.

Funding bodies

In order to create safe, robust and reliable infrastructure, involvement by the recipients and managers

of the technologies is necessary:

While there is a temptation for both funding bodies and contractors to pay limited attention to the ■■

community involvement process to shorten their project time schedules, projects that are effective

in involving communities are more likely to achieve long-term funding outcomes.



The more reliable and sustainable the infrastructure is, the lower the life-cycle costs are likely to ■■

be and the more cost-effective in the long term. Inappropriate technology that the community has

little or no capacity to manage, maintain or repair will have excessive recurrent running costs due

to the continual need to employ external contractors.

Contractors and project managers

Community involvement can have many benefits for contractors and project managers:

Drawing on community members’ knowledge and experience leads to a greater understanding ■■

of the nature of problems, technology failures and potential solutions.

Technology is more reliable when contractors and project managers understand how ■■

communities interact with it.

Community involvement offers the opportunity to better understand a community’s capacity to ■■

respond to, manage and maintain infrastructure.

Fewer trips may be required to repair faults or to respond to default notices in remote areas.■■

Overall, community involvement can facilitate■■

- better decision-making processes and outcomes, with less conflict

- meeting procurement and funding milestones and performance indicators

- more cost-effective life-cycle management, especially for local government

- a much higher quality of outcomes for contractors

- better employment and skills development outcomes for the community.

In summary, good community involvement provides:

risk management and risk reduction■■

an understanding of factors that affect timelines■■

an understanding of the needs of stakeholders■■

an overall understanding of needs and issues surrounding a problem■■

better social outcomes and capacity building■■

better value for money, for clients and funding bodies■■

more sustainable, robust and reliable infrastructure■■

more sustainable remote communities.■■



Challenges for community involvementCommunity involvement needs to be integrated into a project from the outset. Understanding the

types and levels of involvement, and the kinds of skills and techniques required, should be part

of planning.

For community involvement to be worthwhile and effective, an appropriate process is needed.

Community involvement processes may be simple and easy to implement or complex and difficult

to manage, requiring specialised skills and expertise. The process could be an informal chat with a

traditional owner about the events that led to the failure of a water pump, or it might involve a set of

formal participatory design workshops preceded by a series of community meetings, negotiation of

memoranda of understanding, and training sessions on designing and managing infrastructure into

the future. It is also important when engaging with community members in remote Australia to talk

to the relevant Australian, state, territory or local government office. An example would be the local

FaHCSIA Indigenous Coordination Centre.

Knowing where to begin, where to end and what to look for in the middle are critical challenges for

community involvement. It is best to start by gaining an overall understanding of the community and

the problem or need you are addressing. The following are guidelines on what to consider when

planning community involvement processes.

Cultural protocols and cross-cultural communication

Any work in an Indigenous community requires a certain level of skill in cross-cultural communication.

Key references on this topic are provided at the end of this chapter. Considerations and protocols

will vary across the country and will depend primarily on how traditional a community is, who you

are working with and whether English is spoken widely. For example, English may be a second,

third or even fourth or fifth language for many communities in central Australia, whereas English is

predominantly the first language in Queensland. This means that interpreters or cultural navigators

may be essential personnel in the involvement process.

Despite this diversity, some basic approaches apply when dealing with Indigenous communities.

Ensure that you:

are courteous and respectful ■■ — everyone deserves a level of courtesy and respect

without judgment

offer patience and understanding■■ — building trust and respect with stakeholders may take longer

than you expect; it can take time for community members to understand your requests or to take

ownership in your project

are flexible in your expectations ■■ — your timeframes for outcomes may not be compatible with

those of the community, for a variety of reasons



pose open questions and give people time to think■■ — if you are seeking information, decisions or

commitments, present questions without implying a desired answer

- if you must suggest responses, offer several to choose from

- allow private time for stakeholders to consider their response

- ideally set the time for a response when you pose a question for discussion

- do not be afraid of pauses and silence in conversations

talk to the appropriate government managers■■ — these people have regular contact

with the community

involve all community members■■ — men often hold key community leadership positions, but

women can provide critical balance, insights and information, and must be actively involved

speak clearly and in plain English■■ — out of politeness, community members may not tell you that

they are not understanding what you say

- English may not be their first language (particularly for older people) and people may have

hearing difficulties

- for significant language barriers, use translators and interpreters and factor the costs into

your project.

Consider the following points:

Develop a working relationship with a local person■■ or someone familiar with the community;

they can:

- help interpret and communicate information

- be involved in meetings as a facilitator, assistant or observer

- reflect on what occurred later (a lot of issues or discussion taking place may directly affect

your project, but may not be immediately obvious or forthcoming).

Visual communication tools■■ can help in communication and engagement. Lengthy talks around

complex or abstract concepts do not work in cross-cultural situations. Slides, video, flashcards

or posters used in meetings, workshops or presentations can help to better communicate your

issues. A visual communication tool can be as simple as drawing in the sand during an outdoor

meeting.

Clearly state what you can and cannot achieve ■■ to avoid the creation of false expectations. If you

do not make clear what issues you can and cannot address, you may be expected to address

issues beyond the scope of your project. Be firm, yet polite.

Explaining by doing ■■ is the most effective communication. New concepts are best learned by

actually carrying out a task. Wherever possible, do the task while you are explaining it.



Avoid making judgments, pressuring for information and creating expectations:

Making judgments■■ — do not be quick to make judgments about the community and its

capacity for engaging with your project or the issues you present. There may be an extensive

range of social, cultural, financial, historical and institutional obligations or impediments to

involvement. Many community members struggle with day-to-day social and financial issues

and will not be forthcoming in communicating these. In addition, Indigenous communities, like

other communities, are obviously very sensitive about being judged.

Pressuring for information■■ — pressuring for an answer to a question can lead to a response

including misinformation or an answer that the respondent thinks you want to hear. This

occurs out of a sense of politeness or because of a desire not to offend.

Creating expectations■■ — be careful not to promise more than you are absolutely sure you can

achieve. A discussion of a potential outcome may be taken as a promise to deliver, as a result

of different cultural approaches to conversation or simply through misunderstanding. Many

communities struggle with the range of external agencies that talk about potential projects,

but for various reasons cannot deliver. From a community perspective, this can be taken as

a breach of a promise, even if, in the eyes of the external service provider, they were simply

exploring ideas.

Effects of community scale

A community’s level of control of its infrastructure will give some clues to the community’s need and

desire for involvement, and the depth and type of involvement required. That is, does the community

need to manage its own infrastructure and if so, what skills does it need or already have to be able

to do this? This may have implications for design, repairs, upgrades, installation and maintenance;

community input may be required to explore and manage these implications.

The size of a community often determines its level of participation in infrastructure and hence the

approach to community involvement.

For example, an outstation may have no institutional arrangements in place to manage and

maintain infrastructure, other than through their own prescribed body corporate or resource agency

(Indigenous corporation). If the power goes out, someone needs to be able to diagnose the problem

accurately, identify solutions and, if required, communicate with technical experts. As a result,

residents of outstations have a greater need to understand, assess and repair infrastructure issues.

In larger communities, residents and householders may have less involvement in infrastructure

because councils or external agencies and contractors tend to assume this responsibility. For

example, state power companies (such as Ergon in Queensland, Power and Water Corporation in the

Northern Territory) may manage all maintenance of power infrastructure for a large community. Water,



waste and sewerage may be managed by a local Indigenous shire council. If the power goes out or

the water stops running, it is someone else’s responsibility to fix it.

These issues also affect the complexity of decision making. Informed decision making that considers

the local, environmental, social, human and financial contexts, and that considers not only initial

capital outlays but also management and maintenance into the future, requires local involvement.

The question is not just what technology to use, but how this technology can be managed and

maintained into the future, and what resources the community can draw on to support this (such as

access to service agencies, funds, etc).

For example, various technologies and management strategies are available to address the problem

of hard water. If a high-end technology is chosen, managing and maintaining the technology into

the future may be expensive and require specialist skills. In contrast, implementing management

strategies (regular cleaning of filters, changing taps, etc) is a cheaper and less specialised

response, which will promote local responsibility and skills development. Even in large communities,

encouraging residents to manage technology at a household level can increase the life cycle of

hardware and reduce the cost of bringing in external contractors.

Risks and limitations

Developing infrastructure in Indigenous communities involves risks, but the process can be highly

rewarding. The risks can be managed by taking into account your own limitations and the limitations

of the community.

Lack of community involvement

The community must be involved on any infrastructure project. If the community is not involved,

the project is less likely to have a successful outcome. There may be unforeseen reactions to the

infrastructure or the development may be inappropriate. Remember that stakeholders who live

outside the community may need to be consulted; for example, a traditional owner might live in

Darwin, but still speak for a remote community.

Lack of capacity to deliver

You must have the capacity to follow through and deliver on the outcomes of the involvement

process. Have a clear scope of work and a good understanding of your expectations of the

involvement process. Consult carefully with all stakeholders so they understand their and others’

responsibilities in carrying out the work. If training is required, make sure those who need to deliver it

can and will do so.



Consultation fatigue

Consultation fatigue results when there is too much talking and not enough action. Too much

community involvement without concrete outcomes can mean that stakeholders lose interest. The

community may already be involved in lots of different meetings and consultation processes —

understandably, a poorly executed consultation will not achieve community involvement and will

reduce the effectiveness of future consultations.

Lack of skills in cross-cultural communication

Cross-cultural communication can be tricky, and it is easy for misunderstandings to arise. If you

are unsure how best to involve a community, consult an organisation or individual with experience

in community involvement; this could be officers from the relevant government authority who may

already have good working relationships with the community. If you can work alongside another

organisation to manage your involvement with the community, your task will be easier.

Lack of cultural awareness

Non-Indigenous people may not be aware of Indigenous cultural protocols that vary among

communities. Understandably, communities will see cultural obligations as more important than your

infrastructure project. Get advice from a local, and be aware of cultural obligations, protocols and

communication as these will have an impact on any works that depend on assistance from

the community.

Limited time and money

Few projects plan for or allocate enough financial resources for community involvement. Including a

budgeted and scheduled community involvement phase in a project will ensure that you do not run

out of time or money. This phase will be money well spent, because it will reduce the risks associated

with getting the project completed on time to the satisfaction of the community and client. Well-

executed community involvement will also significantly increase the chance of the technology being

sustainable and reliably operated over its entire life cycle. Remember, community involvement can be

lengthy and unpredictable, or simple and quick, so allow for a degree of flexibility in project planning.

Recognising community involvement

It is too often assumed that community members will volunteer their time for the good of the

community. There are a number of ways that participation in consultation can be recognised, and

asking someone with experience, such as the resource agency or an Indigenous organisation, is the

best option if you are unsure what is appropriate. Acknowledging community member’s contribution,

such as putting on a barbeque for the community or providing references, can go a long way to

shoring up participation.



Limited transportation and mobility

Do not assume that community members are able to travel to any location for any meeting. It may

be a huge challenge for people to travel to meetings at their own expense. It is always better to meet

people on their own territory or to assist with travel expenses.

Transient workforce

People in key positions in remote communities may move on with little or no warning. Many

communities find it difficult to provide staff for key positions, and often jobs are filled by outsiders.

Staff turnover may occur every few years or even months. Do not rely on only one or two people for

the success of a project.

Steps for community involvementThis section sets out what you need to know about yourself, the community and the infrastructure

work so that you can plan and manage effective and appropriate community involvement. Take the

following basic steps to involve the community:

understand the community■■

determine what you and the community need■■

identify the type of involvement required■■

assess whether you need help■■

identify the stakeholders■■

seek agreement.■■

Understand the community

Ensure that:

you collate a general picture of how the community operates, who to talk to and who you are ■■

going to work with, before starting your project.

Factors that influence how to work with the community are:

governance arrangements (what organisations control different aspects of the infrastructure in ■■

the community)

land tenure■■

essential service delivery arrangements■■

housing arrangements■■

environmental and economic issues■■

culture and language.■■



Consider:

exploring the history of service delivery in a community, and gaining an understanding of planned ■■

future activities or infrastructure-related projects

gaining technical information from community members; do not assume that they lack relevant ■■

knowledge

accessing any (complex) networks of service providers who have an ongoing relationship with the ■■

community, such as

- regular contractors who are familiar with the workings of the community and may have

valuable information

- health service providers with an interest in your infrastructure from a health perspective

that arrangements can be complicated and will differ widely from location to location, and may ■■

also change regularly and without much notice; for example

- staff members may leave and not be replaced easily

- government policy may shift, which can have a profound impact on the community

- desktop research may provide information that rapidly becomes outdated; recent information

from people on the ground can be more reliable

talking to residents, local government, the Indigenous community council, regional land council or ■■

a government Indigenous Coordination Centre may be a good start in getting a picture of

the community.

In factoring community involvement into your planning, consider the following questions:

What investments (financial and human resources) need to be secured by all parties to facilitate ■■

involvement? Negotiate these upfront.

What is the history of the community’s involvement with their infrastructure? (For example, are ■■

community members accustomed to being involved in any aspects of the design, installation or

running of their infrastructure?) And how does this relate to their desire to be involved? Talk to the

appropriate agencies as outlined above.

What skills, assets and capacity to be involved does the community have?■■

What support networks are available to help facilitate community involvement?■■

What funds are available in your project to allow time and resources for community involvement?■■



Determine what you and the community need

The objective of community involvement is likely to be one that assists in helping you get the job

done in an effective and timely manner. The aim of the project should be reliable and sustainable

infrastructure that works well for the residents while improving quality of life and amenity. Community

involvement will help ensure this is the case.

If the task is quite simple, like repairing a malfunctioning bore pump, then the community involvement

outcome may be quite limited and straightforward. For example, if the pump repeatedly breaks down

you may need community members to help get a greater understanding of the problem rather than

just returning to the community to fix the same problem again and again.

If you are investigating a more complex issue, such as upgrading a water supply or addressing waste

management issues, the expected outcome may require a more complex level of involvement that

explores user or demand-side management issues.

In identifying the objective(s) of community involvement in a project, consider the following questions:

Do the stakeholders need simply to be aware of what you are doing or are you looking for a ■■

greater level of involvement?

How much does the community need to be able to know and do, to sustain the infrastructure?■■

Do you need certain community members or stakeholders to help you find out why an ■■

infrastructure fault or problem exists?

Do you need input from community stakeholders in order to make critical technical ■■

design decisions?

Do you need community stakeholders to make critical decisions on your behalf?■■

Do you need community stakeholders to take responsibility for the ongoing management of ■■

the infrastructure?

What resources do community members have to draw on for installation, management ■■

and maintenance?

What funds, either from user-pays regimes or grant funding, are available or can be generated ■■

over time in order to ensure ongoing maintenance of infrastructure?

What change needs to occur (in terms of who takes responsibly for what or in demand-side ■■

management) to ensure reliability and sustainability?



Example outcomes of community involvement:

Community council understands the problem with their infrastructure, the limitations of the ■■

technology and the way it will be repaired.

General community is informed about the progress of the development of their infrastructure ■■

and the discussions taking place.

General community understands the demand-side management issues and how to live with ■■

the limitations of the technology.

Community members or stakeholders help you understand a problem or system failure and ■■

how it came about.

Community and stakeholders provide feedback on issues of design, location and maintenance ■■

of the infrastructure.

Community and stakeholders identify infrastructure needs, and problems (potential or existing).■■

Agreements are negotiated as to the responsibilities of each stakeholder — from users ■■

(community residents) to resource agency (such as community council) to service providers

(for example, power and water company).



Identify the type of involvement required

The spectrum of community involvement ranges from information sharing to full and active

participation. Identifying the type of involvement desired will help you to identify what tools and skills

will be required. The following section outlines the types and techniques of community involvement

that might be employed, and provides examples of the social and technical outcomes and benefits.

Information sharing with the community

Information sharing keeps the community and its stakeholders informed about existing and potential

infrastructure problems and ongoing infrastructure projects and activities (such as maintenance

and management). As a result, community ownership of, participation in and satisfaction with

infrastructure increases (see Table A1.1).

Techniques:

easy-to-understand infrastructure guides or manuals, newsletters, posters about energy use or ■■

waste management, community meetings, trouble-shooting guides.

Table A1.1: Information sharing

Example of community involvement

Techniques Outcomes Benefits

Community experiences flooding from sewerage overflow. The community is kept informed about what is happening to address the situation, and discussion is promoted about possible causes and ways to prevent the flooding from recurring.

Posters, leaflets, community meetings

Community contributes to understanding of how the problem occurs, identifying the behaviours and practices that are leading to blockages.

Community understands more about their infrastructure, its limitations and how it will be repaired.

Community takes some ownership of the situation.

Community polices practices contributing to blockages.



Consultation with the community

Consultation is used in identifying problems and designing solutions; it involves information gathering

with input and feedback from the community to assist in decision making (see Table A1.2).

Techniques:

community meetings, transect walks (such as walking through the community with residents or ■■

managers to get a picture of water supply), interviews and questionnaires.

Table A1.2: Consultation


Techniques Outcome Benefits

New ultraviolet water-treatment systems fail. Community is consulted to find out why.

Community meetings, one-on-one conversations, meetings with appropriate people

Community did not understand the need to keep pumps running and the need to avoid dry run.

Solution: dry run protection valves installed

Potential unforseen problems and pitfalls are unearthed and further failures are avoided.

Community composting toilets are being contaminated regularly. Community is consulted to appraise the problem and identify solutions.

Posters, community meetings where the community discusses when and how the problems occurred

Community suggests visitors contaminated systems with rubbish and antibacterial cleaning agents because of lack of knowledge about use of the systems.

Solution: new pictorial signage is developed with community to install in toilets

Community is more aware of how to manage composting toilet systems and takes some responsibility for informing visitors.

Signage is developed with assistance from the community.

Costs of bringing in contractors to pump out toilets are reduced, and environmental health conditions improve.



Informed decision making by the community

Using informed decision making, key community members or stakeholders are provided with

information and then make decisions about their preferred infrastructure technology (see Table A1.3).

Techniques:

community/stakeholders control decision making or design with input from experts to inform ■■

choices and explain limitations (for example, technical advice might be given to a local steering

committee about technology options, the steering committee then makes decisions about

how to proceed)

training and capacity building, participatory design workshops, community-facilitated meetings, ■■

technical advice discussion papers.

Table A1.3: Informed decision making



Reducing water wastage: community identifies problems and their solutions through a process of research and discussion.

Photovoice (see Useful terms), participatory research (eg community researches problems themselves).

Community takes photos of where water is being wasted and, in a facilitated workshop, decides how to reduce wastage.

Community is educated in waste/conservation issues through process while taking ownership of solutions.

Community members are more likely to change behaviours.



Negotiation

In negotiation, the community and its stakeholders identify the infrastructure needs and potential

or existing problems. All stakeholders then work together on a level playing field to decide how to

address an issue (see Table A1.4).

Techniques:

collaborative and inclusive decision making, design or information gathering■■

stakeholder meetings, workshops, participatory research, mind mapping, negotiation ■■

roundtables, photovoice and other creative tools

negotiated service agreements, memoranda of understanding (MOU).■■

Table A1.4: Negotiation



Appraising waste management options: community works with project team to identify problems and solutions.

Community transect walk; time is allowed for those involved to think about and discuss issues; community meeting later explores the issues and potential solutions

Community members police litter problems.

Community takes greater role in managing waste and litter issues.

Sense of pride is established in keeping the community clean.

Choosing a new wastewater treatment facility: a working committee is established to provide feedback on possible design and siting.

Community meetings and facilitated workshops leading to creation of working committee

Working committee liaises with project team to negotiate key siting of facility.

Siting of infrastructure does not clash with future plans for land and is not sited on culturally significant sites.



Ongoing participation

Ongoing participation means that key community stakeholders are trained to manage aspects

of the ongoing maintenance of the infrastructure; the community is involved in maintenance and

management according to its capacity (see Table A1.5).

Techniques:

training, mentoring, regular newsletters, negotiated service agreements and division ■■

of responsibilities.

Table A1.5: Ongoing participation



Energy planning: decision making about energy issues and demand-side management. Training is provided to build capacity for ongoing trouble-shooting and maintenance of the energy supply.

Community meetings, one-on-one conversations and meetings, facilitated energy planning workshops, training and skills development and negotiated service agreements

The community assists in calculating an energy budget for each household; this allows a new generator of appropriate size to be purchased. The community is trained in generator operations and maintenance and has capacity to identify and organise major repairs.

New infrastructure addresses the actual need and serves the community.

New generator is appropriately sized for needs, reducing diesel costs.

Reliability of supply is increased through reduced outage times.



Employment, skills development, education and training

Identifying opportunities for employment, skills development, education and training for community

members is an important way to involve the community. If this is done well, community members

are involved in construction and ongoing management and maintenance of infrastructure, and

community members’ skills and trades are used in installation or repair of infrastructure (see

Table A1.6).

Techniques:

community labour, accredited training, apprenticeships, mentoring, informal non-accredited ■■

training.

Table A1.6: Employment, skills development, education and training



Local airstrip needs upgrading: training is provided to community workers to facilitate construction and ongoing maintenance.

Community labour, accredited training, apprenticeships, mentoring, informal non-accredited training

Community workers are trained in plant operations, and acquire appropriate licenses before and during construction. Machinery is hired from nearby Indigenous shire council. Local job network facilitates training and certificates for fencing gang working on perimeter of aerodrome.

Cost of airstrip upgrade and future maintenance costs are significantly reduced, as is the need to fly in external plant operators and contractors. The community has capacity to maintain airstrip surface and fencing. Community workers are employed in fencing on nearby cattle station. Plant operators have better employment opportunities within the mining sector.



Assess whether you need help

If you are unsure about leading community involvement processes, it may be worth considering

contracting a third party with experience in community involvement techniques and perhaps an

established working relationship with the community.

When deciding whether you, your company or your organisation have the right skills to manage

community involvement, consider:

whether you understand cultural protocols and customs■■

whether your skills and your relationship with the community are sufficient to undertake this level ■■

of community involvement

how well you understand the community you are working with■■

what aspects you need help with.■■

Identify the stakeholders

Generally the more complex a desired outcome, the more time you need to spend working out

who you need to talk to or who to involve. Usually a few meetings and phone calls with community

members will help you understand which key players are relevant. If you are unfamiliar with the

community, it may take time to get a complete picture of all the players involved with its infrastructure.

Be careful not to limit your discussions to one or two key people. It is a common mistake to

approach the person who speaks the loudest or who is the easiest to engage with, but they may not

necessarily be the most appropriate person. Spend more time and talk to more people, allowing time

for others to come forward.

Consider the following questions:

Who needs to be involved, when and about what? (Relevant questions include: Who owns the ■■

infrastructure, who uses it, is land tenure an issue, who are the traditional owners of that area?)

Who can help you identify the relevant stakeholders? Talk to agencies, organisations and ■■

government bodies such as the regional Indigenous Coordination Centre to get a picture, ask

members of your existing stakeholder list for suggestions and always get a local Indigenous

perspective.

What community issues and political landscapes will be important to consider when selecting ■■

participants?

What service delivery arrangements are already in place that may be relevant?■■

If there are external service providers for infrastructure, do you need to involve them ■■

as stakeholders?



Example stakeholders in remote Indigenous communities

Traditional owners■■

Community leaders■■

Land councils who may need to be involved■■

Native title representative bodies (NTRBs)■■

Other organisations who have had an involvement in that infrastructure issue in the past■■

Local employment program providers who may wish to be involved■■

Community or shire council (councillors, chief executive officers, technical services managers)■■

Resource agency (an organisation that supplies a range of services such as health services or ■■

housing to a group of outstations)

Health service providers who may be affected■■

Non-profit or non-government organisations (NGOs) working with the community (for example, ■■

Oxfam, World Vision)

Community businesses or enterprises (such as ecotourism ventures, market gardens, ■■

community store)

Government agencies who need to be kept informed (such as the Indigenous Coordination ■■

Centre or other administrators)

Government agencies with a special interest in that infrastructure system■■

Householders, community residents, visitors ■■

Other internal community groups (for example, women’s shelter, arts groups, youth ■■

organisations, justice groups, schools, church groups)

Users of the infrastructure — community residents■■



Seek agreement

The aim of establishing an agreement is to avoid conflict arising from misunderstanding or confusion

about the objectives of a project. An agreement can help establish the roles and expectations of each

stakeholder involved. It may be a formal contract but is more commonly a simple memorandum of

understanding or ‘MOU’. An MOU is a short document in plain English that identifies what each party

is expected to do or provide in their involvement (for example, in relation to governance, funding,

operational/working relationship, management and maintenance). All parties sign to show that they

agree to the MOU.

Consider:

making a formal agreement when using more complex forms of community involvement■■

the importance of being clear about what can and cannot realistically be done, to avoid later ■■

misunderstandings

how an agreement can be useful in laying the ground rules for communication and ■■

decision making.

Example content of an MOU

A contractor agrees to complete works to industry standard while providing training in ■■

maintenance and management procedures.

An Indigenous community council agrees to provide labour to assist with installation and staff ■■

to be trained in ongoing maintenance and management.

A local Technical and Further Education (TAFE) institution provides assessment and ■■

accreditations for skills learned during the project.

A project manager agrees to facilitate all meetings while acting as the key contact for any ■■

issues arising.

Key community contacts and processes for liaison and communication are identified (for ■■

example, the members of a working group are identified, with a key person to act as a

community liaison).

Processes for involvement are outlined — for example, regular monthly meetings.■■



Community involvement in practiceThere are several interrelated elements involved in community infrastructure projects:

appraising requirements■■

choosing appropriate solutions■■

installing infrastructure■■

managing and maintaining infrastructure.■■

A more detailed look at what community involvement might be like in each of these phases follows.

Please note that the information provided is necessarily generic and may not always be relevant to

your case. More specific questions and advice can be found in the community involvement sections

of each chapter.

Appraising requirements

At the appraisal stage you are getting to know the community and its needs, whether this is to design

new infrastructure or to investigate how a problem or issue arose.

Involving the community in this context will most commonly be a consultative process. In rare cases

where the issue is relatively complicated, you may consider more complex forms of community

involvement.

Ensure that:

an appropriate range of people is consulted or involved in meetings or other processes■■

any committees are truly representative and involve all appropriate stakeholders (including ■■

external organisations)

you understand the history of service provision surrounding your infrastructure issue — ■■

particularly if there have been misunderstandings between stakeholders in the past

meetings are timed not to clash with cultural obligations or other important business.■■

Consider:

using the appraisal stage to build the community’s capacity to understand how to better manage ■■

their infrastructure (for example, community members are assisted to research their waste

problem and to identify their own solutions for better waste management).

Avoid:

relying on one or two people for your information — often the people who are easiest to ■■

engage with will not have all your answers

assuming that one or two people speak for the community as a whole■■

speaking only to men; the women of a community will have critical insights into how problems ■■

may arise.



Choosing appropriate solutions

For some projects, you may be designing new or replacement infrastructure or improving or

expanding existing infrastructure. At this stage, when you are designing and choosing solutions,

you should also identify how failed components will be repaired.

There are various ways to involve the community at this stage. These range from simply keeping

the community informed about decision-making processes, to having key stakeholders within the

community provide feedback on design options, through to a more direct involvement in the design

process or control over final decisions.

Ensure that:

the community is informed and kept aware of decisions being made■■

appropriate stakeholders have opportunity to provide feedback■■

siting of infrastructure has been cleared with relevant stakeholders (including traditional owners, ■■

local council, residents)

service arrangements are identified with the community and are workable.■■

Consider:

using the design process as an opportunity to identify residents’ existing skills and knowledge ■■

and what they are doing already to manage and maintain their infrastructure

involving the relevant community members in the design process so that you design a system ■■

that the community can be involved in building

using the design process as an opportunity to train relevant community members in maintenance ■■

requirements, and to design infrastructure that the community has the capacity to maintain

themselves

involving the relevant community members in the design process in order to maximise local ■■

involvement in ongoing maintenance, so that the community has the skills and desire to maintain

the infrastructure with minimum outside assistance

using community involvement specialists or facilitators to assist with more complex forms of ■■

involvement in a ‘participatory design’ process.

Avoid:

designing infrastructure technology without identifying how it can be maintained in the ■■

long term.



Installing infrastructure

Installing or upgrading infrastructure can be disruptive to the community, and often communities are

not involved in the installation process. Skilled contractors are often brought in on a short contract to

build or repair infrastructure. In most cases, there are opportunities for community involvement in the

installation process that can provide a range of benefits. More and more tenders are calling for local

employment and training as a condition of the contract being awarded. These outcomes will become

a core condition of the majority of contracts in the future.

In order to maximise community employment and skills development, you will need to work

closely with local training and employment providers, understand their current work-ready support

mechanisms and their capacity to be involved. A greater degree of community consultation over an

allocated period of time will be required.

Ensure that:

possible opportunities for community employment and skills development are maximised■■

the community knows who will be where and when, and what work is taking place■■

community members are informed of opportunities for employment and skills development and ■■

have the opportunity to choose to be involved

local job placement providers are consulted — they will often see your project as an opportunity ■■

that is worth investing in

external contractors are aware of cultural protocols and sensitivities, especially community ■■

alcohol restrictions

timing of any works is appropriate for the community (ceremony, sorry business, etc) and has the ■■

flexibility to deal with unexpected cultural obligations.

Consider:

engaging a community works team to assist in installation — if appropriate■■

using the installation process as an opportunity to train and mentor relevant community members ■■

for ongoing maintenance and management

assessing whether there are training opportunities to assist members’ participation in ■■

infrastructure installation — registered training organisations working within the community should

be involved as stakeholders to allow them to identify opportunities

how to remove barriers to involvement (for example, if the project is in a remote location, ■■

assistance with travel and provision of food for workers may be required).

Avoid:

ignoring opportunities for direct involvement or skills development in installation and ■■

construction of infrastructure

consultations that do not allow enough time for community stakeholders or members to come ■■

forward with their desire for involvement.



Managing and maintaining infrastructure

The choice of technology is critical to ensuring the community has or can develop the capacity

to manage and maintain their infrastructure. If the technology chosen is culturally, socially,

environmentally and economically appropriate, it will open the door for community involvement in

operations and maintenance, which is important for ensuring infrastructure is safe, robust, reliable,

and ultimately sustainable into the future.

The level of community responsibility for infrastructure management will depend on the size of the

community and its essential service delivery arrangements. In some cases, the community will not

need to be directly involved in management (for example, a state utility may manage power or water).

In other cases, such as small communities and outstations, the community may have significant

responsibility for all infrastructure. Obviously, a community that has more control over its infrastructure

maintenance will require a higher level of involvement.

Ensure that:

you maximise the opportunities for local control of operations and maintenance where possible■■

you understand operations and maintenance arrangements, and the responsibilities of different ■■

organisations

you have a picture of the history of management and maintenance issues as well as what has not ■■

worked in the past

you draw on lessons of past failures or successes■■

you have a picture of the community’s existing capabilities and networks for accessing skills and ■■

service support before identifying pathways for involvement in operation and maintenance.

Consider:

devolving responsibility to the community for decision making about how best to manage and ■■

maintain infrastructure elements

working with registered training providers and job placement enterprises to identify training and ■■

employment opportunities and support mechanisms

developing a program to transfer skills for operations and maintenance to the community over ■■

time if required skills are not already available in the community

drafting a ‘division of responsibilities’ agreement and schedule that identifies maintenance tasks ■■

to be carried out by each party (including residents’ maintenance tasks, community resource

agency tasks and external contractor maintenance tasks).

Avoid:

relying entirely on external skills and contractors for all aspects of operations and maintenance ■■

— this is ultimately unsustainable both technically and financially.



Useful termsCommunity involvement Community involvement or engagement is the participation

of community members in an activity or project at some level.

Depending on a range of factors, this participation may be limited

(eg to consultation or decision making), or it may extend to an active

role in the installation, management, and ongoing operation and

maintenance of infrastructure.

Consultation A dialogue in which knowledge, advice and understanding is shared

between two parties, taking into account the interests and feelings

of both.

Demand-side management Actions that influence the pattern of use of a commodity, such as

water or energy, by the end users. Demand-side management is

usually intended to make supply and/or consumption more cost-

efficient and resource-efficient. It may involve either technology,

such as smart meters and energy-efficient devices or processes

such as awareness campaigns to advise or train users in

appropriate use.

This is in contrast to supply-side management, the traditional

approach to making the supply of a commodity cost-efficient and

resource-efficient, through measures such as user-pays pricing,

design of the delivery infrastructure, and load-shedding.

Indigenous Coordination Regional office of the Australian Government Department of

Centre Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs

Infrastructure The fixed physical assets used to deliver a service to a community

or region.

Life cycle In relation to infrastructure, the time cycle from procurement and

implementation of infrastructure through to its eventual disposal and

replacement.

Life-cycle cost The full cost of the infrastructure over its life cycle, including design,

procurement (capital cost), installation, operation, maintenance and

disposal costs.

Mind mapping A visual method of generating ideas (brainstorming) through starting

with a central idea and branching out from there through associated

thoughts.

MOU memoranda of understanding

Outstation A smaller community where one or a few families reside.



(Outstation) resource agency An organisation that supplies a range of services to a group

of outstations.

Photovoice A participatory method of community consultation that assists

people to give insight into how they view their circumstances. They

are asked to represent their community or point of view by taking

and presenting photographs.

Risk management The process of identifying the risks or threats to the success of a

project or the ongoing operation of an infrastructure service, and

implementing responses that are proportionate to the threats.

Stakeholders People or groups with an interest in the outcome of a project.

Transect walk A consultative method of information gathering, where the inquirer

and community member(s) walk along a given path through the

community (transect) to observe and record the location and

distribution of resources, features and land uses.



Further readingAHC (Australian Heritage Commission) (2002). Ask First: A Guide to Respecting Indigenous Heritage Places and Values, AHC, Canberra. www.environment.gov.au

ATSIC and DIA (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission and Western Australia Department of Indigenous Affairs) (2005). Engaging with Aboriginal Western Australians, ATSIC and DIA, Canberra and Perth. www.dia.wa.gov.au

ATSIP (Queensland Government Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Partnerships) (2000). Mina Mir Lo Ailan Mun: Proper Communication with Torres Strait Islander Peoples, ATSIP, Brisbane. www.atsip.qld.gov.au/everybodys-business/protocols-torres-strait-islander

ATSIP (Queensland Government Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Partnerships) (2003). Protocols for Consultation and Negotiation with Aboriginal People, ATSIP, Brisbane. www.atsip.qld.gov.au/everybodys-business/protocols-aboriginal

ATSIP (Queensland Government Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Partnerships) (2005). Engaging Queenslanders: Introduction to Working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Communities, ATSIP, Brisbane. www.getinvolved.qld.gov.au/engagement/guides/atsi/atsi.html

DECC (New South Wales Department of Environment and Climate Change) (2007). Aboriginal Community Engagement Framework, DECC, Sydney.

DIR (Western Australia Department of Industry and Resources) (1995). Working with Aboriginal Communities: A Practical Approach, DIR, Perth. www.dmp.wa.gov.au

DSE (Victorian Government Department of Sustainability and Environment) (2005). Effective Engagement: Building Relationships with Community and Other Stakeholders, Book 1 An Introduction to Engagement, DSE, Melbourne.

DSE (Victorian Government Department of Sustainability and Environment) (2005). Effective Engagement: Building Relationships with Community and Other Stakeholders, Book 2 The Engagement Planning Workbook, DSE, Melbourne.

DSE (Victorian Government Department of Sustainability and Environment) (2005). Effective Engagement: Building Relationships with Community and Other Stakeholders, Book 3 The Engagement Toolkit, DSE, Melbourne.

Gini L and Morris D (2005). Best Practice Models for Effective Consultation towards Improving Built Environment Outcomes for Remote Indigenous Communities, Final report no. 76, Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute, Melbourne. www.ahuri.edu.au

Tangentyere Council (2000). The Tangentyere Protocols, Tangentyere Council, Central Australian Division of Primary Health Care and Centre for Remote Health, Centre for Remote Health, Alice Springs.

Walsh F and Mitchell P (2002). Planning for Country: Cross-Cultural Approaches to Decision-Making on Aboriginal Lands, Jukurrpa Books, Alice Springs.

Wates N (2000). The Community Planning Handbook: How People Can Shape Their Cities, Towns and Villages in Any Part of the World, Earthscan, London.


Insert TAB A2


A2Project management

In developing or replacing infrastructure, regardless of the size of the project or the type

of infrastructure, sound management skills are needed, including:

good information-gathering■■

effective planning■■

strong leadership■■

clear communication■■

a wide knowledge base■■

sound relationship building.■■

Project management is about applying these skills to a specific group of activities and goals.

Stages of infrastructure project managementThe components (or steps) in good project management are outlined in the following sections.

Developing the concept

A project can evolve from a concept associated with a funding decision, strategic plan, architect’s

design, or simply from a good idea. The content and duration of this early phase may be informal

and will depend very much on whether the project needs to seek funding.

Some design work may be required, and the building and testing of a model or prototype

may be needed.

Ensure that:

funding is sought at appropriate times; submissions should be aligned with regular budgeting ■■

cycles of funding organisations

community members (such as the beneficiaries of the project) understand the level of ■■

commitment to the project from influential stakeholders to avoid raising unrealistic expectations

on the part of the community and loss of credibility on the part of the project’s promoters.


A2 Project management

Building on experience

If the outcomes of similar projects are available for consideration, learn from them. Other strategies

that build on experience include:

research and background reading at an early stage■■

wide consultation with stakeholders, colleagues, peers and others who have been involved with ■■

past projects

development of a trial or pilot project to gain knowledge without the commitment of large ■■

budgets.

Consider:

conducting and evaluating a trial or pilot before full-scale implementation, particularly if the project ■■

is based on a new concept.

Establishing clear objectives

Objectives help to clarify and publicise the thinking around the project. They also provide a

benchmark against which the success of the project can be measured.

Ensure that:

objectives are explicit enough that they can be measured, preferably numerically.■■

Building the project team

The size and composition of the project team depends on the nature and size of the project.

A project team might consist of only one person, the project manager. Teams may change as

projects evolve.

For larger projects, consider:

providing oversight by a steering committee of senior stakeholders who are independent of day-■■

to-day project activities.

Engaging the stakeholders

It is essential that stakeholders are involved, but the number of stakeholders will vary depending on

the complexity of the project. For example:

stakeholder positions in a project to build a new subdivision may be relatively simple, ■■

including only

- the developer’s team (which is guided by the developer’s objectives)

- the municipal authorities (who are guided by a clear set of established rules on what

developments are permissible)



stakeholders in a project to establish a tourist route on Indigenous land might include■■

- the traditional owners (who may not be resident in the community)

- residents who stand to gain income from the venture

- residents concerned about the intrusion into their privacy

- tourism authorities who are promoting the concept

- other authorities who may have an interest in potential environmental impact.

In the past, the model of project delivery in Indigenous communities has focused on the supply

side, with residents being unengaged recipients of services that are often developed away from the

community they are intended for. However, if resident stakeholders are engaged throughout a project

and their concerns are heard and addressed, a project can become more ‘demand responsive’. This

can, in turn, make a project more sustainable because residents have a personal commitment to

the outcomes.

Commitment can also be encouraged by regularly informing all stakeholders with progress updates.

Ensure that:

sufficient time is allowed, particularly in the early stages of a project, to build stakeholder ■■

relationships and trust

project decisions are explained clearly — be prepared to modify them if stakeholders raise ■■

legitimate criticisms.

Being conscious of time and budget

Most projects have an upper limit to available funds, which compromises the ideal of allowing

unlimited time for consultation and decision making.

Consider:

trying to anticipate the time and effort involved in consultation and decision making■■

that funders are usually more sympathetic if the case for allocating greater resources is well ■■

presented in advance, so that there are no surprises later in the process.

Developing the project plan

A complete project plan should contain at least:

a statement of objectives■■

a scope■■

an implementation plan■■

an operation and maintenance plan■■

a budget■■



resources (such as people, equipment)■■

a timeline.■■

More complex projects may also include:

a cost–benefit analysis■■

testing, inspection and quality assurance■■

a risk management strategy.■■

Managing risk

The classical approach to project risk management has three elements:

prediction of potential threats (such as extra cost, delays, failure to meet outcomes) and their ■■

consequences

assessment of the probability of occurrence for each predicted threat■■

identification of appropriate measures to prevent occurrence or to lessen effects.■■

Risk management becomes more formal as the size of the project increases. For large projects, the

consequences and probabilities of threats are estimated as accurately as possible in advance, so

that an appropriate level of resources can be directed to prevention and mitigation measures. For

small projects, it is usually sufficient to identify the risks, factor in mitigation action where it is judged

to be necessary, and allow a contingency in the budget and time schedule.

Conducting progress reviews and meetings

Progress in a project can be followed through meetings, typically working meetings of the project

team and progress reviews.

Working meetings may be conducted at regular intervals or as necessary, depending on the

requirements of the project and the location of team members. Decisions involving changes to the

project plan are not normally made at these meetings.

Progress reviews are less frequent, and are usually planned into the project time schedule from

the outset. They involve both information updating and decision making, as necessary. Steering

committee meetings and stakeholder meetings are of this type.



Key components of infrastructure project managementProject management in infrastructure and elsewhere should include flexible planning and detailed

documentation and should strive for sustainable outcomes.

Flexible planning

Few projects proceed entirely to the original plan. Even if all of the factors under the project

manager’s control are managed perfectly, the external environment may change unpredictably.

Weather events, accidents and changes to the funder’s or community’s priorities may make it

necessary to adapt the project plan.

Consider the following points:

If the project is divided into stages, with identified milestones to be met and signed off at review ■■

meetings before proceeding to the next stage, all stakeholders will be alerted promptly to any

unforeseen events or delays at a time when their impact is relatively limited. Consequently,

planning changes can be made as adjustments, rather than large and disruptive changes of

direction.

A contingency budget, based on realistic past experience can provide a cushion for unforseen ■■

events.

Allowance should be made in the schedule for the effects of extreme weather events.■■

Documentation

It is important to document the project because this process formalises the flow of information. The

larger the project, the greater the risk that ambiguity will arise as information is passed on verbally, or

that some stakeholders will miss out on essential information.

Documentation also provides ‘corporate memory’ (the body of knowledge held by an organisation),

which may otherwise be lost as personnel changes occur.

Some projects leave behind only the bare minimum of information, which may consist of the financial

accounting data only. This is not helpful for individuals or organisations in setting up similar projects in

other locations.

Ensure that:

project documentation includes sufficient detail to pass on knowledge about the project’s ■■

strengths and weaknesses.



Sustainability

Although it might be easier to package a project and measure its success solely in terms of outputs

or deliverables that are clearly visible — funders and implementers can then acquit and tidy away the

project files and move on to the next assignment — projects should instead be designed to achieve

sustainable outcomes. With this aim, ‘completing’ the project can be more complicated and can take

longer because outcomes only become evident after a period of time (and may be only loosely linked

to specific project activities).

Ensure that:

an independent, built-in evaluation stage occurs at a realistic interval after the active ■■

implementation period; this should concentrate on measuring sustainable outcomes.

Consider:

planning in two ways — separate the expected results into practical outputs and sustainable ■■

outcomes, and look for ways in which they can be measured independently.



The planning sequenceA general approach to sequencing the various steps that are involved in project planning and

execution is shown in Figure A2.1 as a flow chart.

Figure A2.1: General model for a community infrastructure project

Develop the concept

Establish objectives, scope and responsibilities, and a preliminary budget

Build the project team

Engage the stakeholders

Develop and plan the project in consultation with the community (include an implementation plan,

operational and maintenance plans, and a budget)

Develop a risk management strategy

Implement the project (conduct a pilot where appropriate)

Monitor progress through milestones Inform stakeholders of progress through

review meetings

Evaluate outcomes after a suitable period of operation

Build on experience from similar projects in a local Indigenous community

Examine sources of funding

Consider special or unique local factors (eg cultural appropriateness of the

location, climatic factors, distance from spare parts, maintenance expertise)

Cater for change (eg fluctuation in demand, community mobility)

Seek design and solution advice from people with experience in the

local community

Ensure suppliers are acquainted with any special regulatory requirements (eg land ownership, safety rules, easements, supply monopolies)

Document progress and decisions

Eva

luat

ion

Imp

lem

enta

tion

Pro

ject

initi

atio

n

Source: Centre for Appropriate Technology, 2009



Incorporating statutory and community planning

Project managers need to be aware that most land in Australia is covered by a statutory planning

scheme, requiring approval for developments. Each state and territory has its own planning

schemes and lease arrangements for communities and outstations — these must be understood

and incorporated into any infrastructure development. State and territory departments of planning

and infrastructure will be able to assist with any development-related enquiries.

All infrastructure development and management projects with Indigenous communities should

give consideration to long-term community plans before work begins. At the least, this process

will involve gaining understanding of community priorities and objectives for the next year, and

for five and ten years into the future. Refer to the principles of community involvement outlined

in Chapter A1, particularly as they relate to working with families, kin groups or relevant agency

groups. This approach increases the potential for creating or strengthening livelihood opportunities

in communities. It can also give project managers a valuable context in which to locate their

projects more sustainably.



Useful termsConsultation A discussion with a project stakeholder in which advice is taken

from the stakeholder and acted upon.

Contingency A plan or allowance in the project budget to cater for unforeseen

circumstances.

Evaluation A project stage that measures the successful outcome(s) of the

project. Evaluation is preferably conducted by someone other than

a stakeholder.

Pilot project The first stage of implementing a larger project in its near-to-final

form before extending it to a full implementation.

Prototype A working model, usually of a device or process, that may be used

in a trial project to test the concept but is not intended to be the

final form.

Quality assurance A process built into all stages of a project by which the quality of the

project outcome is assured, rather than simple inspection or testing

of the end result.

Risk mitigation Planned steps that are taken in advance to reduce or eliminate

foreseeable risks to the successful outcome of a project.

Stakeholder Anyone who has a stake in the outcome of a project.

Strategic plan A longer term plan (usually for the next 3 to 5 years) that describes

an organisation’s objectives for that period, and how and when they

will be achieved.

Trial project A small-scale project to test, learn from, and fine tune a new

approach before implementing it on a large scale.



Further readingCentre for Appropriate Technology (2006). How to develop a project for your community. Bush Tech #31, CAT, Alice Springs. www.icat.org.au/default.asp?action=article&ID=28

Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Techhnische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH. (1987–88). ZOPP — An Introduction to the Method, German Agency for Technical Cooperation, Eschborn, Germany. www.unescap.org/esd/energy/cap_building/renewable/documents/sppd/Presentation%20docs/pdf1/ZOPP/GTZ%20ZOPP.pdf

Fowler A (1997). Striking a Balance, Earthscan, London.


Insert TAB A3


A3Management and maintenance

Sound asset management practices can improve service delivery, inform strategic planning of

infrastructure (including demand management), increase value for money and reduce risk.

‘Asset’ refers to the physical components of a system, such as water, power or waste-management

systems. Such components may be any piece of equipment or tool, or machinery used in the

system’s operation.

From an operational point of view, asset management can:

inform suitable responses to changing service-delivery requirements■■

assist with prioritisation of repair and replacement cycles■■

provide evidence for changes in and choice of assets.■■

Effective asset management can, for example, provide data to support decisions relating to retaining

or replacing assets and identifying weaknesses in products or their performance.

Asset management can improve maintenance by shifting the cycle from a situation of persistent crisis

management to a strategic approach that focuses on service-delivery outcomes and long-term value

for money. Overall, this approach includes life-cycle costing of assets, and supporting activities, such

as training and education for staff and residents.

Asset management is government policy for the planning and management of state and Australian

Government assets. In some states and territories, it is a regulatory requirement for water and

sewerage service providers to prepare a strategic asset-management plan. This process ensures that

the service provider has detailed knowledge of the system, and increases the likelihood of continuity

of service.


A3 Management and maintenance

Asset management challenges for Indigenous communitiesThe capacity for people resident in Indigenous communities to undertake and record asset

management and maintenance varies considerably. In some cases, it is not possible to locate

historical information on assets, such as warranties, or to find out why certain decisions have been

made in the past. High staff turnover, changes in council or resident membership or transfer of assets

from one owner to another, can also contribute to poor knowledge of the system.

Particular challenges for asset management in Indigenous communities include:

fluctuating population levels and demand for services■■

environmental issues■■

- poor water quality and low water availability

- climatic variations

- dust

- the presence of feral animals

- poor access to services.

Successful asset management and planning assist with effective responses to emergencies, and with

financial planning for strategic asset repair and replacement cycles. Most importantly, effective asset

management can enable informed decision making in financial planning by Indigenous communities

or councils.

Objectives of asset managementThe purpose of asset management is to preserve and operate systems in a more cost-effective way,

with improved asset performance. In remote areas, asset management can increase the reliability

of asset performance by reducing the amount of breakdown time and increasing preparedness for

system failure. An assessment or system analysis of failure can also direct future investment for

improved asset performance and system reliability. Benefits include:

maintaining services that meet the needs and aspirations of the residents■■

maintaining and augmenting infrastructure assets■■

satisfying obligations imposed by regulators (such as standards required for effluent discharges or ■■

water quality)

delivering services efficiently so that the costs are effective■■

improving credibility and accountability for decisions and expenditures.■■



This chapter is based on a five-step process of continual improvement:

identification of service delivery needs■■

asset inventory■■

condition assessment■■

prioritisation■■

audit and review.■■

Figure A3.1 depicts the basic process, which aims for efficiency, reliability, sustainability and

affordability in service delivery.

Figure A3.1: The process of continual improvement in asset management

Identification of service delivery needs Condition assessment

Asset inventory

Prioritisation

Regular maintenance

Repair or responsive

maintenance

Replacement and disposal

Audit and review




BackgroundAsset management occurs against a background of user demand, ownership (often changing) and

legacy issues associated with assets, and occupational health and safety requirements.

Demand-side management

The underlying principle of demand-side management is that demand is moderated by the

willingness of the user to pay. For example, demand can be reduced by changes in behaviour

that actively manage the draw on supplies, such as turning off lights and fans when a room is

unoccupied, or closing doors and windows when using air conditioners and heaters. Demand for

power and water can be managed through employing more efficient hardware — fluorescent lighting,

power-efficient appliances, leak-free tapware, dual-flush toilets and water-efficient shower heads.

Demand-side management is most simply achieved through pricing mechanisms such that the user

contributes fully to the cost of supply. This simple model of ‘user pays’ rarely applies to Indigenous

communities. Low income levels and the additional costs of living and transport associated with

remote settlements mean that many Indigenous families struggle to meet weekly living costs and

would find it difficult to afford the full cost of essential services.

Ownership and legacy issues

Responsibility for funding the acquisition, management and maintenance of infrastructure assets

can vary between Australian, state and territory governments, which may have legacy and ongoing

responsibilities depending on the variety of tenure arrangements in place. Many communities

have infrastructure that was built at the time of land acquisition. The condition, function and

appropriateness of this infrastructure can be highly variable. There are cases where state and territory

governments have refused to take responsibility for the ongoing maintenance of infrastructure. When

that is the case, responsibility falls back on the bodies that have acquired the land: Indigenous land

trusts, councils, corporations and benevolent organisations.

Occupational health and safety issues

Occupational health and safety (OH&S) practices are directly relevant to asset management, as the

health and wellbeing of residents and workers in communities may be compromised if assets are not

well maintained or emergency responses are not implemented.

The OH&S issues may relate to:

working in confined spaces■■

hazardous facilities■■

use of plant, machinery and equipment■■



the management of hazardous substances and dangerous goods■■

licensing for specific duties■■

occupational noise.■■

The OH&S issues should be identified and remedial works or activities integrated into condition

assessments and repair or replacement maintenance schedules. Integrating OH&S priorities

improves the understanding of management, which is invaluable when purchasing goods

and equipment.

Indigenous corporations need to comply with Australian OH&S laws operating in each jurisdiction.

Compliance with the laws normally requires inspections of any works, depots or workshops and any

equipment that community employees are required to use in their work. The laws are administered by

OH&S authorities in each jurisdiction.

Asset managementTo manage assets, begin by identifying service and delivery needs and making an inventory, then

audit the inventory by assessing the condition of each of the assets.

Identify service and delivery needs

Asset management should be broken down into the components of each infrastructure system,

since individual parts will have a different operational or useful life. An asset management system

can enable managers to make decisions about investments and management to meet the particular

needs and aspirations for and within an Indigenous community. All systems lose operational capacity

over time. Asset management includes reviewing the system regularly to assess the performance

of the components and the effectiveness of the maintenance regime, and to consider options. The

capacity of the community or residents to operate and maintain the technical services, particularly in

more remote locations, is a critical aspect of asset management.

Typical questions for identifying service and delivery needs include the following:

What services are currently delivered to the community?■■

Are there any gaps in services?■■

What services need to be delivered and what resources should be available to support the ■■

delivery of those services?

How can essential service infrastructure maintenance and management be improved?■■

What plans are in place and how can essential services be modified to meet the needs of ■■

the community?

What resources are available to support an asset-management strategy?■■



Create a system inventory

A system inventory documents the location of an asset and its description. A basic system inventory

will list all components and should include the following details:

item description (make, model, size, design capacity)■■

location■■

condition■■

age or year constructed■■

service history and performance■■

remaining operational life (see below)■■

property title details.■■

Further information specific to water, power and waste services are outlined in the relevant chapters.

Assess the condition of assets

A system inventory is created by assessing the condition of each asset, including its components. A

variety of methods can be used to assess the condition of assets in a community. The resources and

skills available to the community will dictate the method of assessment. Table A3.1 lists some typical

assets and flags the tests or measurements relevant to each. Where possible, assess the condition

of an asset using a quantitative measurement or rating system or scale. A measurement is preferable

to a qualitative judgment, because it is repeatable and less prone to individual interpretation. Some

tests, such as power testing, should only be conducted by a licensed electrician.

Ideally, a condition assessment should occur during routine maintenance.

Consider:

creating a rating system with defined criteria for the assessment of each type of asset.■■

A sample rating system is shown in Table A3.2.



Table A3.1: Examples of asset condition assessment tests and measurements

Hou

rs r

un

Last

cal

ibra

tion

date

Effi

cien

cy/O

utpu

t cap

acity

/Flo

w

rate

Soi

l tes

ting

Load

test

Leak

test

ing

Num

ber

of b

reak

dow

ns

(Rem

aini

ng) l

ife e

xpec

tanc

y

Vis

ual a

sses

smen

t (co

rros

ion,

se

curit

y ris

ks, e

tc)

Num

ber

of c

ompl

aint

s

Water mains

Bore pump

Solar panels

Meters

Electrical switches

Road surface

Batteries

Generator

Landfill

Table A3.2: A sample rating system for asset assessment

Excellent As new; regular maintenance program required

Good Minor repairs required in addition to regular maintenance program (up to 5% of asset requires refurbishment or replacement)

Fair Needs major repairs in addition to regular maintenance program (10–20% of asset needs refurbishment or replacement)

Poor Near end of operational/useful life, frequent breakdowns, frequent maintenance and surveillance required (20–40% of asset needs refurbishment or replacement)

Needs replacement At end of operational/useful life (more than 50% of asset needs refurbishment or replacement)



Ratings systems should be based on data collected from maintenance records.

Ensure that:

a robust and consistent ratings system is applied■■

records of all services and details of contractors are kept■■

a list of required parts is included■■

manuals and supporting documentation are filed■■

seasonal effects are taken into account (for example, batteries tested at a consistent ambient ■■

temperature, roads assessed at the same time of year, solar panels tested under consistent

insolation conditions).

Consider:

including asset values, maintenance and replacement costs in the asset inventory■■

drawing a system inventory map so the system can be viewed as a whole by technical and ■■

non-technical audiences

discussing installation and service histories with residents if records of service history are not ■■

available, and documenting the conversations

creating a historical calendar of events including performance and longevity of assets, ■■

vulnerabilities (such as seasonal effects), maintenance regimes, costs and explanations of

investment decisions

developing an asset-management plan that strategically links maintenance with life cycle, ■■

including current, historical and future population levels

recording the quality and reliability of service from contractors■■

including survey information that can affect infrastructure, such as rainfall, topographical, ■■

cadastral or geotechnical information

obtaining ‘as built’ maps of infrastructure. These show the configuration (location, form, contents ■■

and dimensions) of the infrastructure as actually installed, and incorporate changes that have

been made since preparation of the original design documents

obtaining a serviced land availability program map (SLAP map) of your community, containing ■■

planning, engineering and topographical information.

Prioritisation of assetsThe prioritisation of asset replacement is typically based on the remaining operational life of the

components, although other decision-making processes such as gap analyses, life-cycle cost

analyses and risk assessments may be more helpful in the (sometimes) unpredictable remote

community context.



In the process to identify the most appropriate replacement or prioritisation system for an Indigenous

or remote community, factor in:

the importance of the component to the operation of the system■■

the threat to public safety■■

access to parts or servicing■■

improvements in operations and efficiency.■■

Remaining operational life

Examples of the expected operational life of assets for fixtures of water, wastewater, power, waste,

telecommunications/computing and transport systems are given in Table A3.3. The expected

operational life of a component is only indicative and may vary in remote areas because of extreme

climatic conditions. This measure provides a baseline for evaluating the current situation, assessing

performance, and prioritising and planning the repairs or replacement of an asset.

Table A3.3: Examples of the expected operational life of assets

Asset Expected operational life (years)

Potable and wastewater system fixture

Absorption trenches 10–20

Backflow prevention devices 35–40

Bore casing 25

Bore pump 10–15

Float valves 5–10

Gravity sewer lines 80

Manholes 20–50

Meters 15

Pressure pump 5–7

Rainwater tank (polyethylene/galvanised iron) 35–40

Risers 25

Septic tank 20–30

Storage tank (concrete/polyethylene/fibreglass) 50

Tank stand 50

Taps 1–2

Power system fixture

Batteries 7–8

Cabling or wiring 15–25

Charge control 6–10



Circuit breakers 10–15

Generator 8–12

Inverter 6–10

Solar panels 25

Telemetry and instrumentation 10

Waste system fixture

Landfill 20

Skip bins 10–15

Vehicles 6

Wheelie bins 25

Roads fixture

Kerb and gutter 50–80

Footpaths 15–50

Pavement substructure 50–100

Wearing surfaces 10–15

Communications and computing systems fixture

Computer network 5

Personal computer 3

Telecommunications cabling 10

Telephone handset 5

Assess remaining operational life by consulting tables such as Table A3.3 in conjunction with decay

curves and known installation dates. Decay curves such as the one shown in Figure A3.2 are derived

from statistical data and show that replacement of an asset should be planned to take place when

it reaches approximately 80% of its expected operational/useful life. Based on this information, a

community-specific table can be created to list the remaining operational life and the scheduled

replacement date for each of its assets.

(continued)



Figure A3.2: Typical condition decay curve for infrastructure assets

Decay curve after rehabilitation

Do nothing

Maintain

Rehabilitate

Replace

Nominated minimum service standard

0% 100%

1

2

3

4

5Failure

Con

ditio

n cl

ass

Excellent

Good

Fair

Poor

Very poor

% Useful life

Source: Queensland Department of Environment and Resource Management (2002)

Case study 1 — A simple process for asset-replacement planning

A community in South Australia used a remaining operational life table to prioritise their water

system assets. A simple table was drawn up that listed all the assets with the best available

information about age or installation dates.

Using the information from the table, a timeline was created with anticipated replacement dates.

The timeline was used by the community board members to plan finances and set aside funds for

asset management.

The simple timeline enabled the board members to discuss maintenance and management

options, and understand future asset-replacement requirements for the whole of the water

system. Funds were set aside to replace assets of high priority and consideration was given to

planning the refurbishment or replacement of assets that were nearing the end of their

operational life.



Gap analysis

Gap analysis is a comparison between the actual level of performance of an asset and the required

level of performance. The difference between the two is the gap that informs the action. Gap analysis

involves understanding whether an asset is suitable and can perform the task adequately. The

analysis may examine key aspects or measures of performance, including:

operational functions■■

maintenance■■

reliability■■

affordability■■

staff capacity■■

resource use.■■

It is preferable that the performance criteria are measurable, rather than based on personal

perceptions, although these should also be considered. An action plan resulting from the outcomes

of the analysis should be developed to address any shortcomings in service provision.

Life-cycle cost analysis

Life-cycle cost analysis can be used to compare options. It is a total cost comparison for different

equipment, system design, construction, and operating cost and maintenance alternatives, including

the up-front costs and all other relevant costs that occur during the operational life of an asset. Life-

cycle cost analysis includes the demands and effects of maintenance activities and cost of disposal

at the end of the life of an asset.

Costs incurred after installation should be converted to their present-day value, as various

maintenance, repair and replacement activities take place at different times for different options. Life-

cycle costing relies on predicting how rapidly components of the system will deteriorate and when

intervention may be required, and depends on numerous assumptions. Life-cycle costing can also

take environmental considerations into account (see Chapter B5 Energy).



Risk management

Risk management is a way to identify and mitigate the risks to the specified performance of an asset

throughout its operational life. The prioritisation process and operation and replacement cycles of

assets may be determined by the level of risk, which can be expressed as the impact an asset failure

would have on the community, combined with the likelihood of it occurring. The types of risks that

may be relevant for an Indigenous community include:

safety issues■■

public health matters■■

environmental issues■■

insufficient prior investment■■

inadequate community consultation■■

inadequate funds for preferred investment■■

inappropriate design■■

contractual disputes.■■

Ensure that:

the prioritisation assessment is checked against historical data.■■

Although it is likely that there will be data gaps, important information can be identified, such as

past mistakes in selecting an asset based only on lowest cost. Historical data may also provide

justification for the purchase of alternative equipment. For example, a seemingly oversized bore

pump may be justified if historical data show that previous pumps cannot perform the task because

of fluctuations in demand.

Calculate the remaining operational life of an asset by subtracting its age from its expected

operational life (see Table A3.3). Be conservative in your estimate, so that preparations can be made

for the replacement of the asset.

Consider:

whole-of-life-cycle cost ■■

including environmental disposal processes, such as engaging scrap metal merchants or ■■

recyclers to remove rubbish

engaging a professional engineer or seeking assistance from an environmental health officer to ■■

assess the strategies, procedures and actions for maintaining compliance to any required service

standards (such as specifications for water quality guidelines or power supply standards)

planning the anticipated replacement cycles of components to be less than the anticipated overall ■■

service life of the system.



Case study 2 — The value of life-cycle costing and risk analysis

A community in northern Australia had electricity supplied to its submersible bore pump from

the community mains. The power was supplied by underground wiring. The water supply failed

because an exotic pest, the Singapore ant (Monomorium destructor), had chewed through the

electrical cable.

The resource agency responsible for capital upgrades conducted an asset prioritisation process

involving a cost analysis to compare the alternatives of repair or replacement of the electrical

cable. Simple repair of the cable was expensive because the cables needed to be dug up and

the risk of another ant attack was high. A comparative life-cycle cost analysis demonstrated that

a small, stand-alone solar energy supply connected directly to the existing pump would reduce

the risk of future Singapore ant attacks, as the length of electrical cabling would be significantly

reduced. An additional benefit was the provision of a cheaper, more sustainable supply.

The cost of switching to a solar system was equal to the cost of repairing the underground

cabling. However, the long-term savings in diesel, combined with the reduced risk of another ant

attack, made the proposition worthwhile.

The asset-management cost analysis provided the evidence to seek financial support to proceed

with the capital works program.

Maintenance schedulingRoutine maintenance tasks need to be carried out at regular, predefined intervals, in addition to

unplanned or responsive maintenance due to emergencies, breakdowns or accidents. A scheduled

approach to maintenance might include routines that take place on a weekly, monthly, 6-monthly,

annual, 3-yearly or other basis. A scheduled approach enables:

scheduled servicing and repairs■■

the incorporation of OH&S aspects■■

cost contributions from residents towards community services or rents.■■

Consider creating a table with the frequencies of preventive (routine) maintenance tasks for systems

under everyday operation (Table A3.4). While elapsed time determines the maintenance interval for

most assets, the interval for machinery such as generators, pumps and motors should be based on

actual machine operating hours.



Table A3.4: Sample preventive maintenance (routine) tasks

Time interval between maintenance actions

System Activity Skills required

1 month Power Clean solar panels No particular skills required

6 months or 250 hours Power Service diesel generator

Mechanic

6 months Water Measure standing water level in bore

Community work crew

12 months Water and power Electrical maintenance Electrician

12 months Sewerage De-sludging septic tanks

Community work crew

Repairs or responsive maintenance should be informed by the condition assessment and conducted

on a needs basis.

Ensure that:

the maintenance schedule fits in with local community commitments■■

seasonal changes, such as population fluctuations and rainfall affecting access, are allowed for■■

roles and responsibilities for all parties (asset owners and operators) are agreed and linked to ■■

emergency, responsive and routine maintenance

management and maintenance is adaptable for times of low and high rates of occupancy■■

asset performance shortcomings are addressed through ongoing management until capital funds ■■

are available to replace the asset.

Consider:

where a community, building or the associated assets are expected to be unoccupied or unused ■■

for an extended period, the assets should be ‘moth-balled’ (that is, appropriately protected

and secured).



Replacement and disposalDisposal and replacement of an asset should occur when it is no longer performing adequately or

when its condition has deteriorated beyond repair.

When disposing of an asset consider:

safety ■■

salvage value■■

environmental considerations (such as recycling, correct disposal).■■

In Indigenous communities, budget asset reporting tends to be completed on an annual basis,

rather than over the life of the asset. As a rule of thumb, replacement and disposal of an asset is

required when the annual maintenance and running costs exceed half the purchase or replacement

costs. Often no budget allocation is made for replacement of any one asset item over the life of the

asset. Instead, a sum of money is put aside for emergency replacement. To comply with accounting

standards, however, each asset item must have:

a maintenance allocation■■

a depreciation allocation■■

a planned replacement budget using the saved depreciation amounts■■

an emergency replacement allocation for all assets for unforeseen replacement.■■

Standard accounting practices allow for the replacement of the asset items through depreciation.

Prediction of the costs for the life of an asset (including replacement costs) is consistent with

accounting standards for government assets. Asset management of government assets by

government bodies and agencies must comply with the relevant accounting standards (Australian

Accounting Standards Board AASB 102 — Inventories, AAS 29 — Financial reporting by government

departments).

Audit and reviewThe level of detail required for annual audits should be assessed according to the size of the

community and the scale of the services provided. A basic audit reviews the documentation,

logbooks and service reports, with an inspection of the infrastructure. A thorough audit includes the

identification of any maintenance deficiencies and, if possible, some testing.

A thorough maintenance audit may include:

review and analysis of maintenance systems■■

risk assessment■■

condition assessment■■



safety review■■

assessment of training needs for operators■■

review of funding strategies.■■

Depending on the resources available, an audit may also include a summary of operation and

maintenance costs. The costs may include infrastructure costs and social costs, such as the cost of

being without the service during periods of breakdown.

Ensure that:

time and costs for an audit are included in the budget■■

potential for overcharging by contractors is identified, particularly for maintenance of infrastructure ■■

that is well designed and low risk

findings and recommendations of the audit are summarised and reported back to the council or ■■

community, and are included in the annual report.

Consider:

scheduling the audit for seasonality■■

planning the audit within a maintenance schedule that coordinates with other communities in ■■

the region

including an engineering assessment of infrastructure and the provision of services.■■

Regular audits and reviews assist managers in identifying service-delivery needs. Regardless of the

size and complexity of the system, regular audits and asset management can improve community

infrastructure and services in a strategic and step-wise process.

Relevant Australian guidelines and standardsThe relevant accounting standards are available from the Australian Accounting Standards Board.

Standard Topic

AASB 102 Inventories

AAS 29 Financial reporting by government departments

Source: www.aasb.gov.au

Safety codes of practice (such as the National Standard for Plant NOHSC: 1010 (1994)) are available

for download from the Safe Work Australia website; refer to the Index of National Standards Codes

of Practice (www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/swa/HealthSafety/OHSStandards).



Useful termsAASB Australian Accounting Standards Board

AAS Australian Accounting Standards

‘As built’ documents Plans, maps or drawings that show the configuration (location,

form, contents and dimensions) of infrastructure as actually

installed. As built documents incorporate changes that have

been made since preparation of the original design documents.

Assets The physical components of a system, such as water, power

or waste management systems.

Cadastral information Mapping information showing land property boundaries and

ownership status.

Disposal costs The expected costs or return from the disposal of the asset.

Expected operational The period from the time an asset is first put into service until it

life/useful life requires replacement due to normal wear and tear, assuming that

regular maintenance has been undertaken on the asset during

this period.

Geotechnical information Mapping information showing the condition, material and properties

of the underlying soil and rock of an area.

Legacy issues Unresolved issues or continuing responsibilities that are passed

on to a new owner or responsible person. These may simply be

transferred responsibilities, but may also be problems, such as

high rates of service failure due to the obsolescence or inadequate

maintenance of equipment.

Maintenance and operation The funds required to ensure the asset meets the expected life

costs expectancy. The costs include regular maintenance activities,

running costs such as energy requirements, and unscheduled

replacement of parts.

OH&S occupational health and safety

Remaining operational The period remaining until an asset requires replacement due to

life/useful life normal wear and tear, assuming that regular maintenance has been

undertaken on the asset to date, and will continue during this

period.

Risk The chance of something happening that will have an impact

upon the service delivery. It is measured in terms of likelihood

and consequences.



Further readingANAO (Australian National Audit Office) (2001). Life-Cycle Costing Better Practice Guide, ANAO, Canberra. www.anao.gov.au

Queensland Government Department of Environment and Resource Management (2002). Asset Management: Asset Evaluation and Renewal Implementation Guide, DERM, Brisbane.

Safe Work Australia is an independent body supporting the Safe Work Australia Council, and is responsible for developing, issuing and maintaining standards, codes and guidance about safe work practices. www.ascc.gov.au

The Australian Accounting Standards Board (AASB) is the Australian Government agency responsible for developing, issuing and maintaining accounting standards that apply under Australian company law. www.aasb.gov.au

The New South Wales Government Asset Management Committee brings together government agencies and asset experts to ensure a whole-of-government approach to asset management and office accommodation planning. www.gamc.nsw.gov.au


Insert TAB PART B


Insert TAB B1


B1Water

Guiding principlesAccess and equity: Factors that most reduce access to water supply in remote areas are climatic

and seasonal (such as drought and dry seasons). Also, communities have been established in

locations, such as central Australia, where little water is available. To remain sustainable, such

communities will always have a restricted water supply.

Health and safety: A drinking water system should prevent hazards or contamination. The quality

and amount of water supplied to a community should be negotiated between the residents, service

providers and relevant government agencies.

Environmental health: Access to a safe and reliable water supply is fundamental for healthy living.

Those managing a community’s water systems should consider the community’s aspirations, and

the security and sustainability of the water supply.

Appropriateness: Choice and design of water system technology is appropriate when it:

blends within site-specific and regional management strategies■■

minimises the effect of identified hazards and risks■■

supplies the current and future water needs of the community.■■

Affordability: Capital and recurrent cost considerations should be considered when managing

water supply.

Sustainable livelihoods: Managing water supplies may involve some trade-offs to ensure that

the supply is reliable and sustainable. The quality and quantity of water available may vary due to

a community’s location and climate. A water supply is adequate when it provides a sufficient volume

of water at a suitable quality for the purposes for which it will be used.


B1 Water

Systems overviewIn the National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide, the term ‘water supply system’ refers to the entire

infrastructure — from source to tap. The components of a typical water supply system include:

water source■■

storage■■

reticulation■■

pumps■■

treatment.■■

Current service delivery arrangementsMost remote and rural Indigenous communities have water supplies that are considered ‘small’

or ‘private’ in a regulatory sense because they are not connected to a town supply. In the

2006 Community Housing and Infrastructure Needs Survey (ABS 2007), 209 of 1079 individual

communities (approximately 20%) were connected to a town water supply. Nine small communities

(communities with a population of less than 50) did not have an organised water supply (ABS 2007).

The sophistication of a community’s water supply is usually related to the size of the community and

the type of service:

Main towns■■ are usually on town supply, with water quality compliant with the Australian Drinking

Water Guidelines. The service provider treats the water and has it tested, possibly weekly

or monthly.

Major communities■■ usually have a locally sourced water supply, such as a bore. Often, major

communities have their supplies treated and managed by a service provider. The water may be

tested monthly or quarterly.

Minor communities generally rely on small or private water supplies; such supplies are rarely ■■

treated. In minor communities, supplementary supplies (such as a secondary bore or rainwater

tanks) for drinking or garden purposes are common. Few communities have their water tested,

possibly monthly or quarterly.

In larger communities (with a population of more than 100), a service provider (such as a water utility

or shire council) is usually responsible for delivering safe drinking water. The service provider must

report to the health agency that has the regulatory role for water quality in that jurisdiction.


B1 Water

The service provider must maintain the water system to ensure that the supply meets agreed quality

standards, and must have a management plan to ensure that the system works effectively. Someone

who lives in the community may be responsible for identifying and managing everyday risks, and

for alerting the service provider or similar authority if there is a problem with the water supply.

In smaller communities (with a population of fewer than 100), residents often maintain and manage

their own water supplies, and may share responsibility for managing risks and responding to

emergency situations with a resource agency or similar organisation.

State and territory organisations responsible for water supply arrangements and associated key

legislation are listed in Tables B1.1 and B1.2.

Table B1.1: Organisations responsible for water supply arrangements

State/ territory

Large communities (population more than 100)

Small communities (population fewer than 100)

NSW Local shire councils Local Aboriginal land councils

NT PowerWater Corporation; the NT Government monitors service provision

Outstation resource centre or community council

Qld Local shire councils Outstation resource centre or community council

SA SA Water on behalf of the SA Department of Premier and Cabinet

Outstation resource centre or community council, Land Council Works, Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara (APY) Services

WA Remote Area Essential Services Program (RAESP); service provision is contracted to three regional service providers that are either Indigenous organisations or Indigenous–private partnerships

Outstation resource centre or community council


B1 Water

Table B1.2: Health authority and legislative arrangements for large water supplies

Organisation responsible

Key responsibilities Key legislation and policy documents

Relevant drinking water guidelines

New South Wales NSW Department of Health

Develop standards for water quality for different purposes including drinking water standards and monitoring programs Monitor public water supply schemes according to the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (2004)

Public Health Act 1991 NSW Drinking Water Monitoring Program

Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (2004)

Northern Territory NT Department of Health and Community Services

Utilities Commission

DHCS sets standards and monitors compliance for drinking water under Water Services and Sewerage Supply Act 2001

Water Supply and Sewerage ACT 2001


Queensland Qld Department of Natural Resources and Water (Office of the Water Supply Regulator)

Regulate water supply activities Approve strategic asset management plans under Water Act 2000

Water Supply (Safety and Reliability) Act 2008

Department of Health encourages suppliers to meet Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (2004)

South Australia SA Department of Health

Administer and enforce the Food Act 2001

Food Act 2001 Drinking Water Quality Management System


Western Australia WA Department of Health

Health (food hygiene) Regulations 1993 The Department of Health advises on health standards for drinking water

Country Areas Water Supply Act 1947 Metropolitan Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage Act 1909 Water Services Licensing Act 2005


Source: Adapted from the National Water Commission (www.nwc.gov.au)

Relevant Australian guidelines and standards

The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (NHMRC 2004) are of key importance in water system

management. The guidelines incorporate the Framework for the Management of Drinking Water

Quality. Fundamental to the framework is a risk management approach that identifies all hazards

to a water supply and assesses the risk of harm from each hazard.


B1 Water

The framework promotes the use of infrastructure that incorporates multiple barriers as protective

measures. Multiple barriers are designed to reduce the incidence of water supply contamination.

Barriers in the design of infrastructure include concrete aprons surrounding bore heads, backflow

prevention devices or treatment technologies. Additional barriers include activities such as regular

surveillance and monitoring and measures such as the use of isolation valves to protect sections

of the water system while maintenance is carried out. Effective use of barriers in community water

supplies prevents water system failure and protects public health.

Priority should be allocated to reducing the hazards of greatest risk; however, small and incremental

improvements can be an affordable means to prevent water system failure, and can have an

enormous impact on protecting the water from contamination.

Other Australian guidelines and standards for water system management are show in Table B1.3.

Table B1.3: Australian guidelines and standards for water system management

Guidelines and standards Topic

ANSI/NSF 53 Health effects of drinking water treatment units

AS 14001 Environment management systems

AS 1477:1999 PVC pipes and fittings for pressure applications

AS 1657:1992 Design, construction and installation of fixed platforms, walkways, stairways and ladders

AS 2032:1977 Cover to pipework

AS 2070:1999 Plastic materials to be used in contact with food

AS 4020 Materials in contact with drinking water

AS 4360 Risk management standards

AS 4765:2000 Modified PVC (PVC-M) pipes for pressure applications

AS/NZ 3500.0 Plumbing and drainage

AS/NZ 4020:2005 How to test products that will be in contact with drinking water

AS/NZ 4348:1995 Performance requirements for domestic type water treatment appliances

AS/NZS 4766:2006 Polyethylene storage tanks for water and chemicals

Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (2004) Drinking water

Guidance on Use of Rainwater Tanks (2004) Rainwater tanks

Minimum Construction Requirements for Water Bores in Australia (2003)

Water bore construction

National Water Quality Management Strategy: Guidelines for Groundwater Protection in Australia (1995)

Groundwater protection


B1 Water

Involving the communityIn most communities, water supply management is shared: residents or essential service officers

(ESOs) carry out the day-to-day operation of the supply, and service providers carry out larger

maintenance tasks.

Small outstations generally do not have to report water management practices or compliance and

methods. However, ensure that your management plan for small communities includes:

availability of back-up support■■

contacts for emergencies■■

signs to alert residents to potential water supply contamination sources.■■

Plans can be developed using the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines: Community Water Planner

— a tool for small communities to develop drinking water management plans (NHMRC 2005). The

planner provides a systematic approach to water management, with the protection of the water

supply as its first priority. Using the planner, activities to reduce the risk of the most serious hazard

are conducted daily.

In large communities, health professionals, engineers and hydrogeologists are usually involved in

decisions about risk management.

Ensure that:

in smaller communities, community members are involved in decisions about risk management.■■

Appraising community requirementsMost communities will already have a water supply, so decisions will generally relate to upgrading

or modifying existing systems to suit changing needs or circumstances. Sources of water supply

and the water system design should meet both current and future needs of the community.

What are the community’s water requirements?

Consider:

Current supply

amount of water used■■

causes of peak and low periods of supply (such as water restrictions)■■

advantages and disadvantages.■■


B1 Water

Consumers

size and profile of the population to be served■■

predicted low and peak-load periods (for example, visitors or external users such as miners ■■

or tourists)

the health of the population, especially vulnerable groups (such as children, the elderly, those ■■

with disabilities).

Water source

likely uses of water (such as drinking, stock, gardens)■■

location of available water source(s)■■

quality and quantity of water at the source■■

cost of augmenting the water supply■■

recurrent maintenance costs of supplying the water.■■

Appraisal of water supplies should be done with a flexible approach that takes into account the

security and sustainability of the supply and the aspirations of the community. The quality and

amount of water available should be negotiated between the community, service providers and

appropriate government agencies. The final decision may depend on factors such as affordability

or community preference.

If the water is to be used for drinking purposes, the state or territory health department must be

involved to ensure that water quality complies with regulatory requirements.

How can water requirements be managed?

The minimum amount of water required for drinking and hygiene purposes is 50 litres per person

per day (L/p/d). Remote community water supplies are usually designed to deliver between 250 and

1000 L/p/d.

Both quality and quantity will affect decisions about water supply:

20–50 L/p/d of high-quality water is required for drinking and cooking■■

100–150 L/p/d of lower quality water is appropriate for bathing or washing, cleaning ■■

and swimming

higher amounts of poor-quality water are appropriate for outdoor uses such as landscaping, ■■

washing cars and firefighting.

A water system design that caters in this way for the differing water quality requirements is more

sustainable, reliable and affordable.


B1 Water

The sustainability of a water supply can also be improved using demand management, which

involves reducing the overall or peak demand for water. Measures include:

increasing the efficiency of the water system by reducing water loss (for example, repairing ■■

and replacing leaky pipes, tanks, taps and toilet cisterns)

increasing end-use efficiency by installing water-saving plumbing fixtures and hardware (such ■■

as AAA rated showerheads and dual-cistern toilets)

using several sources of water (for example, drawing water from a bore and harvesting rainwater)■■

reducing overall water requirements (such as diverting air conditioner wastewater onto ■■

the garden)

encouraging residents to contribute toward the costs of supplying the water.■■

This chapter outlines demand management options associated with each element of the water

management system; such options include installing water meters and taking a whole-of-system

approach to water management.

Additional information on demand management is provided in the National Indigenous Housing Guide

Part C1.

Case study 3 — Choosing a water supply

A small community in an arid region needed to make choices about their water supply. Drinking

water at the community was provided by large (20 000 L) rainwater tanks located at each of the

five houses. The water for all other uses was sourced from a bore. The water from the bore

was gravity fed to a storage tank, where a small pressure pump was located to pump water

to the houses.

The bore water was very salty and hard: the total dissolved solid or salt content was over

1800 mg/L (ppm). The hardness in the water caused excessive scale on taps, showerheads

and toilet cisterns. The scale led to leaks, and high water use meant that the small pump at the

storage tank was operating constantly. Eventually the pump burnt out.

The community was approached by a salesman who described the benefits of a reverse osmosis

(RO) water treatment system. The RO system would remove the salts from the water and relieve

the scaling and maintenance problems caused by the hard bore water.

The community discussed the benefits of using an RO system to treat the water. However,

once the up-front and ongoing maintenance costs were calculated, they reconsidered. The

maintenance tasks were significant; the energy requirements for an RO system would be high

and a contractor would need to change the filters and check the system regularly. There were

also environmental considerations, such as how to dispose of the concentrated salty wastewater

stream from the unit on their small property.


B1 Water

(continued)

The community compared the maintenance requirements of the current untreated water supply

to a situation that included the RO unit. They decided that a regular routine of replacing taps and

showerheads would be significantly cheaper. They realised that maintenance had been neglected

and that there was nobody in the community who had the skills to do it regularly. The community

members participated in a basic plumbing training course, then purchased plumbing hardware

and replaced parts themselves.

Choosing appropriate solutionsThe environmental conditions and location of a community are the most important factors for a water

supply. The quality, quantity and reliability of the water will influence all further decisions about the

water system.

Most communities will not require a new water supply system; most will only require repairs or

upgrades. This section provides information on water system components, emphasising that water

supplies should meet the needs of the community and meet minimum standards. The National

Indigenous Housing Guide provides information on housing-specific areas, including rainwater

harvesting and housing hardware (such as taps and isolation valves) — see Parts B1, B4 and C1.

Water sources

Water sources can be broadly categorised as surface water and groundwater.

Surface water

Surface water includes lakes, rivers, dams and rainwater. Potential hazards are:

growth of blue-green algae■■

high levels of microorganisms■■

high levels of organic matter (for example, broken down plant and dirt particles)■■

high levels of turbidity■■

activity in the catchment that creates pollution (such as herbicides, septic tanks and ■■

fire retardants).


B1 Water

The hazards and risks can be reduced by understanding the activities within the catchment.

Information is needed on:

catchment (size, geology and soils, topology and drainage patterns)■■

rainfall, meteorological and weather patterns■■

vegetation■■

animal populations (native, feral and domestic)■■

water flow■■

barriers (for example, fencing)■■

water quality tests■■

previously contaminated sites.■■

This information can provide a baseline so that seasonal variations in water quality and flow can

be anticipated. The effects of unusual events, such as floods, can be anticipated by using historical

data.

Establishing a baseline for data about water sources is an important aspect of the management of

water supply.

The water system design for surface water must include multiple barriers such as intake screens

and disinfection.

Ensure that:

licence requirements are considered (where applicable) when pumping water from a river or creek■■

intake screens are fitted for any surface water supply (such as a river intake or spear) and on ■■

submersible bore pumps (if there is no slotted casing on the bore)

disinfection is included in the water system design■■

the water source is fenced.■■

In most remote communities, rainwater is used either for drinking or to supplement the main supply

for outdoor uses. Rainwater harvesting involves capturing water from a roof. Information required

to design systems for rainwater harvesting includes:

rainfall data for the region■■

measurement of the roof area■■

condition of the roof area■■

water storage capacity■■

daily consumption rate for intended use (for example, drinking or gardening).■■


B1 Water

Ensure that:

gutters and pipes are large enough to handle maximum expected rainfall■■

barriers are installed (such as first flush devices, gutter guards, settling tanks)■■

storage capacity is sized for intended use (for example, drinking or gardening)■■

tanks have screens on all outlets.■■

Consider:

water treatment if the water is used for drinking purposes■■

a water level indicator.■■

For further information, including descriptions of rainwater tank fittings, design and specifications,

see the National Indigenous Housing Guide Part B4.

Rainwater harvesting is most effective when the water is used between rainfall events so that the

tanks can refill during rainfall events.

Ensure that:

the following maintenance tasks are conducted regularly■■

- clean gutters and empty first flush devices

- inspect and clean tank and roof area

- disinfect the water after maintenance (such as sludge removal) or problems with the water

quality (such as a dead animal in the tank).

Groundwater

Groundwater includes bores and springs. Bores tap into aquifers and aquifers are affected by the

surrounding rock formation: quartz, sandstone, limestone, fractured granite or other rock. Each of

these will affect an aquifer differently. In general, there are two types of bore: shallow and deep. Bores

in northern Australia are similar to soaks, because they are generally shallow and are heavily affected

by rainfall.

Hazards and risks of groundwater include:

high levels of chemical contamination■■

sewage contamination■■

animal wastes■■

industrial pollution■■

seepage from landfill (rubbish tips)■■

polluted stormwater.■■


B1 Water

Be conservative when estimating the amount of groundwater available due to the risks of

over-pumping and contamination; any resulting damage will incur high costs. Conduct a

comprehensive assessment of the potential hazards and risks of the bore. Information required

about a bore includes:

location■■

registration number■■

date drilled■■

depth (total depth and water level)■■

pump level and standing water level■■

casing construction and diameter■■

pump test data and water flow (in litres per second)■■

safe yield (in litres per second)■■

technical drawing of bores in region and strata information■■

water-quality tests■■

historically contaminated sites.■■

Bores should only be drilled by a licensed driller, in accordance with the National Minimum Bore

Specifications. This should include an airlift test and a pump test. The most common bore casing

materials are listed in Table B1.4.

Table B1.4: Common bore casing materials

Material Advantages Disadvantages

Unplasticised polyvinylchloride (uPVC)

cheap and resistant to ■■

corrosioneasily damaged■■

Fibreglass reinforced plastic (FRP)

strong and resistant to ■■

corrosionmore expensive than uPVC■■

Steel very strong■■ easily corroded in ■■

some areasusually used in deep bores■■

Information on all registered bores, including depth, casing material, water quality and flow rates is

generally available at the relevant state or territory natural resource or environment department. Note

that this information originates from drilling records and is limited by the requirements of that activity.


B1 Water

Ensure that:

extraction licences comply with the state or territory water Act■■

a concrete apron or plinth of at least 1 square metre in area is built around the bore head■■

the bore is fenced■■

the headwork and surrounds are sealed and well drained to prevent contaminants from entering ■■

the gap between the pump column and casing

the source is located uphill and at least 250 metres away from any wastewater disposal system, ■■

such as a septic tank or soakage trenches

a sampling tap is installed.■■

Consider:

testing the soil for iron bacteria if in northern Australia (iron bacteria are more common in northern ■■

Australia; they discolour the water, make the water taste and smell unpleasant and produce thick

slime layers that can block submersible pumps and other components of the water system)

installing a pressure gauge■■

designing the system to allow disinfection (particularly for shallow bores).■■

Management and maintenance

Keep accurate records of bore performance, including weekly readings from the water meter, ■■

of the flow rate and of when the pump is run.

Measure the standing water level (SWL) in a bore twice each year and compare measurements ■■

with previous data to calculate how much water is used and whether the source is being

depleted (that is, the extraction rate is faster than the recharge rate). To measure the SWL, wait

until the pump has stopped and the water level has had time to recover (usually a few hours).

Lower a weighted cord (such as a fishing line) down the bore until you hear the splash. Mark

the cord at ground level. Pull the cord out of the column and measure the length. SWL or water

depth is this measured length below ground level.

If the volume of water pumped decreases over time, check the total bore depth by dropping a ■■

weighted cord into the bore until it hits the bottom. If the total depth decreases over time, the

bore may be silting up.

If there are problems with the bore, use a process of elimination to discover the cause. First pull ■■

the pump out of the bore (‘pull the bore’), then examine the motor and measure the SWL and

total bore depth.

Water is held for less time in shallow bores than in deep bores. Shallow bores are therefore more ■■

likely to be contaminated by bacteria, because there is less time for sand to act as a natural filter.

When managing a shallow bore, consider the effect of seasonal changes and whether disinfection

is required.


B1 Water

Case study 4 — Selecting a solar pump to increase water supply

A small community in the north of Australia drew their water supply from a shallow bore. The

standing water level was 7 metres below ground level and the flow rate was 0.5 litres per second.

The water was pumped to the community each morning for about an hour using a portable

diesel generator.

The community sought advice because the water pumping regime could only just provide enough

water for the daily community needs. In addition, the community recognised the hazard to the

water supply from potential fuel spills. The bore head was not adequately protected to prevent

any fuel spills from entering the bore column and contaminating the water source.

The community decided to invest in a solar pump because it could operate all day and maximise

the extraction rate for a bore with a low flow rate. Switching to a solar pump would also lower the

ongoing fuel costs. The increase in pumping time meant that the community could increase their

storage capacity and have stored water available for cloudy days or for emergencies.

The community successfully applied for a grant to fund the change to a solar pump, but kept

their portable generator for backup. They erected additional storage tanks. To protect the bore,

a concrete apron was built around the bore head with bunding to capture any fuel spills from the

generator.

Benefits to the community include preventive water management through the improvements at

the bore, a saving of at least an hour each day in labour to pump the water and greater water

security through additional storage capacity. The additional water storage provides security if the

water supply requires maintenance or water is needed for firefighting.

Storage (tanks)

Design

Tanks are most commonly made from plastic, galvanised iron, concrete, steel (with liners) or

fibreglass. Polyethylene (poly) tanks are used increasingly in remote areas; poly tanks don’t require

protection from corrosion, are light to freight and have a predicted longer lifespan than

galvanised iron.

Ensure that:

tanks are sized with excess capacity to■■

- provide backup water if supply is interrupted (for example, if a pump breaks)

- provide supply for emergencies (such as firefighting)

- increase the amount of time water is held in the tank, allowing sediment to settle

- provide for unexpected increases in demand

- allow for long-term community plans.


B1 Water

tanks are sized to store at least 2 days’ water supply; up to 7 days is preferable (see storage ■■

capacity requirements in Tables B1.5 and B1.6).

Table B1.5: Storage capacity required for 2-day supply (kilolitres)

Consumption (litres per person per day)

Population (max) 100 200 300 400

10 people 2 4 6 8

20 people 4 8 12 16

50 people 10 20 30 40

100 people 20 40 60 80

200 people 40 80 120 160

500 people 100 200 300 400

Table B1.6: Storage capacity required for 7-day supply (kilolitres)

Consumption (litres per person per day)

Population (max) 100 200 300 400

10 people 7 14 21 28

20 people 14 28 42 56

50 people 35 70 105 140

100 people 70 140 210 280

200 people 140 280 420 560

500 people 350 700 1050 1400

Hazards that may damage tanks include animals, high winds, earth tremors and flooding. To reduce

the effect of hazards:

support tanks with earth rings, concrete plinths or stands■■

secure tanks with wire ties or bolts■■

site the tanks above predicted flood levels.■■

The tank design must be secure but it must also allow for safe and regular maintenance such as

cleaning or disinfection.


B1 Water

Ensure that:

overflow outlets direct water away from the tank so the base is not undermined■■

isolation valves are installed so the water can be isolated when pipes are cleaned or fixed■■

the tank area is fenced to protect the water system from damage by animals, cars or vandalism■■

the lid is secure.■■

Consider:

installing the following features■■

- a water level reading device (such as a transparent pipe fitted externally) so that lids need

to be removed less often

- a float level indicator

- a ladder and platform to enable safe access, and provide an area for maintenance

- cages, landings and a fence with a gate that can be locked

- dual tanks that can be isolated in case of failure or maintenance

- a sampling tap

following AS 1657:1992■■ — Design, construction and installation of fixed platforms, walkways,

stairways and ladders when designing, constructing and installing fixed platforms, walkways,

stairways and ladders (cost may be a limiting factor).

Installation

In gravity-fed systems, elevation determines the water pressure. One metre of height or head equals

10 kilopascals (kPa) of static head pressure (Figure B1.1).

Figure B1.1: Specifications for a gravity-fed watertank

3 metres4 metres

15 metres

Pipe to community

Height 18 metres of head equals 180 kPa of

static head pressure

15 metres

Water level



B1 Water

Site tanks a minimum of two metres above the highest outlet and five metres above what is known

as the ‘most hydraulically disadvantaged’ outlet. Note that the most disadvantaged outlet may not

always be the outlet furthest from the tank. For example, there may be a number of other outlets

along a pipe or a washing machine at an intermediate outlet that can interrupt water flow; these

can make an outlet more ‘disadvantaged’ than the one furthest from the tank.

Siting tanks on a hill or on high ground will eliminate the need for a large stand. For ease of

maintenance and access, avoid siting tanks on the roofs of structures in the settlement (Figure B1.2).

Figure B1.2: Ideal siting of a watertank

Hei

ght (

met

res) 0

1

2

3

4

5

Water level

Base of tank is situated a minimum of 2 metres above highest outlet (solar hot water system) and 5 metres above furthermost outlet (stock trough)


Maintenance

All tanks have a limited life span; however, some can last 25 years or more with correct maintenance.


B1 Water

Reticulation

Pipes

Groundwater is often acidic, and can leach metals from metallic pipes and taps. Plastic pipes are

recommended for cold water reticulation and for corrosive water or hard water. The most commonly

used plastics are unplasticised polyvinylchloride (uPVC), low-density polyethylene (alkathene),

medium-density polyethylene (MDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE) (often called ‘poly’ or ‘blue

line’) and polybutylene. Modified PVC pressure pipe is interchangeable with uPVC.

Consider:

the following features when selecting pipes■■

- application (pressure versus gravity)

- affordability

- availability in the size required

- robustness for outdoor and high sun exposure applications

- strength for trenching and loads

- flexibility and ease of laying

- ease of connection

selecting oversized pipes initially so that pipes do not need to be replaced if the tank size is ■■

later increased.

Pipe diameters are usually up to 75 millimetres (DN75 or ‘diameter nominal’) for main reticulation in

small communities and DN100 in larger communities, with DN25 pipes for the branch to a household

and DN19 pipes for the branch to the hot water system (Table B1.7). In some hard-water areas, ‘blue

line’ pipe is recommended from the water meter to the house. Reticulation to the community should

use plastic pipes for cold water and copper or copper and polybutylene pipes for hot water. The

pipes throughout the reticulation system should be the same. All pipework should be designed to at

least standard class 12 PVC (pressure rated to 120 pounds per square inch).

Table B1.7: Typical pipe diameters for community water distribution

Community size Main Branch

1–2 houses DN40 DN25



20+ houses Minimum DN100 DN25


B1 Water

As communities and outstations grow, the demands on reticulation increase. Most communities and

outstations have a low head pressure of between 45 and 90 kilopascals (equivalent to 4.5 metres

and 9 metres of head). Larger pipes reduce the loss of head pressure between storage and outlet,

and allow greater volume of flow for the available head. As communities grow, most will need to

upgrade their reticulation. The material cost of increasing pipe size is usually small compared to the

total cost of installation, so it is better to oversize water mains than to install the minimum size.

Water main identification markers (either bollards or concrete markers) should be installed every

200 metres and at change of direction. Bury pipes at least 450 millimetres from the source to the

storage tank to reduce damage from fires, animals and cars. Pipes may also need to be buried to

keep water cool. Other cover requirements are provided in Table B1.8.

When replacing reticulation systems, end-of-life PVC pipes are generally left in place (consider

AS 2032:1977 — Code of practice for installation of UPVC pipe systems for cover to pipework).

Table B1.8: Cover required for buried pipes

Loading Cover (mm) top of pipe to ground

No vehicular loading 300

Incidental vehicle traffic (ie not a roadway) 450

Sealed roadway 600

Unsealed roadway 750

Ensure that:

pipe diameters are 40–50 millimetres for small communities and DN100 for larger communities■■

detailed drawings of pipework are provided to residents and service providers■■

pipes are covered to at least 300 millimetres■■

pipes are suitable for the quality of the available water■■

access points are available so the distribution can be cleaned regularly (for example, flushed ■■

and scoured).

Consider:

burying identification tape that can be detected by metal detectors 150–200 millimetres above ■■

the pipework, so that the pipework can be easily located

oversizing water mains to allow for population growth■■

covering pipes from the source to the storage tank at 450 or 600 mm■■

installing sampling taps at appropriate locations around the reticulation system■■

using stainless steel for fittings and above-ground pipes for water systems in northern Australia, ■■

because the water is often acidic in these areas.


B1 Water

Fittings

Fit water meters at the source and end points in the pipe system (such as at houses). Reading the

water meters regularly and recording the results will provide valuable information about the amount

of water used in the community. This information can also help identify and locate water loss in the

pipelines.

An isolation valve should be fitted at every house to allow the water to be cut off for maintenance or

repair. Isolation valves can be fitted near the water meter (below ground with a concrete pad around

the valve) or above ground (firmly saddled to the wall near the wet areas of the house). (For details on

isolation valves, see the National Indigenous Housing Guide Part B1.)

Backflow prevention devices should be installed between the drinking water tap and any place where

the water supply is connected to equipment containing chemicals (such as treatment systems) or

other potential sources of contamination, including low water flow outlets (such as animal troughs).

Ensure that:

a water meter is fitted at every house■■

an isolation valve is fitted on each water meter■■

overhead fill points and flushing points are provided to assist with firefighting■■

only licensed companies install fire hose reels■■

all plumbing materials used in the water supply are approved for use with drinking water and ■■

certified to the appropriate Australian standards

backflow prevention devices comply with standards to manage backflow/cross-connections.■■

Consider:

fitting isolation valves at each house and at the water meter■■

installing a backflow prevention device with a meter and isolation valve at the house boundary, to ■■

prevent water returning to the main from the house.

Maintenance

Intake screens can become clogged with debris and require regular cleaning.

Pumps

Pumps lift and move water from the source to the storage tank.

Above-ground bore pumps come in a variety of forms and usually rely on creating a partial vacuum

on their inlet side to ‘suck’ or draw the water up from the bore source, using atmospheric pressure

on the groundwater body to displace water into the vacuum chamber.

Below-ground submersible bore pumps sit in the groundwater body and ‘push’ the water up to

ground level and through pipework to the destination. Pumps used for community applications are


B1 Water

often selected to suit low flow rates and powering from renewable energy sources such as solar

photovoltaic DC (direct current) systems.

Pumps can also be used to boost the pressure in the distribution system for water treatment or

for household services (for example, solar hot water systems installed on the roof). For household

services, a pressurised line with a pressure switch to control the pump is suitable.

Seek specialist advice when selecting a pump. The information required to select an appropriate

pump is (see Figure B1.3):

the height difference or water depth between the standing water level and ground level■■

the height difference between the ground level at the pump site and the end point (such as the ■■

tank inlet for gravity systems) or the highest point (see ‘elevation of difference’ label in the diagram

below)

the maximum flow rate required through all possible outlets and the minimum pressure required ■■

at the outlets (for pressurised in-line systems); estimate the length and diameter of the pipeline on

both the suction and delivery sides of the pump to find the friction head

the number of pipe fittings along the pipeline■■

whether control systems are installed.■■

Figure B1.3: Information required to select an appropriate pump

To community Elevation of difference

Water depth

Standing water levelPump

Bore and pump



B1 Water

Tools to assist with pump sizing and selection are available free of charge on the internet.

The information required to select pumps for pumping water out from a storage tank is the:

daily flow out of the tank■■

internal diameters and types of pipe■■

total length of pipes on both the suction and discharge sides of the pump.■■

In areas where the water temperature is high, pumps should be constructed from heat-resistant

materials. If the water is corrosive, the pump should be made from resistant materials. Check the

pH of the water and consider the information in Table B1.9 as a general rule, although other pump

materials are available.

Table B1.9 Recommended pump materials for different water quality

Water quality pH Pump material

Acidic 5–6.5 Stainless steel with poly fittings

Neutral 6–8.5 Cast iron with bronze fittings

Alkaline or hard water 8.5 and above Cast iron or stainless steel

Treatment

Water treatment and regular testing can form an important part of a water management plan. Water

treatment can reduce hazards while water testing can verify that water systems and management

plans are operating properly. However, regular treatment and testing may not be affordable in a small

community, especially if there is a good-quality water source and an effective management system. In

every situation, the first priority is to comply with the risk management principles of multiple barriers,

regular surveillance and prompt action in response to any hazard or water contamination event.

The Community Housing and Infrastructure Needs Survey (ABS 2007) found that drinking water

was treated in only 141 of 1079 individual Indigenous communities; 80% of these communities used

chlorination to treat the water, while 164 of 1079 communities had water samples tested regularly.

Water treatment includes procedures (such as shock chlorination) and technological systems to

make the water suitable for human consumption and use. The most suitable treatment process

depends on the quality of the raw water.

In small communities, water treatment usually involves removing a specific type of contaminant

rather than using a comprehensive treatment system. In remote areas, it is often more affordable to

treat only a small amount of water to a high quality for drinking (for example, by using in-line filters at

the house); lower quality water can be used for other purposes. For additional information on water

quality and treatment, see the National Indigenous Housing Guide Part C1.


B1 Water

Treatment may be a short-term measure to deal with supply contamination or an ongoing

requirement. Treatment must be part of a whole-of-system multiple barrier approach; treatment

alone is insufficient to guarantee that a water supply will stay safe or will consistently deliver

high-quality water.

Before installing water treatment technologies, consider other less expensive options such as diluting

or ‘shandying’ the supply, or supplementing a water source with an additional supply (such as a

rainwater tank).

Disinfection is the most important type of water treatment because microbiological contamination

is the most acute risk to human health. The most common methods of disinfection in communities

are ultraviolet radiation and chlorination (Table B1.10). Chlorination can be supplied in three forms:

gas, sodium hypochlorite solution or calcium hypochlorite powder. Chlorination is considered the

most cost-effective disinfectant and is highly successful at killing bacteria. Manual dosing of sodium

hypochlorite is considered the cheapest and easiest form of disinfection.


B1 Water

Tab

le B

1.10

: Dis

infe

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stem

s

Dis

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ctio

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Ap

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mita

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Ben

efits

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Cal

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■

■

and

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■

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■

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and

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anua

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■■

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■

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ndlin

g bu

t op

erat

ors

need

lit

tle tr

aini

ng

Chl

orin

atio

n by

gas

kills

bac

teria

and

■

■

viru

ses

can

be u

sed

■■

to re

mov

e ba

d od

ours

, tas

te

and

colo

urs

stor

ed a

s liq

uefie

d ■

■

gas

whi

ch is

ha

zard

ous

med

ical

aid

mus

t ■

■

be a

vaila

ble

auto

mat

ic d

osin

g ■

■

requ

ires

pow

er

supp

ly

long

she

lf lif

e■

■

mos

t effi

cien

t and

can

be

■■

auto

mat

ical

ly o

r m

anua

lly

dose

dm

anua

l dos

ing

does

not

■

■

requ

ire a

pow

er s

uppl

y

low

resi

dual

chl

orin

e ■

■

leve

ls c

an p

rovi

de

disi

nfec

tion

prot

ectio

n th

roug

hout

di

strib

utio

n sy

stem

chlo

rine

affe

cts

■■

the

tast

e of

wat

er

and

gene

rate

s di

sinf

ectio

n by

prod

ucts

oper

ator

trai

ning

is

■■

requ

ired

Chl

orin

atio

n by

so

dium

hyp

ochl

orite

kills

bac

teria

and

■

■

viru

ses

limite

d sh

elf l

ife■

■

auto

mat

ic d

osin

g ■

■

requ

ires

pow

er

supp

ly

can

be a

utom

atic

ally

or

■■

man

ually

dos

edm

anua

l dos

ing

does

not

■

■

requ

ire a

pow

er s

uppl

y

med

ium

few

trai

ning

■

■

requ

irem

ents

low

haz

ard

and

■■

easy

to h

andl

e


B1 Water

Dis

infe

ctio

n sy

stem

Ap

plic

atio

nsLi

mita

tions

Ben

efits

Co

stP

artic

ular

co

nsid

erat

ions

On-

site

hyp

ochl

orite

ge

nera

tion

kills

bac

teria

and

■

■

viru

ses

gene

rate

d ■

■

on-s

ite a

nd

requ

ired

cont

rol

of e

lect

roly

tic c

ell

and

solu

tion

of

salt

wat

er

min

imal

che

mic

al

■■

stor

age

and

tran

spor

t

med

ium

high

leve

l of

■■

mai

nten

ance

and

ex

pert

ise

bypr

oduc

ts

■■

gene

rate

dhi

gh c

apita

l cos

t■

■

requ

ires

pow

er■

■

Ultr

avio

let (

UV

)ki

lls b

acte

ria a

nd

■■

viru

ses

not s

uita

ble

for

■■

wat

er w

ith h

igh

turb

idity

or

low

UV

ab

sorp

tion

or s

low

w

ater

flow

UV

lam

p re

quire

s ■

■

clea

ning

and

re

plac

emen

tre

liant

on

pow

er

■■

supp

ly

no e

ffect

on

tast

e■

■

low

mai

nten

ance

■■

no c

hem

ical

■

■

hand

ling

no k

now

n ■

■

bypr

oduc

ts

med

ium

can

deliv

er w

ater

■

■

that

is n

ot tr

eate

d if

UV

sou

rce

fails

be

caus

e th

ere

is n

o re

sidu

al

(che

mic

al)

prot

ectio

n

(con

tinue

d)


B1 Water

No single treatment system can remove all bacteria, chemicals and minerals from a water supply;

water treatment technology can also introduce toxic micropollutants that may have other public

health impacts. When considering water treatment, seek assistance from a specialist (preferably a

scientist, not a salesperson). Test the water source before choosing a treatment to ensure that the

treatment is correct for the water quality problems present. Water treatment systems are described

in Table B1.11.

Ensure that:

alternative methods to deal with water quality issues have been properly investigated before ■■

considering a water treatment technology

water test results (from a laboratory) inform the decision to purchase a water treatment system■■

all treatment systems are protected from the elements and from damage; a small shed for ■■

centralised systems or locked cupboards or cages for small systems are appropriate

operational requirements are considered (such as power and access to replacement parts)■■

water treatment systems are approved for use with drinking water and certified to the appropriate ■■

Australian standards.

Consider:

the range of treatments possible (for example, is partial treatment possible?)■■

pretreatment options■■

product ratings■■

the size of the required treatment system (such as whole supply, household or single tap)■■

water system requirements (for example, water pressure and water quality)■■

capacity of the technology to produce enough water to meet the community needs■■

maintenance requirements■■

the risk that the treatment system may fail (and appropriate safeguards)■■

upfront and maintenance costs (such as filter or bulb replacement and servicing)■■

power requirements■■

expected life of the system and required operating conditions.■■


B1 Water

Tab

le B

1.11

: Wat

er t

reat

men

t sy

stem

s

Trea

tmen

t sy

stem

Ap

plic

atio

nsLi

mita

tions

Co

stC

ons

ider

atio

nsA

ctiv

ated

car

bon

rem

oves

tast

e an

d od

our-

■■

caus

ing

cont

amin

ants

and

re

duce

s tr

ace

leve

ls o

f org

anic

ch

emic

als

like

pest

icid

es

the

carb

on c

an a

ct a

s ■

■

a m

ediu

m fo

r gr

owth

of

mic

roor

gani

sms

so th

e w

ater

m

ust b

e pr

etre

ated

high

if no

t mai

ntai

ned,

the

filte

r ca

n ■

■

beco

me

a so

urce

of b

acte

ria

and

crea

te ta

ste

and

odou

r pr

oble

ms

Aer

atio

nre

mov

es ir

on■

■lo

wch

eap

and

effe

ctiv

e pe

riodi

c ■

■

clea

ning

of t

he s

tora

ge

tank

to re

mov

e iro

n sl

udge

; pr

efer

able

to h

ave

two

stor

age

tank

s so

one

can

act

as

a se

dim

enta

tion

tank

Cer

amic

filte

rsre

mov

es b

acte

ria a

nd

■■

para

site

s, b

ut n

ot v

iruse

sch

lorin

atio

n in

add

ition

to

■■

cera

mic

filte

rs re

quire

d to

re

mov

e vi

ruse

sra

w w

ater

mus

t hav

e lo

w

■■

turb

idity

and

sal

ts

med

ium

regu

lar

repl

acem

ent o

f filte

rs

■■

requ

ired

need

s ad

equa

te fl

ow r

ate

■■

cann

ot d

eliv

er u

ntre

ated

wat

er■

■

San

d fil

trat

ion

rem

oves

silt

, sed

imen

t, sm

all

■■

orga

nism

s an

d or

gani

c m

atte

rre

mov

es m

oder

ate

amou

nts

of

■■

iron

and

man

gane

se

unsu

itabl

e fo

r re

mov

ing

■■

viru

ses

med

ium

need

s re

gula

r ba

ckw

ash

■■

som

e (s

mal

l) sy

stem

s ar

e ■

■

biol

ogic

al a

nd n

eed

no p

ower

or

che

mic

als

to o

pera

te

Sof

tene

rs

(ion

exch

ange

)tr

eats

har

d w

ater

, rem

oves

■

■

diss

olve

d iro

n, m

anga

nese

, ba

rium

and

rad

ium

can

rem

ove

som

e ba

d od

ours

, ■

■

colo

urs

and

tast

es

not s

uita

ble

for

rem

ovin

g ■

■

mic

robe

s or

mos

t che

mic

als

med

ium

resi

ns m

ust b

e sp

ecifi

c to

■

■

the

cont

amin

ant

trea

ted

wat

er w

ill ha

ve

■■

incr

ease

d so

dium

leve

lsre

quire

s pe

riodi

c re

plac

emen

t ■

■

of s

ofte

ner

salt

and

disp

osal

of

con

cent

rate

d sa

lty w

ater

Rev

erse

osm

osis

rem

oves

dis

solv

ed s

olid

s an

d ■

■

orga

nic

mat

ter;

als

o ni

trat

es,

radi

onuc

lides

, mos

t dis

solv

ed

min

eral

s an

d m

etal

s, m

ost

mic

robe

s, p

artic

les

and

som

e pe

stic

ides

prefi

ltrat

ion

and

softe

ning

■

■

may

be

requ

ired

silic

a in

the

raw

wat

er c

ause

s ■

■

foul

ing

of m

embr

anes

rate

of r

emov

al e

ffici

ency

■

■

decr

ease

s ov

er ti

me

need

s go

od w

ater

pre

ssur

e to

■

■

oper

ate

high

mem

bran

es n

eed

regu

lar

■■

repl

acem

ent a

nd g

ener

ally

ne

eds

a co

ntra

ctor

high

ene

rgy

requ

irem

ents

■■

disp

osal

of c

once

ntra

ted

■

■

salty

wat

er


B1 Water

Managing and maintaining servicesThe following information can be combined with local knowledge of the water supply to create a

water management plan, using the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines: Community Water Planner

— a tool for small communities to develop drinking water management plans (NHMRC 2005).

Plans to maintain and repair water supply infrastructure should be included in a whole-of-system

approach. A breakdown in any component can have effects further along the system and

compromise the quality and quantity of water available.

The following points, previously discussed in this chapter, should be considered when managing

a water system:

Water use may vary with the season.■■

Maintenance of infrastructure can increase water system reliability (or reduce water supply ■■

interruptions).

Water treatment can be an effective way to remove contaminants if used as one of a series ■■

of barriers.

Water testing is only valuable if the results verify that management operations are effective.■■

The quality and quantity of water available can change over time, and there are often warning signs

that the supply is changing. If you have established a baseline, it will be easier for you to respond

accurately. Deterioration of system function can be an early sign. Indicators include:

change in pump flow rate■■

loss of water pressure■■

variation in water meter readings■■

change in water level measurements.■■

Change in water quality such as pH, turbidity or total dissolved solids can indicate changes in

the water source. For example, if the water tastes ‘flat’ or ‘bitter’ the pH may have changed or

the amount of tannin from leaves in the water source may have increased (especially in northern

Australia, after the wet season); an increase in the total dissolved solids in bore water may indicate

that the water level is dropping.

Access to information about the water supply is critical.

Ensure that:

service manuals, plans and diagrams are accurately recorded and backed up with signs to mark ■■

the location of pipework and other infrastructure

all relevant documents are handed over to the community and safely stored■■

additional copies are provided to relevant agencies at the end of a project■■

distribution systems are maintained and cleaned, and pipes and other equipment (such as water ■■

meters) are replaced towards the end of their useful lives.


B1 Water

Consider:

creating a schematic or drawing of the supply that includes global positioning system (GPS) ■■

readings to locate all significant parts (Figure B1.4)

recording operational requirements, such as how much fuel is required to operate the pump ■■

each day to deliver water.

Figure B1.4: Example water supply schematic for a small community

Bore 1

Identify locations by GPS

Bore 2

Tank 1

Tank 2

30 kL

30 kL

Stock trough

Overhead fill point

House 1

House 2

House 3

House 4

Sample point Water meter Isolation valve Backflow prevention device



B1 Water

Table B1.12 lists the minimum management tasks required to maintain a water supply. Additional

tasks should be added as required.

Table B1.12: Water supply management tasks

Regularity Example of activity

Daily check water levels in storage tanks■■

check and maintain chlorine residual levels■■

inspect river for algae■■

top up storage tanks to ensure adequate storage in case of emergency ■■

Weekly record data — hours pump is run, metering, etc■■

Monthly microbiological water testing (depending on location, fortnightly or ■■

quarterly for some larger communities)visual checks of pipeline■■

check storage tanks for holes and damage■■

Six monthly clean intake screens or gutters■■

measure bore water level■■

prune trees near storage tank■■

grease and tune pump■■

Annually flush distribution system and replace taps■■

audit and review practices■■

chemical water testing■■

review water meter information■■

clean out sediment at base of storage tank■■

service pump and treatment device (if applicable) as per manufacturer’s ■■

specificationscheck and flush hose reel■■


B1 Water

Useful termsAAA ‘Triple A’

Activated carbon A form of charcoal that has been treated to make it porous and

reactive.


Backflow prevention (device) Stopping the reverse flow of water back into the mains. Backflow

can be caused by back pressure or back siphonage.

Corrosive water Corrosive water will slowly dissolve metal pipes and cylinders,

and also cause taste and staining problems. Most natural waters,

particularly bore and rain waters, are corrosive to some extent.

Problems caused by corrosion include damage to plumbing, leaks,

bitter taste and staining of fixtures and laundry.

Cross connection A link or point in the water system where potable water is exposed

to non-potable water. Cross connections are usually unintended

and can be caused by plumbing errors such as connecting the

kitchen sink outlet to the main.

Diameter nominal (DN) A code for pipe size.

Hard water Hard water is water that contains high concentrations of dissolved

minerals, particularly of calcium and magnesium. It is not harmful to

health. Soap will be hard to lather and the water will cause scaling

of plumbing fixtures and hardware. Problems associated with hard

water include reduced efficiency of hot water heaters, reduced

water flow, blocked pipes and valves.

Hazard A biological, chemical, physical or radiological agent that has the

potential to cause harm.

kPa kilopascals

L/p/d litres per person per day


B1 Water

Multiple barriers The use of more than one preventive measure (planned activity,

action or process) as a barrier against hazards.

Potable water supply Water intended primarily for human consumption.

Preventive measure Any planned action, activity or process that is used to prevent

hazards from occurring or reduce them to acceptable levels.


Risk The likelihood of a hazard causing harm in exposed populations,

in a specific timeframe, including the magnitude of that harm.

Scale A solid precipitate (usually a white crust), which forms on the

elements of jugs and hot water cylinders and around the insides of

hot water cylinders and pipes. It usually occurs when hard water is

being used. Scale consists of calcium carbonate and magnesium

oxide, which are harmless to health. Scale can cause electric

heating elements to burn out, hot water cylinders to perform poorly

and pipes to become blocked.

Spear A sunken pipe to tap artesian water.

SWL standing water level

Total dissolved solids (TDS) Organic and inorganic compounds that are dissolved in water.

The TDS value, measured in milligrams per litre (mg/L) or parts per

million (ppm) refers to the saltiness of a water — less than 80 mg/L

is excellent, 500–800 mg/L is fair and usually can be tasted, above

800 mg/L is usually considered poor quality. It is, however, often

acceptable up to 1200 mg/L in remote areas if combined with good

management to deal with potential scaling of hardware.

Turbidity The cloudiness of water caused by the presence of fine suspended

matter.

UV ultraviolet

uPVC unplasticised polyvinylchloride


B1 Water

Further readingABS (Australian Bureau of Statistics) (2007). Housing and Infrastructure in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Communities, Australia, Reissue of 2006, Cat. No. 4710.0, ABS, Canberra. www.fahcsia.gov.au/sa/indigenous/progserv/housing/Pages/chins.aspx

ARMCANZ and ANZECC (Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand and Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council) (1995). National Water Quality Management Strategy: Guidelines for Groundwater Protection in Australia, ARMCANZ and ANZECC, Canberra. www.mincos.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/316099/guidelines-for-groundwater-protection.pdf

CAT (Centre for Appropriate Technology) (2005). Water bores. Bush Tech #21, CAT, Alice Springs.

CAT (Centre for Appropriate Technology) (2005). Pump selection and storage for water supplies. Bush Tech #29, CAT, Alice Springs.

CAT (Centre for Appropriate Technology) (2007). Disinfecting a water tank. Bush Tech #33, CAT, Alice Springs.

CAT (Centre for Appropriate Technology) (2007). Protecting your water places. Bush Tech #35, CAT, Alice Springs.

CAT and CRCWQT (Centre for Appropriate Technology and Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment) (2006). Rainwater tanks in remote Australia. Our Place #27, insert, CAT, Alice Springs.

enHealth (2004). Guidance on use of rainwater tanks, enHealth, Melbourne. enHealth.nphp.gov.au/council/pubs/pdf/rainwater_tanks.pdf

FaHCSIA (Australian Government Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs) (2007). National Indigenous Housing Guide, 3rd edition, FaHCSIA, Canberra. www.fahcsia.gov.au/sa/indigenous/pubs/housing/Pages/national_indigenous_housing_guide.aspx

National Minimum Bore Specifications Committee (2003). Minimum Construction Requirements for Water Bores in Australia, 2nd edition, Land and Water Biodiversity Committee. www.iah.org.au/pdfs/mcrwba.pdf

NHMRC (National Health and Medical Research Council) (2004). Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, NHMRC, Canberra. www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/synopses/eh19syn.htm

NHMRC (National Health and Medical Research Council) (2005). Australian Drinking Water Guidelines Community Water Planner — a tool for small communities to develop drinking water management plans, NHMRC, Canberra. www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/synopses/eh39.htm

NHMRC (National Health and Medical Research Council) and ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand) (1996). National Water Quality Management Strategy: Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, NHMRC and ARMCANZ, Canberra. www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/file/publications/synopses/eh19.pdf

NWC (National Water Commission) (2009). Water Governance Arrangements in Australia, NWC, Canberra. www.nwc.gov.au


Insert TAB B2


B2Stormwater

Guiding principlesAccess and equity: Stormwater infrastructure plays a significant role in maintaining access to

communities and in protecting assets such as buildings and houses. Stormwater infrastructure

also reduces flooding.

Health and safety: Stormwater can have health and safety impacts that are not immediately

obvious. Fast-flowing water is particularly dangerous; children may be at risk of drowning if they play

in open drains. If left lying, stormwater can cause ground saturation and loss of strength in load-

bearing structures, damaging road pavements, buildings and their foundations, water towers and

their footings.

Environmental health: Excess stormwater can pose serious environmental health risks, including:

Water ponding or lying for extended periods of time may become stagnant, leading to health ■■

problems such as increased numbers of mosquitoes.

The ground can become saturated, effectively raising the subsurface water level to a height where ■■

it renders septic systems unusable. Effluent then leaches into the ground water, contaminating

the water ponding on the surface.

If septic systems become unusable, people use facilities in other buildings. This may lead to ■■

overcrowding within houses, and subsequent overuse of other dwellings and their

septic systems.

Appropriateness: Infrastructure solutions typically capture stormwater or divert it away from

assets (for example, houses, landfill sites, roads, community buildings) and discharge it into natural

watercourses. Infrastructure design must be functional but not cost-prohibitive, and should be able

to cope with regular rainfall and unusual events (such as one-in-ten-year floods).

Affordability and sustainable livelihoods: Most communities will have limited funding for

stormwater infrastructure. Remote areas require simple solutions to stormwater problems that can

be maintained by the community’s equipment and people. Use of existing structures, features and

natural watercourses is the best approach.


B2 Stormwater

Systems overviewThe range of stormwater infrastructure options for remote communities includes:

culverts■■

floodways■■

open drains■■

V-drains■■

table drains■■

cut-off drains■■

catch drains■■

kerbing or kerb and channelling■■

concrete V-drains■■

holding ponds.■■

Current service delivery arrangementsStormwater is generally part of internal civil infrastructure or access road civil infrastructure. Access

roads may be managed by the state or territory authority, the local government authority, or the

community. Internal infrastructure is usually managed by the local government authority or

the community.

Communities in Western Australia, South Australia, the Northern Territory, Queensland and New

South Wales rely on outside consultants to provide professional advice on stormwater requirements

and design, and to supervise construction. State governments may use their own departments for

advice (such as main roads departments), but this is rare.

Relevant Australian standards

Each agency managing stormwater infrastructure must comply with the relevant town planning,

transport, or local government Act. Some communities will have their own planning scheme,

including conditions for stormwater systems and structures. Water (of any type) cannot be moved

from one property to another without the owner’s written consent.

Each state government has a policy and guideline for stormwater management.


B2 Stormwater

Involving the communityWhen working with a community on stormwater infrastructure, contact the relevant elders before

visiting a site. Walk with them around the community, discuss any concerns they might have and

discuss the preliminary work to be done before implementing the final design.

Once all the information has been gathered and agreement about the design has been reached,

return to the community and present the design to them — they may have valuable ideas

to contribute.

Although professional contractors will undertake the construction, there should be opportunities for

community members to learn new skills, such as operating and maintaining equipment, using boning

rods for level control, and maintaining drainage structures and systems.

Ensure that:

discussions with the community are included from the very beginning; community members ■■

will have vital information about stormwater trends, flows, depths, directions, changes and past

attempts to resolve these concerns.

Consider:

the skills and equipment available in the community for maintaining the stormwater system.■■

Appraising community requirementsWhen appraising the community’s stormwater management needs, it is important to find the source

of the water flow and to investigate the adequacy of current stormwater structures and any related

maintenance issues. Stormwater will always flow along the route of least resistance: often along

natural creek lines or along lower areas through or around a community. Additional drains and

infrastructure may be necessary to divert or to cope with the excess water.

A number of factors will determine the community’s stormwater infrastructure requirements.

Culverts, open drains and pipes and stormwater holding ponds must be designed to take into

account the peak rainfall rates in the area, the surface area of the catchment (which includes both

building roofs and open land from which rainfall run-off contribute to the total flow towards the

lowest point), the porosity or slickness of the surfaces (sandy soil ‘soaks up’ rain while building

roofs, pavement and sheet rock do not), the slope or fall of the land, and objects such as existing

watercourses, fences, tanks and dams that may impede, capture or redirect flow.

Design calculations to size these structures are normally carried out by a civil engineer. Sources of

this design information include topographical maps, the community’s existing and future development

plans, historical rainfall data and geological information.


B2 Stormwater

The location of underground or above-ground services (such as optic fibre cabling,

telecommunications lines, water supplies, sewerage systems and underground or above-ground

power supplies) may also influence the decision-making process.

Consider:

the likely future development of a community, and how this will affect the load on a ■■

stormwater system.

Cultural issues

Water, rainfall, and creek or river flows are important features in Aboriginal culture, beliefs and

storytelling. Most river or creek systems and waterholes have several sacred sites or sites of

significance to Aboriginal people.

Ensure that:

local elders are contacted about the location of sites of significance to Aboriginal people when ■■

appraising stormwater requirements.

Climatic factors

Climatic conditions vary greatly across Australia. Effective stormwater management must account

for the circumstances and problems specific to each region (Table B2.1).


B2 Stormwater

Table B2.1: Stormwater management on a regional basis

Region Stormwater management Problems

Wet tropical regions have two seasons — the wet (January to April) and the dry (the remainder of the year); a community may receive a yearly rainfall of > 1200 millimetres in only a few weeks

Stormwater and drainage systems generally cannot be designed to cope with tropical deluges

Stormwater can flood and scour community assets and services within communities (eg roads, parks, dwellings, septic systems)

Tropical regions have four seasons; rainfall is scattered throughout the year with an increase during summer months

Stormwater systems should be designed to cope with summer rains

Silt and debris can build up in stormwater systems in a short period of time if a series of small rainfalls is followed by a larger rainfall

Assets in tropical regions are generally better protected by stormwater systems than those in the wet tropics

Dry desert regions have rain in short bursts or for short periods, followed by prolonged dry periods

Stormwater systems should be designed and maintained to cope with sand and silt build-up, and with peak rainfall bursts

Wind-blown sand, silt and debris can fill open and underground drains during long periods of time without rain; if drains are not cleared, stormwater systems may fail during times of heavy rain

Southern regions have rain scattered throughout the year with an increase during winter months

Stormwater systems should be designed and maintained to cope with increased rain during the winter months

In these areas, stormwater systems are often designed to cope with regular rainfall in small quantities; however, larger downfalls can cause system failure and infrastructure damage

Although forecasting tools such as weather maps and extreme weather warnings are available (such

as from the Bureau of Meteorology; Figure B2.1), using these to predict storms or heavy rain events

is often difficult. Consequently, stormwater infrastructure must be regularly maintained to prevent

damage to the stormwater system, and prevent other hazards to the community.


B2 Stormwater

Figure B2.1: Average annual rainfall in Australia

Source: Australian Bureau of Meteorology (2005)

In areas with tropical storms, designers should consider open drainage, rather than underground

drainage, in conjunction with the road design. Open drainage systems allow for high volume and high

velocity flows for extended periods of time. Wherever possible, residential properties should remain

higher than road surfaces, so roads can collect and direct stormwater to the nearest watercourse.

When designing roads within a community, consider the levels throughout the entire community.

Roads are designed to create service access networks, and so should also be considered when

creating stormwater drainage networks.

Consider:

using kerb and channelling in tropical areas, rather than just kerbing; channelling will make it ■■

easier to maintain internal roads and will prolong the life of the pavement

using infrastructure such as underground drainage as part of the internal road designs in ■■

non-tropical areas.


B2 Stormwater

Case study 5 — Responding to stormwater breaches of drainage systems

A community contacted a service provider and the local Indigenous Coordination Centre because

its septic systems were not working, and were filling with stormwater during the wet season.

The service provider investigated by studying an aerial view of the community and a contour map,

which showed that the community had been built in a creek bed, and the creek had been diverted

around the community (Figure B2.2).

Figure B2.2: Aerial view of the case study community showing water flows

Reinstate levee bank where access road crosses the bank

Creek diverted around the community

Reinstate the levee bank with cement-treated gravel

where the water main installation had breached

the levee bank

Original creek line

Catch drain—levee bank around the

communityRiver


Inspection carried out in conjunction with local community members revealed that the levee

bank and the diversion drains around the community had not been maintained. The community

members pointed out two locations where water appeared to be flowing or seeping through or

under the levee bank. One location was where a water main had been installed a year before.

The levee bank had not been reinstated properly after installing the water main. In another

location, vehicles had been using a section of the levee bank as part of an access road.

In response, the diversion drains around the community were cleaned and lowered to their original

levels. The levee bank damaged by vehicles was reinstated. Where the water mains breached the

levee bank, the areas were excavated, cement-treated and compacted with a roller.


B2 Stormwater

(continued)

Investigating the two houses where septic systems had failed revealed that overcrowding was a

major factor: the houses were designed to accommodate 4–5 people, but housed 10–12 people.

After discussions involving the community, the service provider and a company that installs

wastewater gardens, a duplicate septic system was designed. The old system was kept for

blackwater and a new system for greywater was installed at both houses (Figure B2.3).

Figure B2.3: Installation of septic system to cope with stormwater breaches

House 2House 1

Existing septic system converted to

blackwater onlyNew septic system greywater only


Wastewater gardens were mounted on top of all leach drains (including existing drains) to absorb

and reduce the amount of wastewater and to prevent the wastewater from reaching the surface.

The wastewater gardens were to contain water-hungry trees (such as citrus, bananas, pawpaws,

chillies and custard apples) to provide fruit for the community.

The community was located in a rocky area with capstone granite only one metre below the

surface, and loose rock covering the capstone. Consequently, finding the correct location for the

leach drains was very important. The houses had been constructed on stumps, but the space

underneath them had been filled to level the area before construction, so the new leach drains

were constructed in the fill areas adjacent to the houses.

While the new system was being installed, workers found that the old septic leach drains flowed

uphill. However, these old leach drains were left in place because the wastewater gardens would

greatly reduce the amount of wastewater in the system, allowing the old drains to cope.


B2 Stormwater

Choosing appropriate solutions

Stormwater infrastructure options

Communities generally only contact consultants when a problem arises (for example, a badly scoured

access road or serious flooding). Most communities will have limited funding for infrastructure such

as culverts, subsoil drainage and underground stormwater structures (such as pipes), which are very

expensive and must be installed by construction professionals. A more simple or obvious above-

ground system may work equally well, and have the advantage of being visible and easier to maintain

with existing equipment.

Stormwater should be drained to the nearest watercourse or to a holding pond for recycling. These

ponds should be located away from the community for health and safety reasons.

Culverts

Culverts are a row of pipes or boxes that allow stormwater to flow under another structure such as

a road.


Floodways

Floodways can be designed in a number of ways to cope with different flow velocities and volumes.

For low flows, a culvert can be placed under the floodway; for larger flows, the water flows over

the floodway.


B2 Stormwater

Open drains

Open drains carry large volumes of water from one place to another. Open drains can be constructed

from material available on the site, or from concrete or upside down box culverts placed end to end.

Wherever possible, avoid vertical sides as these may erode and collapse into the drain. Vertical sides

can be very difficult for children to climb if they fall into drains.

3.6 m gradient 1:6 or 1:8

3.6 m gradient 1:6 or 1:8


V-drains

Larger V-shaped drains reduce the velocity of the water. V-drains are easy to maintain; low vegetation

cover is an advantage as it prevents erosion but should be managed by slashing when dry. In areas

where large volumes of water are expected (such as the tropics and wet tropics), two-level flow

drainage structures can be constructed:

a lower, narrow drain to channel water to natural watercourses during low flows■■

a higher, wider structure to channel water to natural watercourses during high flows.■■

Table drains

Table drains are open shallow drains constructed on either side of a road; these drains collect water

and carry it to the nearest watercourse or divert it to flow overland, away from the road. Once again,

sloped drains are easier to maintain than drains with vertical sides because graders and slashers can

be used to clear vegetation inside the drain.

Table drains



B2 Stormwater

Cut-off drains

Cut-off drains are open drains used to carry stormwater from table drains into catch drains or

to allow the stormwater to flow overland away from the road.

Overland flow

Table drain

Catch drain

Cut off

Roadway


Catch drains

Catch drains are open drains used to collect and divert overland flow of water away

from infrastructure.

Catch drain

Table

Roadway



B2 Stormwater

Kerbing or kerb and channelling

Where roads are used as drains in urban networks, kerbing or kerbs and channelling are installed to

divert stormwater to underground water systems or to the nearest watercourse.


Concrete V-drains

If an area has high-velocity stormwater flows, the best option is to direct the water overland.

However, consider using concrete V-drains to minimise erosion.



B2 Stormwater

Unders and overs

Unders and overs push water from one area through a pipe and out the other end. The central

section often remains full. Although unders and overs have been used in existing systems, they are

not recommended for new stormwater drainage systems in remote communities because they are

dangerous: children who play in them can be sucked into the piping system and drown.

Also, unders and overs can hold water all year round: stormwater can become stagnant, producing

bad smells and providing a breeding ground for mosquitoes.


Holding pond

A holding pond is pond or dam designed to provide additional temporary storage capacity for

stormwater during peak periods of rainfall, to prevent drainage systems from being overloaded.

The ponded water may be harvested for reuse or allowed to drain away or evaporate slowly.

Design

A detailed feature survey of the community and surrounding land, including land contours, will assist

in designing the layout, capacity, direction and distance of a stormwater system. The design should

be as simple as possible, and local community members should be able to maintain the system

using their own equipment (see Figure B2.4).


B2 Stormwater

Figure B2.4: Example of a stormwater system design

Culverts for safe access while

the creek is flowing

Cut-off drainsSacred area —

no go area

Future development

Housing and/ or industrial

blocks

Internal roads lowered to carry stormwater to the V-drains

Power house and fuel

V-drains to collect the stormwater

and direct it to the creek

Wastewater treatment

Water supply

Construct fire breaks using a V-drainage formation to collect stormwater and divert it away

from the community


If road designs include kerbing or channelling to divert water flow onto a sealed surface, rather than

along road shoulders or unprotected table drains, water may penetrate the road pavement. This may

weaken pavement strength, compromising the roads.

Ensure that:

communities are aware that they should request external support for stormwater problems ■■

through their administration or service provider

stormwater systems are designed, constructed and maintained by professionals with civil ■■

engineering backgrounds; this will often mean that communities need to engage consultants


B2 Stormwater

community members are consulted about water flow direction, volume and depth, and whether ■■

these features have changed in the last five years; new buildings or assets may have changed the

water flow and created new problems

community elders are consulted about previous solutions to stormwater problems, and what did ■■

and didn’t work

if community planning or layout plans include future development, the design incorporates any ■■

impact on the stormwater system

the stormwater system does not isolate the community or any area, especially essential services, ■■

for extended periods of time

water flows without interruption; stormwater should be collected and diverted to the nearest ■■

natural watercourse during any rainfall event

the stormwater system protects the community and its infrastructure (such as roads, houses, ■■

buildings, essential service facilities, airstrips, barge landings) from damage from overland

stormwater flow.

As the drainage system size (pipe diameter or open drain) decreases, the water velocity increases.

However, if the water velocity through an open drain increases, scouring will also increase, so low

grades and wide formations are best for open drains.

Small pipe diameters may be an economical design choice for short pipe runs, but long pipe

drainage systems with small diameters should be avoided because such systems are costly to

maintain, requiring contractors with expensive cleaning machines and techniques to clear silt,

rubbish and tree roots from pipes. Units cost between $30 000 and $500 000 and necessary

equipment includes ropes, tripods, harnesses, gas detectors, communication systems designed for

underground work, rescue equipment and breathing apparatus. Pipes with diameters of less than

600 millimetres are associated with occupational health and safety issues.

Ensure that:

no one enters a pipe with a diameter of less than 600 millimetres■■

trained workers with special equipment are employed to clean drains with a diameter of less than ■■

600 millimetres.

Consider:

using roads as drains — lowering road levels will be cheaper than the cost of installing and ■■

maintaining an underground pipe drainage system with a small diameter

using low drains where the water flows across roads; V-drains can also act as ■■

traffic-calming devices.

Where open drains are installed to catch overland flow and divert the water away from the

community, use existing disturbed ground for the drainage.


B2 Stormwater

Ensure that:

stormwater is drained to the nearest watercourse or to a holding pond for reuse (for irrigating ■■

parks, reducing dust on roads, etc)

ponds are located away from the community for health and safety reasons, and not held in lakes ■■

or dams near the centre of the community.

Consider:

converting fire breaks into catch drains — catch drains can be easily maintained by community ■■

members or contractors, using a grader or tractor with a blade.

Direction of stormwater flow

Install a fire break–catch drain with a grader on the high side of the asset to divert stormwater away

from the asset


Construction

Most construction companies that install drainage systems will have a quality assurance checklist

for each construction task. Design drawings and specifications should also include level control.

Drawings should be submitted to the principal or person in administrative control of the property, as

part of the construction process.

Boning rods (‘T’ shapes — see Useful terms) may be used to check the grades of open drains. For

underground pipes, culverts and other underground stormwater systems, use buckets of water to

ensure the water flows in the right direction.

Materials

When constructing stormwater systems, consider the suitability of materials, given the climate.

Consider:

that steel and ordinary concrete pipes will not last long in saltwater tidal areas■■

whether gravel, sand and rock are available nearby; to be cost-efficient, material must be sourced ■■

from within 20 kilometres of the site.


B2 Stormwater

Managing and maintaining servicesStormwater infrastructure is often forgotten because it is unseen, and it is often missed by

contractors conducting maintenance checks. Currently, most communities conduct limited

stormwater maintenance — planned or routine maintenance is essential so that communities are not

affected by stormwater damage.

Stormwater management should include a twice-yearly maintenance program to clean, de-silt

and repair drainage structures, especially where large, open stormwater drains pass through

communities. In the tropics, maintenance programs should be implemented two months before each

wet season and one month afterwards. Safety education for the community, especially for children,

should be included in stormwater management systems.

Ensure that:

all stormwater structures, both above and below ground, are maintained■■

all drainage systems are cleaned or cleared of debris and silt before and after heavy rain■■

open drains are graded and structures (such as concrete works) are repaired■■

table, cut-off and V-drains are graded; material washed into the drain should be returned to the ■■

road formation, adjacent banks or batters

gradients of drains are checked using a level; drains should be cleaned or regraded to ensure ■■

water flow

where problems occurred during the last heavy rainfall event these are identified and remedial ■■

action taken

a clear uninhibited path of flow exists to the nearest natural watercourse■■

subsoil drains are installed to alleviate water pressure if properties and parks are affected by ■■

surface water.

Subsoil drains are essential to divert water away from structural assets (such as buildings, roads,

bridges) because seepage and underground water can cause considerable damage. Subsoil drains

work by pushing the water to the surface: they intercept the water flow then divert it to a

natural watercourse.


B2 Stormwater

Case study 6 — Addressing stormwater and seepage issues

A community was experiencing problems with stormwater and seepage from groundwater;

roads, parks, verges and the airstrip were being damaged. Stormwater and subsurface water

reached the ground surface level during the wet season. The community was built inside a circle

of springs, and on a joint between a rocky capstone and alluvial black soil (Figure B2.5). This

joint allowed subsurface water to escape to the surface when the watertable became too high,

saturating the ground in the community.

Figure B2.5: Map showing infrastructure and drainage patterns of case study community

Remove blocked culverts and install

cement-treated floodway

School

Housing

Power station

Nurses’ house

Store/office

Single men’s house

Workshop

School teachers’ housing

Install open drain to collect stormwater that flows down the road from the rocky outcrop; divert the water into the creek

Install cement-treated floodway

Install open drains to flow stormwater to creeks

Over many years this creek has silted up and now backs water into the community: excavate creek back to its original level


An engineer talked to community members and administration staff, and decided to divert the

stormwater into existing creeks. The community was also concerned because large numbers of

snakes were breeding in the area and using the culverts under the road as a home. An inspection

revealed that the culverts were installed too high and had silted up; water could not flow through

them. Removing the culvert and installing a cement-treated floodway would lower the water flow

level and decrease the number of snakes in the community.


B2 Stormwater

.

(continued)

The community’s airstrip presented a further problem: during the wet season, only 60% of the

airstrip was serviceable, limiting the types of aircraft that could use the airstrip. The airstrip had

a high point in the centre that sloped to either end; this should have been good for drainage

but springs appearing on the high side of the strip during the wet season caused water to flow

across the airstrip (Figure B2.6). Aircraft had eroded the gravel on the airstrip and the black soil

underneath had been exposed to water, rendering the airstrip unusable. The aircraft parking area

was also in the middle of a spring, and could not be used at all for four months of the year.

Figure B2.6: Aerial view of airstrip described in the case study

Install catch drains, which also work as firebreaks and divert the stormwater and subsurface water

to either end of the strip

Location of the old strip along a high

rocky barCreeks

Spring area


The engineer sat down and talked with the elders of the community. He found that the old airstrip

had followed a rocky ridge perpendicular to the current airstrip. The old airstrip had been used by

the Royal Flying Doctor Service all year round without any threat of closure.


B2 Stormwater

(continued)

To repair the airstrip to an all-weather standard, the following changes were required:

installation of open drains down the high side of the strip to collect and divert any run-off ■■

stormwater and any subsurface water that was coming to the surface at either end of the

airstrip, so the water could run into existing watercourses

installation of subsoil drainage where springs were appearing in the runway and in the aircraft ■■

parking area, so the outlets could divert the water to flow overland to the nearest watercourse

gravel re-sheeting of the entire runway with 150 millimetres of well-graded material and a small ■■

amount of clay for binding.

The total cost of these repairs would be $512 000. In contrast, reopening the old airstrip and

building a new 1.2-kilometre runway would cost approximately $800 000. Funding constraints

have prevented further progress on this project to date.


B2 Stormwater

Useful termsBoning rods A trio of equal-sized ‘T’ shapes set temporarily into the ground

surface along the line of a drain under construction. A change in

slope is gauged by sighting along the cross-arms of the first pair

to the third rod.

Capstone A layer of impervious sheet rock.

Catch drain An open drain used to collect and divert overland flow of water

away from infrastructure.

Culvert A row of pipes or boxes that allows stormwater to flow under

another structure (eg a road).

Cut-off drain An open drain that carries stormwater away from the table drain.

Groundwater Subsurface water.

Holding pond A pond or dam designed to provide additional temporary storage

capacity for stormwater during peak periods of rainfall, to prevent

drainage systems from being overloaded. The ponded water may

be harvested for reuse or allowed to drain away or evaporate slowly.

Leach drain Typically associated with a septic tank system: a drain excavated

and refilled with gravel or other material that allows treated

greywater to slowly filter into the soil.

Sheeting A construction process where a sheet or layer of material such

as gravel or rubble is laid onto a road or other formed surface.

Table drain The shallow open drain parallel to a road on its edge.

Further readingAustralian rainfall charts and guides are essential to determine rainfall volumes. Information about regional climates is available from the Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology. www.bom.gov.au

Austroads, main roads departments and civil engineering reference books for stormwater design are available at engineering bookshops. These reference books should be used with local input when calculating catchment capacity, soil types, run-off calculations and final pipe, open drain design capacity. Austroads (2003). Guidelines for Treatment of Stormwater Runoff from the Road Infrastructure, Austroads, Sydney.

Pilgrim DH (ed) (1987). Australian Rainfall and Runoff — A Guide to Flood Estimation, Institution of Engineers, Australia, Barton, Australian Capital Territory.


Insert TAB B3


B3Wastewater

Guiding principlesAccess and equity: Access to appropriate, affordable and effective sanitation affects a community’s

overall health and standard of living. Improving sanitation is an important part of improving the health

of Indigenous people, particularly those living in remote and rural Australia.

Health and safety: Wastewater around houses and backyards is a major health risk, and

governments and communities can find it challenging to adequately inform residents about

these risks.

Environmental health: Inadequate water supply and poor sanitation increase the prevalence of

diseases including hepatitis B, gastroenteritis and trachoma.

Appropriateness: Developing an appropriate sanitation system for a community is an important

step towards reducing health risks associated with waterborne pathogens. Designers, manufacturers

and installers of wastewater treatment systems must ensure that systems are correctly sized,

installed and maintained, to make it easier for the community to use them. Designers should consider

the community’s location (including climate) to reduce the risk of system failures.

Affordability: Purchasing and installing sanitation infrastructure can be a significant cost for a

community, and operating and maintaining a wastewater treatment system has ongoing costs.

These costs should be weighed up against how much the system will be used and how easy it will

be to use, and the environmental health benefits for the community.

Sustainable livelihoods: Each individual, household and community can take action to make water

supplies more sustainable, especially in remote areas where water is scarce. One important action is

to reuse wastewater from greywater and blackwater.


B3 Wastewater

Systems overview

Treatment methods

Wastewater is treated in several stages — each stage provides higher quality water, with higher

levels of protection against biological health risks. However, more treatment requires more advanced

technology, with higher costs for construction, operation and maintenance.

Pretreatment involves screening to remove large objects (such as sticks, plant matter or bones) that

may reduce the longevity and effectiveness of the treatment system.

Primary treatment involves the removal of solid matter, often using sedimentation, filtration and

anaerobic microorganisms. An example of primary treatment is a septic tank, alone or with an

absorption trench.

Secondary treatment then removes smaller particles by filtering the water through fine membranes;

aeration tanks with aerobic microorganisms are also often used.

Tertiary treatment reduces risks to human health. For example, disinfectant or reed beds and sand

filtration may be used to reduce the amount of pathogens in the wastewater.

Advanced treatment systems often use ultraviolet (UV) radiation to remove remaining pathogens

and bacteria. This is the only treatment method that may be used on certain food crops: check

current state or territory legislation.

Technology

Two levels of technology are available for sewage treatment:

Low-technology systems are often older, simpler systems that can be used in almost every

situation, without using methods like flushing, or in situations with limited or no access to electricity.

Low technology alternatives include pit latrines, pan collection, vaulted toilets, pour flush toilets and

chemical toilets.

High-technology systems use modern equipment and provide greater protection against direct

contact with pathogens, reducing health risks. However, the capital and maintenance costs

associated with these systems are higher.

Both low-technology and high-technology systems allow residents to manage on-site wastewater,

and are suitable for small Indigenous communities and outstations.

Wastewater from Indigenous communities can be managed in on-site localised (household)

systems or off-site centralised (community) systems. Both systems use anaerobic and aerobic

microorganisms to break down waste matter. However, chemicals such as solvents, paints, oils,

pesticides, disinfectants and household cleaner products can kill these microorganisms, reducing the

system’s effectiveness.


B3 Wastewater

On-site treatment and disposal systems

On-site treatment and disposal systems usually store and treat wastewater on a property. On-site

treatment includes low-technology options (an underground septic tank or pit or composting toilets)

and high-technology options (an aerated water treatment system that filters primary and secondary

treated wastewater to an absorption trench or reed bed).

Off-site treatment and disposal systems

Off-site treatment systems collect and dispose wastewater from many households in a single

location. Treatment systems include conventional wastewater treatment plants, lagoons and

constructed wetlands, fully centralised sewerage systems and common effluent disposal systems.

Involving the communityKnowledge of healthy living practices is essential for healthy, sustainable Indigenous communities.

Individuals and community leaders must be involved in developing suitable wastewater management

strategies to ensure the health of their community, particularly in the maintenance of the systems.

Ensure that:

all community members understand that disease-causing agents are carried in wastewater■■

all community members understand the importance of washing hands after using the toilet■■

community members have a basic understanding of the community’s sanitation system, ■■

particularly in relation to repairs (for example, whether a maintenance job requires a qualified

plumber or an essential services officer)

community members who maintain systems follow appropriate risk minimisation strategies, ■■

such as using approved cleaning agents and wearing protective clothing

community members know which materials can be disposed of in the sanitation system ■■

(biological materials that can be broken down by anaerobic or aerobic decomposition)

material to promote occupational health and safety (such as diagrams, posters, stickers) is ■■

clearly displayed.


B3 Wastewater

Consider:

providing the community with diagrams■■

- to demonstrate how the sanitation system operates

- to illustrate what can and can’t be disposed in the sanitation system, and the damage that

may occur from misuse

- to explain appropriate hand washing techniques (similar to those used in hospitals

and clinics).

Current service delivery arrangementsEach state and territory government is responsible for creating laws and regulations to minimise or

eliminate health risks from waterborne pathogens. Health authorities and environmental protection

agencies should be able to provide specific information about guidelines, and regulations about

wastewater reuse; environmental protection agencies provide information and licensing for

infrastructure that may affect the natural environment.

States and territories also produce guidelines to help local authorities and community members make

decisions about wastewater reuse (Tables B3.1 and B3.2). Generally, local government agencies

support good wastewater management practices, including regulation requirements and by-laws.


B3 Wastewater

Table B3.1: State and territory guidelines relating to wastewater reuse

State/ territory

Guideline

NSW Draft Guidelines for Recyclable Water

NSW Guidelines for Greywater Reuse in Sewered, Single Household Residential Premises www.water.nsw.gov.au/Urban-Water/Recycling-water/Greywater/default.aspx

NSW Water Conservation Strategy www.naturalresources.nsw.gov.au/water/pdf/nsw_water_conservation_strategy.pdf

NT National Water Quality Management Strategy (NWQMS)

Northern Territory legislation www.nt.gov.au/dcm/legislation/current.html

Qld Queensland Water Recycling Guidelines 2005 www.nrw.qld.gov.au/water/regulation/recycling/pdf/recycle_guidelines.pdf

Recycled Water Management Plan and Validation Guidelines 2008 www.nrw.qld.gov.au/water/regulation/recycling/pdf/rwmp_validation_guidelines.pdf

Recycled Water Management Plan Exemption Guidelines 2008 www.nrw.qld.gov.au/water/regulation/recycling/pdf/rwmp_exemption_guidelines.pdf

Water Quality Guidelines for Recycled Water Schemes 2008 www.nrw.qld.gov.au/water/regulation/recycling/pdf/water_quality_guidelines.pdf

Environmental Protection (Water) Policy 2009 www.legislation.qld.gov.au/LEGISLTN/SLS/2009/09SL178.pdf

SA South Australian Reclaimed Water Guidelines (Treated Effluent) 1999 www.health.sa.gov.au/pehs/branches/wastewater/reclaimed-water.pdf

Environment Protection (Water Quality) Policy 2003 www.legislation.sa.gov.au/LZ/C/POL/ENVIRONMENT%20PROTECTION%20(WATER%20QUALITY)%20POLICY%202003/2004.11.24_(2003.10.01)/2003.-.UN.pdf

Tas Environmental Guidelines for the Use of Recycled Water in Tasmania 2002 www.environment.tas.gov.au/file.aspx?id=1886

Vic Guidelines for Environmental Management: Use of Reclaimed Water 2003

http://epanote2.epa.vic.gov.au/EPA/publications.nsf/PubDocsLU/464.2?OpenDocument

WA State Water Quality Management Strategy 2003 Western Australia legislation www.slp.wa.gov.au/legislation/statutes.nsf/default.html

Western Australia Department of Health wastewater management www.mandurah.wa.gov.au/council/health/code_of_practice_reuse_of_greywater.pdf


B3 Wastewater

Table B3.2: Relevant Australian guidelines and standards relating to wastewater reuse

Guidelines and standards Topic

Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand/Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (1995) National Water Quality Management Strategy: Guidelines for Groundwater Protection in Australia

Groundwater protection

All building standards Building Code of Australia

AS 14001 Environment management systems

AS 1477–1999 PVC pipes and fittings for pressure applications

AS 4765–2000 Modified PVC (PVC-M) pipes for pressure applications

AS/NZ 3500.0 Plumbing and drainage

AS/NZS 1547:2000 Site evaluation

General guidelines and practices for water use, water reuse and public health across Australia are

being constantly generated, although there was no Australian Government legislation covering

specific uses of treated wastewater as at June 2009. Up-to-date information can be found at:

National Water Commission ■■

www.nwc.gov.au

National Water Quality Management Strategy ■■

www.environment.gov.au/water/policy-programs/nwqms/index.html

Environment Protection and Heritage Council of Australia and New Zealand ■■

www.ephc.gov.au

Food Standards Australia New Zealand (wastewater that is used to irrigate food crops, particularly ■■

salad-type vegetables such as lettuce, must comply with health standards)

www.foodstandards.gov.au

Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (including ■■

guidance on the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and associated

rules and regulations)

www.environment.gov.au


B3 Wastewater

Appraising community requirementsThe type of sewerage system used in Indigenous communities depends on the size of the system,

the community and the available land.

When planning to upgrade or enlarge an existing sanitation system, or when planning to install a new

system, consider each option’s service and reliability, capital and operating costs, and robustness.

To minimise maintenance problems, factors such as population, climate, landscape and soil,

groundwater level, flooding potential, available sustainable water supply and power source should

also be considered, along with funding available.

Community information

Consider how the following features of the community will affect the choice of sanitation system:

population profile and demographics (including how much of the population is permanent and ■■

how much is seasonal, whether community members have mobility problems or disabilities and

whether the population is likely to grow or decline in the next five years)

number of houses, and their size, location, design construction and use (such as number of ■■

residents per house)

size, location and accessibility of the community (including proximity to water and power supplies, ■■

transportation networks and other communities or regional centres)

employment, enterprise and education levels (including whether community members will be able ■■

to help operate and maintain the system)

community plans and aspirations for the future, including tourism ventures■■

impact of sanitation needs on other infrastructure and activities in the community (for example, ■■

schools, clinic, store, workshop, service station, water and power supplies)

proximity and access to other sewerage infrastructure (such as treatment facility, effluent ponds)■■

funding availability (including funding for installation, operation and maintenance).■■


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Current status of the community’s sanitation system

Thoroughly evaluate the existing system before planning a new or upgraded system.

Consider:

the number and capacity of existing systems or units■■

current patterns of use■■

community satisfaction with the current system■■

service and maintenance needs of the system, including ongoing costs and current funding ■■

arrangements

whether the current system is reliable, robust and appropriate (including climatic and geographical ■■

appropriateness)

how involved the community is in operating and maintaining the current system, including ■■

safety measures

whether the existing system can be upgraded or maintained.■■

Climatic and geographical factors

Climate and geography will play a large part in determining appropriate infrastructure for a

community. For example, floodwaters can increase inflow into the primary treatment system; septic

tanks may overflow or become less efficient. Floodwaters can enter and fill pit toilets, spreading

waste matter to the surrounding environment.

Consider:

the likelihood of high rainfall events, flooding and high winds■■

the balance between rainfall and evapotranspiration (this will determine whether leachate ponds ■■

and effluent ponds will be effective)

the slope of the land (for example, effluent ponds should be located downslope from the ■■

community)

the direction of prevailing winds (for example, will odours be blown away?)■■

features of the natural environment that could be incorporated into wastewater management ■■

(for example, aquatic reeds absorb nutrients naturally; constructed wetlands can reduce nutrient

loads, providing a natural process for reducing environmental degradation).


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Landscape and soil factors

Knowing the type of soil around a community will help to determine appropriate technology. When

the spaces between soil particles fill with water, water cannot soak into the ground, and more water

flows along the surface. Clay soils become saturated quickly; sandy soils drain well.

If the soil becomes saturated quickly (that is, high clay content) it may be inappropriate for septic

systems because trenches can become clogged. If the soil drains very quickly (that is, sandy soils),

wastewater may leach into underground watercourses, creating a health hazard. Soil conditions can

also be affected by community activity. For example, kitchen greywater may contain fats, oils and

greasy food particles that remain in the soil for a long time, clogging the soil and preventing it from

absorbing water. If this is a problem, chemicals may be required to allow the water to penetrate

the soil.

Consider:

investigating local soil conditions and drainage patterns■■

whether soil conditions will assist with filtration■■

how floodwaters will interact with the soil.■■

Site considerations

Consult Australian Standards for suitable site selection. For example, AS/NZS 1547:2000 — On-site

domestic-wastewater management provides a guide to slope angle, slope shape, aspect, exposure,

rock outcrops, run-on and upslope seepage, site drainage, surface condition, landfill and erosion or

mass movement.

Consider:

whether there is an appropriate buffer between the site and a watercourse■■

whether a site is likely to flood■■

whether vegetation in the area indicates likely waterlogging or soil quality.■■

Reliability

Appropriate technology should be reliable and robust. However, this is more important in some areas

than in others. For example, communities in remote locations may require a more robust system to

reduce ongoing maintenance.


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Consider how to avoid the following problems:

Septic systems that are too small may lead to effluent accumulating and flooding houses ■■

or yards. This problem is exacerbated when houses are overcrowded.

Poor installation leads to blockages and ongoing maintenance problems.■■

Inadequate routine maintenance increases the risk of leaks and hardware failure.■■

Inappropriate use (such as flushing hygiene products, nappies and cloths) can lead to blockages ■■

and hardware damage.

Choosing appropriate solutionsMore than one-third (38%) of major remote Indigenous communities are served by on-site systems.

About 1% of major communities (comprising more than 200 people) have no organised sewerage

system; 2.5% of minor communities have no organised sewerage system (Table B3.3). Although

these figures appear low, this equates to more than 2000 Indigenous people at risk of illness.

Major communities: more than half (59%) of the total remote population use centralised sewerage

systems. Approximately 61% of major communities have a sewerage system that removes

effluent into a common sewerage lagoon (ABS 2007). Such communities can support community

waterborne systems that have additional capital and maintenance requirements.

Minor communities: either septic tanks (situated under houses or close by with absorption

trenches) or pit toilets coupled with ad hoc septic systems (situated within the property boundaries)

are used. Composting toilets are also used in some communities.

Table B3.3: Wastewater systems for discrete Indigenous communities

Wastewater system Population <200 (%)

Population >200 (%)

Community waterborne system 5.8 60.9

Septic tanks with common effluent disposal 8.8 19.5

Septic tanks with leach drain 60.7 17.2

Pit toilets 21.1 1.1

Pan toilets 0.1 0.0

Other organised sewerage system 0.9 0.0

Communities with no organised sewerage system 2.5 1.1

Source: ABS (2007)


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Table B3.4 gives a breakdown of the most common wastewater problems in remote communities

and Table B3.5 lists advantages and disadvantages of the most common types of

sanitation systems.

Table B3.4: Wastewater problems for remote Indigenous communities

Problem with wastewater system Occurrence (%)

System leak or overflow 39.3

Blocked drains 30.7

Equipment failure 20.1

Design or installation failure 13.9

Inappropriate use 10.4

Source: ABS (2007)

Table B3.5: Advantages and disadvantages of the most common types of sanitation systems

Sewerage system

Capacity Advantages Disadvantages

Pit toilet/ composting toilet

1 house low maintenance■■

no water required, thus may ■■

be ideal in locations where water is scarceremains functional under most ■■

use conditions (not susceptible to blocking if non-biological items are placed in them, such as disposable nappies)requires small area of land for ■■

wastewater disposaleasily constructed■■

less expensive than septic ■■

systemsa reliable back-up if the septic ■■

system should failadvantageous in some remote ■■

communities that experience high population fluctuations, including long periods of non-permanent residency

odours can be problematic■■

not suitable for disposal of ■■

greywaterwastewater not removed ■■

from propertydisposal of non-biological ■■

materials (eg disposable nappies) may create decomposition problemsinconvenient location — often ■■

situated away from houseregarded as ‘bush toilets’ by ■■

many residents, affecting use


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Septic and leachate drain

1 house disposal for wastewaters from ■■

flush toiletsaccepts greywater■■

easier to manage waterborne ■■

wastes

requires a regular water ■■

supplywastewater not removed from ■■

propertymisuse results in blockages■■

leaking taps cause overload ■■

of waterborne disposal systemsnot suitable on all sites, ■■

(eg slope, soil)high ongoing maintenance■■

high failure rate■■

Common effluent drains

Whole community

accepts greywater■■

no problems associated with ■■

transporting solids (eg clogged pipes and pumps)cheaper to install than ■■

centralised systemno sludge accumulation in ■■

primary pondscan use existing septic tanks■■

no power requirements■■

regular septic pump-outs ■■

requiredall problems associated with ■■

septic tanksonly removes effluent from ■■

property (solids remain in septic tank)requires large amounts of ■■

land for disposal of effluent

Full sewerage system

Whole community

accepts greywater■■

no septic tanks required■■

removes all wastewater from ■■

property

problems associated with ■■

clogging of pipes and pumps by solidsbigger pipes and greater pipe ■■

grades required to transport solidsmore expensive to install than ■■

common effluent drainsrequires large amounts of ■■

land for disposal of effluent

Source: Marshall (1996)

On-site systems

The most common on-site sewerage system options in remote Indigenous communities are:

pit toilets■■

composting toilets■■

septic systems■■

aerobic wastewater treatment systems.■■

(continued)


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Pit toilets

Pit toilets have long been a feature of residential housing, and are suitable for variable populations

and intermittent use. They consist of a hole in the ground over which a pedestal and shelter are

placed. The effluent decomposes mainly through the action of anaerobic bacteria. Manual removal of

human waste is required after a period of decomposition — usually about three years, depending on

how big the compartment is and the patterns of use.

It is preferable to have two pits side by side so that as one is being used, the contents of the second

pit decompose. This configuration also makes the removal of relatively dry decomposed waste from

the non-active pit convenient, without disrupting use of the toilet. Some anaerobic decomposition of

the waste occurs in the pit. This process continues when the first pit is closed and the second pit is

in use.

Pit toilets are best suited to locations where sewage disposal is on-site. Regional legislation and

regulations should be considered for sewered and unsewered areas. For example, pit toilets are

not permitted in sewered areas in the Northern Territory. In the Northern Territory, pit toilets must:

comply with the ■■ Code of practice for small on-site sewage and sullage treatment systems and

the disposal or reuse of sewage effluent

have sufficient artificial lighting to allow safe access to and from the pit toilet at night (however, ■■

artificial lighting is not required internally).

In unsewered areas, internal toilets may be substituted for a pit toilet. If a household is using two

toilets, then it may be good practice to use a pit toilet to reduce the amount of water used.

Human urine has a high concentration of nitrogen, which increases the nitrogen:carbon ratio in the

pit, causing odour. Carbon-based materials (such as wood ash or soil) can be added to the pit as

required to overcome this problem.

Appropriate choice, design and installation

Ensure that:

greywater from the kitchen, bathroom and laundry drains to a separate disposal system.■■

Consider:

installing a ventilated pit latrine to draw away odours and trap flies■■

installing a urine separation cistern to minimise the build-up of odours in the pit.■■

See the National Indigenous Housing Guide Part B3 for further information.


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Composting toilets

Composting toilets are designed to convert waste through the action of aerobic bacteria, in contrast

to pit toilets where the action is anaerobic. Composting toilet design, construction and maintenance

is generally more complicated than for pit toilets, but composting toilets may be preferable in some

situations where pit toilets are not appropriate, such as locations:

that are prone to flooding or high watertable levels■■

where pit waste could leach into underground water sources■■

where there is impermeable rock at shallow depth■■

where hard rock makes pit excavation impractical.■■

A composting toilet should remain dry to increase its aerobic composting capacity. This process uses

aerobic bacteria to convert waste to a final product that looks like soil. It takes up to a year for waste

to decompose fully into compost, which is then safe to handle and can be used as fertiliser in the

garden (though not for fertilising food plants directly).

Intermittent use of composting toilets may be adequate for communities or outstations with low

populations or infrequent use. However, because aerobic bacteria require air, insufficient ventilation

(for example, in a power failure if an electric fan for ventilation is used) can slow down the composting

process, leading to odours. If odour does occur, it can be reduced by adding carbon-based materials

such as wood ash or paper.


Ensure that:

waste is kept dry and well ventilated — if necessary, install a drain to remove excess liquid and ■■

a ventilation system to keep air moving around the compost pile

a separate disposal system is available for wastewater from the kitchen, bathroom and laundry■■

composted waste is not placed directly on plants, particularly salad crops, that are to be eaten■■

a reliable energy supply is available if an electric fan is used for ventilation■■

community members understand the maintenance requirements, and a maintenance program ■■

is in place including weekly checks to ensure proper operation

dry, carbon-based material (such as leaves or shredded paper) is available, to add to the ■■

chamber when necessary to improve the composting process

frequent emptying of materials (that is, handling of human waste) is avoided■■

non-compostable materials and toxic chemicals are not disposed of in the composting chamber ■■

— this may kill the microorganisms that are responsible for the composting process.


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Consider:

designing systems to cater for population peaks and troughs, taking into account the number ■■

of houses to be serviced by the one system

installing dual toilets with alternating maintenance regimes (that is, use one while the second ■■

is composting).

Design toilet floor areas to facilitate cleaning, with easy access and appropriate drainage. Inadequate

floor drainage is common, which increases the risk of infection and illness. Other considerations

include the design or placement of accessories such as toilet roll holders, which are important in

maintaining a functional toilet.

To allow for overcrowding, at least one toilet should be provided in buildings that have one or two

bedrooms; two toilets should be provided in buildings with three or more bedrooms. Each toilet

should be provided with an adequate wash basin.

Septic systems

Septic systems allow for limited reuse of wastewater; they most often comprise a septic tank and

absorption trench. Although there is widespread failure of septic systems across Australia, their

simplicity ensures they remain the standard for primary on-site wastewater treatment for both

blackwater and greywater. The process involves the flotation of lighter materials such as oils, fats and

grease, and sedimentation of heavier solids. These solids are then stored at the bottom as stabilised

sludge prior to removal.

A septic tank is a large, watertight container that is buried in the ground. Effluent from the house

(toilet cistern) flows through drainage pipes into the septic tank. The larger solids settle to the

bottom of the tank, allowing the remaining wastewater to be discharged to a soil absorption trench,

or transferred to a secondary or tertiary treatment system (Figure B3.1). Absorption trenches, or

leachate drains, treat wastewater by filtration.

Septic tanks, with either leachate drains or common effluent disposal, are used in nearly 70% of

communities with fewer than 200 people, and in 37% of communities with more than 200 people

(ABS 2007). Septic tanks are relatively simple to maintain; however, they will only last if they are

properly operated and maintained.


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Figure B3.1 Relative components in a typical septic tank system

Septic tank

Effluent disposal trenchDistribution

Gravel or crushed rock

UnexcavatedEffluent disposal

Source: L Davison, Lecturer in Ecotechnology, Southern Cross University, Lismore NSW (pers comm, 2008)


Although septic systems are a proven technology and widely used, major problems can be

experienced with design (such as selecting tanks that are too small), installation (for example,

inappropriate soil types in the disposal trench) and maintenance (such as irregular sludge removal).

The following formula can be used to estimate the minimum capacity of a septic system for

domestic purposes:

C = (S × P × Y) + (P × DF)

where C = capacity (in litres)

S = sludge/scum rate (80 litres per person per year)

P = number of people using the system

Y = worst case de-sludging interval (in years)

DF = daily inflow (litres per person)


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Questions that will assist service providers to assess the needs of communities with sanitation

systems include:

How many systems are required in each community?■■

How many systems are failing?■■

What is the result of the failure? (For example, raw sewage in houses and backyards.)■■

What is causing the system failure? (Such as poor drainage from house to septic tank, undersized ■■

septic tanks, undersized trenches.)

Can problems be solved through upgrades?■■

Is the trench an appropriate size for peak capacity?■■

Is the watertable more than two metres below the lowest drainage point at the wettest time ■■

of year?

Are the bores located at least 100 metres from absorption trenches?■■

Is the water of good enough quality to prevent damage? (For example, are there problems ■■

with the water being hard or corrosive?)

Is the soil suitable for absorption trenches?■■

Is the area large enough to accommodate an absorption trench?■■

If problems occur, consider either upgrading to centralised sewerage systems or upgrading

existing septic systems. The health department in each state or territory should provide up-to-date

information on how to manage problems with septic systems. The need for upgrades is

often assessed on:

population size■■

extenuating circumstances such as regular visitors or peak fluctuations■■

funding availability (centralised sewerage systems cost approximately $1–1.5 million)■■

landscape features (such as rock or hills, suitability of soil type for constructing effluent lagoons)■■

location (for example, risk of flooding and consequences of overflow, whether wind would blow ■■

odours away, whether effluent lagoons would be downslope from the community).

Ensure that:

water supply is reliable■■

sufficient land is available for disposal of treated waste (to meet current and future needs)■■

soil type is appropriate (heavy clay soils may clog rapidly; sandy soils may increase potential ■■

leaching into groundwater)

the peak watertable level is well below the bottom of the septic tank in case of leakage (at least ■■

two metres but may need to be more depending on soil type — specific watertable information

will be available from hydrogeologists and engineers responsible for locating and drilling the

community bore)


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a skilled tradesperson (such as a plumber) is employed to install the septic tank system■■

tanks are emptied by a specialised disposal truck.■■

Consider:

designing systems to accommodate the current and future population size■■

checking whether the toilet will be used by members of one house or many houses■■

installing separate septic tanks for greywater and blackwater■■

installing a grease trap on the kitchen drain to prevent grease or food solids getting ■■

into the system.

Maintenance

Ensure that:

operating procedures are followed correctly■■

the amount of detergents, disinfectants and cleaners in the wastewater is minimised■■

a routine maintenance plan including pump-out is developed and implemented■■

routine preventive maintenance schedules are appropriate for the system and the situation ■■

(for example, tropical areas compared to desert)

tanks are inspected every year■■

community members have up-to-date knowledge of, and access to, external technical support■■

sludge is regularly removed from the tanks, with no more than 3 years between pump-outs.■■

See the National Indigenous Housing Guide Part B3 for further information.

Aerated wastewater treatment systems

Aerated wastewater treatment (AWT) systems are common in on-site treatment, combining

primary and secondary treatment processes in one large facility. The system consists of two large

tanks: the primary (septic) tank and the aeration tank. Solids settle in the septic tank, where scum

also forms. The anaerobic digestion of carbohydrates occurs here. The wastewater then moves

into the secondary aeration tank where oxygen is bubbled through the effluent to assist aerobic

decomposition (Figure B3.2).


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Figure B3.2 A typical aerated wastewater treatment system flow structure

Septic tank Aeration tank Clarifier Chlorination

Primary Secondary

Air in

Sludge return Sludge out

Tertiary

Source: Hagare and Dharmappa (1999)

Tertiary (disinfection) treatment adds to the effectiveness of an AWT system. Ultraviolet radiation,

ozone and chlorination are effective disinfection agents. Chlorination is the cheapest. Tertiary-treated

effluent can generally be used for gardens and lawns, depending on relevant state and territory

legislation and guidelines.

These systems need to be in constant use to be effective. Two main reasons for failure of AWT

systems are:

rapid changes in hydraulic loads (for example, sudden increase in household population or ■■

residents are absent for an extended period)

loss of microorganisms, which reduces the treatment rate.■■

Appropriate choice and design

When choosing AWT systems, consider whether the number of people in the household will fluctuate

rapidly at any point. This is often the case in Indigenous households and therefore AWT systems are

likely to be less functional, particularly in remote communities.

Additionally, maintenance is a high priority with AWT systems, and contracts with manufacturers or

suppliers are often required unless local expertise is available. These systems also require a reliable

power source.

AWT systems are also poor at removing nitrogen and phosphorus (Table B3.6). Therefore, a tertiary

treatment method, such as wastewater distribution to a reed bed, may be required.


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Table B3.6 Strengths and weaknesses of aerated wastewater treatment systems

Strengths Weaknesses

good solids and biological oxygen demand ■■

removalgood nitrification■■

effluent clear enough for disinfection■■

effluent suitable for irrigation■■

relatively compact units■■

minimal total nitrogen removal■■

minimal total phosphorus removal■■

poor response to rapid changes in hydraulic ■■

loads (eg rapid increase or decrease in household)requires power — failures can result from ■■

blackoutsrequires a maintenance contract■■

Ensure that:

connections are sized for high anticipated loads■■

the system chosen doesn’t require complex maintenance■■

systems are properly installed■■

hardware is appropriate for the water quality (such as corrosive or hard water)■■

regular maintenance programs are developed and implemented.■■

Consider:

installing an additional tertiary treatment system to improve the removal of nitrogen ■■

and phosphorus.

Installation

Ensure that:

an experienced site supervisor is engaged to provide quality control■■

communities receive a copy of the installation documents for filing■■

all pipes are clearly marked and documented to prevent accidental damage by other contractors■■

any repairs to accidental damage are quality checked before backfill.■■

Consider:

checking installation before the system is covered.■■

Maintenance

There are many important maintenance considerations with AWT systems.

Ensure that:

correct operating procedures are followed, so that the system is reliable.■■


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Important maintenance steps include:

leaving the power switched on even if going away for extended periods■■

minimising the amounts of fats and oils that are washed down the drain■■

keeping food waste out of the system■■

preventing foreign materials (such as nappies or personal hygiene products) from entering ■■

the system

avoiding the use of large quantities of bleaches, disinfectants, whiteners, spot removers or ■■

detergents, which will kill essential bacteria in the AWT system

using biodegradable products with low sodium and phosphorus if possible■■

inspecting and testing the disinfection chamber quarterly to ensure correct disinfectant levels■■

developing routine preventative maintenance schedules that are appropriate for the system and ■■

the situation (for example, tropical areas compared to desert)

ensuring community members have up-to-date knowledge of, and access to, external ■■

technical support.

Regular monitoring and maintenance includes:

checking the pump stations, preferably on a daily basis, and keeping records of pumping, ■■

inspections and other maintenance

checking and clearing screens daily (including grease traps)■■

performing maintenance tasks for lagoons at least every two months■■

servicing the pumps and pump station (between monthly and quarterly)■■

arranging for the AWT systems to be checked regularly (around four times per year)■■

cleaning and inspecting pressure mains periodically■■

checking the performance of irrigation areas■■

removing sludge from lagoons■■

assessing sludge and scum levels in all tanks; de-sludging all tanks at least every three years.■■

Off-site systems

Common components of off-site sewerage systems in remote Indigenous communities are:

centralised sewerage systems■■

- common effluent disposal systems

- full effluent disposal systems

effluent transportation (pumps) and distribution (pipes)■■

constructed wetlands.■■


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Centralised sewerage systems

A full sewerage system takes wastewater (solids and water) directly from the house through a pipe

network to a treatment facility. Treatment commonly occurs in a series of effluent lagoons or ponds

where it is broken down by microorganisms (aerobic and anaerobic bacteria) or environmental factors

such as sunlight and wind. Trained staff and appropriate resources are necessary to maintain

these systems.

The major advantage of this type of system is a lower health risk due to reduced exposure to

sewage. Examples of centralised sewerage systems include common effluent disposal systems and

full effluent disposal systems. The main difference between the two systems is that common effluent

disposal systems include a septic tank near individual households so solid matter can be removed

immediately. This system may therefore be classified as a hybrid on-site, off-site system. By contrast,

full effluent disposal systems transport all effluent directly to the off-site treatment facility.

Appropriate choice and design

A common effluent disposal system allows only wastewater (and no larger solids) to flow from the

septic tank at individual households to a central treatment facility. Smaller pipes at flatter grades can

be used, reducing installation costs.

Where the topography of the land allows, gravity alone may be used to facilitate flow from the house

(or septic tank) to the centralised treatment facility. If this is not possible, pump stations may be

required to transport the wastewater or effluent through the pipe network.

Problems associated with overloading of effluent ponds during rainfall events or due to increased

water flows from leaking household systems can reduce detention times of effluent in the ponds, thus

reducing the treatment effectiveness. The average rainfall, including whether the area is flood prone,

is another important consideration.

Another consideration during the design phase is the average and peak flow rates under different

climatic conditions. The average dry weather flow is the normal sewage flow expected per person

per day, and excludes any variation for infiltration and rainfall. The highest flow rate under dry weather

conditions is termed the peak dry weather flow, and can vary depending on the extent of dry weather

infiltration and catchment size.

The size of the community will influence the variation; for example, population increase means a

decrease in the effect of peaking (dilution). Other factors that influence the design include extent and

age of the collection system, capacity to maintain the system, development density and

groundwater tables.

Extensive piping and pumps are required if communities wish to use common effluent disposal

systems. Larger centres often have a central treatment plant that uses pipes and pumps to transport

effluent to a location, such as a sewage treatment plant, away from the main residential area. A

sewage treatment plant is a much larger facility that uses aerobic and anaerobic activity.


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Sewage treatment plants receive effluent from households through a series of pipes. Depending

on size, sewage treatment plants contain several ponds that treat the wastewater in different ways.

However, the basic treatment methods are similar, such as primary treatment through sedimentation

tanks, secondary treatment with the use of aerobic bacteria, and usually followed by

tertiary treatment.

Centralised systems are expensive and require large amounts of space, so they are not appropriate

for minor communities and outstations. Costs for centralised systems can range from $600 000 for

a population of around one hundred people to more than $1 million for larger populations. In general,

septic systems with a simple design are the most common, but they are often poorly constructed or

poorly designed. These issues may exacerbate the already high maintenance requirements of

these systems.

Ensure that:

connections are sized for the higher anticipated loads■■

the system doesn’t require complex maintenance■■

the system is properly constructed (such as adequate pipe grades, appropriate joint construction)■■

lagoons are fenced to prevent access by children■■

hardware is appropriate for the water quality (for example, corrosive or hard water)■■

regular maintenance programs are developed and implemented.■■

Consider:

installing dual-pump systems in pump stations, as backup.■■

Installation

Ensure that:

an experienced site supervisor is engaged to provide quality control■■

communities receive a copy of the design and quality control documents for filing■■

all pipes are clearly marked and documented to prevent accidental damage by other contractors■■

contractors working nearby (such as road crews) are thoroughly briefed about the location of ■■

sewerage pipes

any repairs to accidental damage are quality checked before backfill.■■

Consider:

installing dual-pump systems in pump stations, as backup (in certain circumstances)■■

installing metering to measure inflow and outflow of community water; this can be very useful ■■

in detecting leaks and remediating problems

checking the installation before the system is covered.■■


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Site supervisors cost around 3–6% of the project’s budget; their presence ensures the other 94% is

well spent. Poor installation leads to poor performance, which has been known to result in drainage

running uphill and ongoing high-cost maintenance, so correct installation is important. All plumbing

work requires a Certificate of Compliance to be lodged with the plumbers licensing board of the

relevant state or territory.

Maintenance

The same maintenance procedures as for septic tanks should be followed for centralised sewerage

systems; other important steps are:

ensuring correct operating procedures are followed so that the system is reliable■■

developing routine preventive maintenance schedules that are appropriate for the system and ■■

the situation (for example, tropical areas compared to desert)

ensuring community members have up-to-date knowledge of, and access to, external ■■

technical support.

Regular monitoring and maintenance includes:

checking pump stations regularly, preferably daily■■

checking and clearing screens daily■■

maintaining lagoons, including removing sludge■■

maintaining the entire system■■

servicing pumps and pump stations periodically (monthly to quarterly)■■

cleaning and inspecting pressure mains periodically.■■

Effluent transportation and distribution (pipes and pumps)

This section provides a guide to important considerations for transporting wastewater to its

destination. These considerations will involve pumping and piping, including examples of their

performance measures. A full list of pump manufacturers and suppliers is too long to include in this

document; local suppliers can provide guidance in this area.


B3 Wastewater

Transportation system

An important consideration with the transportation of effluent is the pressure head at each point

along the distribution pipe. The head is dependent on:

pump characteristics■■

the pipe diameter■■1

total flow from all the orifices■■

diameter of the distribution pipe, size of the holes and the distance between holes■■

frictional loss in the delivery pipe, which will vary depending on the pipe material used.■■

If these factors are not considered during planning and design, the distribution pipe will be less

effective and require more maintenance.

Pump selection

Many types of pumps are available; local manufacturers and suppliers will have the best

understanding of what products are available and suitable. Each pump has its own specifications

chart and performance curve that will provide evidence of the pump’s capability under varying flow

rates. Local suppliers will also be able to provide immediate service and after-sale servicing.

The nature of the wastewater to be pumped will help to determine appropriate pump materials and

configurations.

Design codes will also help to determine the number of pumps required for each system. For

example, in New South Wales, two pumps may be required for systems with one day’s storage, or

one pump may be acceptable where storage capacity is approximately three times the daily flow.

Consider:

including a backup pump in case the duty pump fails.■■

Pump control

Automatic control of pumps will ensure that pumps turn on and off at specified levels of wastewater

in the pump well.

Alarm systems may be needed to alert operators to any maintenance requirements. In the case

of pump failure there may be a requirement to have an overflow trench. In New South Wales, the

minimum size of this trench is 1.5 metres long, 0.5 metres wide and 0.4 metres deep. Again, consult

the building code of practice in the relevant state or territory.

1 Because the speed of flow increases when water flows from a larger pipe into a smaller one, the total head (or pressure) decreases — the reason is that the water’s energy of motion (kinetic energy) increases while the potential energy provided by the pump or gravity decreases.


B3 Wastewater

Pump well

The design considerations should include the pump well — an area that encloses the pump or

pumps and assorted equipment such as alarm systems. The pump well should be sized according

to the building code of practice; for example, New South Wales Code of Practice: Plumbing and

Drainage. Take into account local flood areas to ensure that the electrical cabinet does not get

inundated during wet seasons.

When designing a pump well, ensure pumps can be removed for easy access and cleaning.

Case study 7 — Constructing wastewater gardens

A small community in the Kimberley, Western Australia, was established near a creek providing

a fresh source of drinking water. The community had six houses, so was not considered large

enough to require a common effluent wastewater system. The existing houses were each

supplied with a septic tank and leach drains (absorption trenches).

During every wet season, the watertable rose significantly, backfilling the leach drains and septic

tanks, then flooding back through the toilets into the houses. The flooded septic tanks also

discharged into the nearby creek.

Consultants suggested that wastewater gardens should be designed and constructed to use

some of the wastewater. The design included a pumping system to transport surplus water from

the septic tanks into the wastewater gardens, then to pump any surplus uphill to a large new set

of leach drains (common to all houses) on high ground and away from the creek.

Within months of construction, the wastewater gardens were lush with heavy tropical plants.

When functioning properly, they absorbed all or most wastewater passing into the gardens. There

was little or no need to pump surplus wastewater into the leach drains during the dry season.

The following issues arose during the defect liability period:

Each septic tank needed to be installed at a depth with sufficient fall (1:4) from the toilet bowl ■■

to the septic tank inlet. The septic tank overflow outlet to the leach drain had to be exactly level

due to the physics of the system. It was critical that the levels and falls were exact; however,

the levels were not initially correct, which led to much more excavation work.

Both pumping systems (septic tank to wastewater gardens, and wastewater gardens to ■■

leech drains) were manually operated and required local maintenance staff to be trained, or

residents to monitor the water levels and switch the pumps on as required. Both maintenance

staff and residents were highly mobile, so this measure often failed. As a result, the gardens

filled above the gravel bed level, exposing children and animals to contaminated water, and

creating an ideal breeding ground for mosquitoes.

The pump switches were within easy reach of children, who would often play with the ■■

switches and upset the pumping systems.


B3 Wastewater

(continued)

Children playing around the outlets to the drains and septic tank would fill the vents and ■■

overflow pipes in the gardens with rocks, causing blockages.

An elderly resident assumed that the gardens required heavy pruning and stripped back the ■■

heavy foliage in one of the gardens. This reduced the garden’s uptake of nutrients.

The pumps installed initially were not of an appropriate quality, and failed regularly. This may ■■

have resulted from a poor choice of pump. A pump made from more robust materials and

components and provided with regular maintenance may have been sufficient.

Constructed wetlands

Use of natural systems like wetlands to treat wastewater is becoming more common. Wetlands are

open water habitats and seasonally or permanently waterlogged land areas. Natural wetlands can

be described as ‘kidneys of the landscape’ due to their capacity to filter pollutants from wastewater.

Constructed wetlands may thus be thought of as ‘kidney transplants’. Constructed wetlands

are similar to natural wetlands in that they use physical, chemical and biological processes that

nature has already developed. The physical processes include settling and filtration (Figure B3.3).

Chemical reactions mediated by waterborne microorganisms remove carbon and nitrogen from the

wastewater. The biological action of microorganisms also helps reduce the amount of nutrients in the

wastewater by filtering suspended solids and decomposing organic matter.

Figure B3.3: Types of constructed wetland

Free water surface wetland

Floating macrophyte wetland

Subsurface flow wetland or horizontal flow wetland

Substrate (eg gravel)



B3 Wastewater

Constructed wetlands can be classified according to their structure and function — surface flow

wetlands or subsurface flow. Surface flow systems are often used as tertiary and stormwater

wetlands. Subsurface flow wetlands such as reed beds utilise a substrate such as gravel into which

wastewater flows without exposing any water surface. Subsurface constructed wetlands are less

likely to provide habitat for mosquitoes. Also, in areas where the water is of good quality, mosquito

predators such as frogs and other wetland fauna can help to reduce mosquito populations. However,

wetlands should be located some distance from the community.


The choice of suitable vegetation is the most important aspect of constructed wetlands in terms of

nutrient removal. The most appropriate species should preferably be local to the area as examples

have shown that inappropriate species selection can lead to weed infestations and increased

environmental problems. Examples of common wetland species include Typha domingensis and

Phragmites australis. Species such as Triglochin procerum and Bolboschoenus medianus are not as

common, but are being been trialled in a constructed wetland at Willunga, South Australia.

Ensure that:

suitable local species are chosen for nutrient removal■■

the soil is adequately tested■■

there is enough land area.■■

Consider:

environmental and climatic factors when designing the wetland.■■

Maintenance

Maintenance for wetlands is mainly concerned with primary and secondary treatment processes,

including any pumps that may be used. Water quality monitoring should be conducted regularly to

determine if there are any adverse changes to the influent. Observations can also detect if vegetation

is deteriorating to an extent that warrants concern.

Ensure that:

routine preventive operating and maintenance procedures for primary and secondary treatment ■■

technologies are maintained

water tests for nutrient content in wastewater, especially heavy metal concentrations, are ■■

regularly conducted.


B3 Wastewater

Case study 8 — Recycled water irrigation options

As part of a move to improve environmental health and recreational areas in a community of

approximately 600 people, the local government body proposed an investigation into the options

for grassing the women’s softball field. The field was used for women’s softball on a daily basis

throughout the year, and more intensely in winter. It was also used for after-school children’s day

care groups throughout the year.

The feasibility study explored the options of grassing, by either seed or turfing, or using synthetic

surfaces such as artificial lawn. The key issues around these options were capital cost, water

supply and its distribution, and ongoing maintenance requirements. Limited by cost, the local

government’s preferred option was grassing of the oval. Options for providing irrigation water

included using groundwater, requiring a new, dedicated bore in an already fragile aquifer, or

treating and recycling water from the existing sewage ponds.

Based on costs and water resource implications, recycling of effluent including biological and/or

chemical treatment was preferred. Design and implementation of the system involved an extensive

risk assessment to satisfy regulatory requirements under public health and environmental

legislation. Rigorous procedures were required to ensure appropriate monitoring, operation and

maintenance of the system to eliminate health and environmental risks.

Critical to the success and ongoing use of such a system was consultation with the managers

of the sewage ponds, community residents and users, community maintenance managers,

and other stakeholders around community aspirations, skills, resources and acceptability. Initial

consultation with the local government staff and maintenance staff was undertaken during the

preparation of the feasibility study, which identified the availability of a small labour force for non-

skilled operation and maintenance roles. Consultation with other existing users of the effluent

ponds, such as the adjacent solar power station, identified their use and requirements of the

sewage ponds, which had to be provided for before effluent for the softball field could

be extracted.

Ongoing consultation was required throughout the concept and detailed design phases, focusing

particularly on the acceptability of recycled water for a community recreation facility. Without first

exploring the actual risks and, equally as important, the cultural and community beliefs associated

with reuse of effluent with the existing users of the softball field, it was a real possibility that users

would reject the irrigation system and the grassed oval, thus losing an important

community asset.


B3 Wastewater

Managing and maintaining servicesThe many different sanitation systems all have advantages in reducing health risks. Each system also

has specific use and maintenance requirements. Suitable training and employment opportunities

should be investigated, for unskilled maintenance crews through to qualified trades and construction

people to managers. Once established, ongoing employment will contribute to the local economy

and livelihoods development.

Ensure that:

suitably qualified professionals install the system, or at least provide advice and assistance to ■■

non-qualified people

any non-qualified community members involved are provided with adequate training on the ■■

system’s installation and maintenance requirements

a regular maintenance program is developed and strictly monitored for sustainability.■■

Consider:

training more than one person to do any particular job thus improving skills base, increasing ■■

productivity and efficiency, and reducing maintenance waiting times for residents

providing ongoing training opportunities through technical colleges (such as Technical and Further ■■

Education, or TAFE)

encouraging inter-community assistance programs whereby skilled people from one community ■■

can assist in maintenance works or training of personnel in a nearby community.


B3 Wastewater

Useful termsAerobic Meaning ‘with air’, is used in reference to organisms that use

oxygen to convert waste material to soil.

Aerobic treatment unit A self-contained electrical wastewater (sewage) treatment system

for treating sewage either wholly or partially by aerobic means.

Anaerobic Meaning ‘without air’, is used in reference to organisms that convert

waste material to soil without the use of oxygen.

AS/NZS Australian/New Zealand Standard

AWT aerated wastewater treatment

Biological oxygen demand A measure of the dissolved oxygen required for the breakdown of

(BOD) organic material in effluent (BOD5 is a 5-day test to determine the

amount of BOD in a sample).

Blackwater Wastewater from the toilet. It can be separated into two streams:

‘yellow’ (ie urine) and ‘brown’ (ie faeces). Blackwater contains

pathogens capable of causing serious human health risks such

as faecal coliforms.

Compost The result of controlled aerobic decomposition of organic matter

into material suitable for use as a fertiliser or soil conditioner.

Denitrification The natural conversion of nitrates through anaerobic bacterial action

(usually in wetlands or other oxygen-depleted environments) into

gaseous nitrogen.

Disinfection A process that reduces the number of microorganisms but does

not sterilise or remove all microorganisms.

Faecal coliforms A subset of coliforms (eg Escherichia coli) found in the intestinal

tract of humans and other warm-blooded animals, and used

as indicators of faecal pollution and effectiveness of disinfection

processes.

Greywater A type of wastewater having three different sources: bathrooms

(bath, basin and shower), laundries and kitchens. In combination,

they can account for up to 90% of wastewater from a house.

Bathroom greywater contributes about 55% of the total greywater

volume, laundry greywater 34% and kitchen greywater 11%.

Leach drain Typically associated with a septic tank system. A drain excavated

and refilled with gravel or other material that allows treated

greywater to slowly filter into the soil.

Microorganisms Microscopic organisms including bacteria, worms and fungi, which

convert waste to material that can be more readily used by plants.


B3 Wastewater

Nitrification The natural conversion of organic wastes through slow aerobic

bacterial action into nitrates.

NWQMS National Water Quality Management Strategy

Pathogens Disease-causing microorganisms (eg viruses, bacteria, helminths

and protozoa).


Sewage Sewage or effluent is the traditional term for human waste (excreta).

It typically consists of solid matter and liquid that exits a household

through bathroom, toilet and kitchen drainage systems.

Sewerage The system designed to transport human waste (sewage) from the

household to the disposal site (eg wastewater treatment plant). The

sewerage system comprises the sewer pipe leaving the building and

the treatment method.

Suspended solids Solids that are retained after wastewater has passed through a filter.

Wastewater Nutrient-rich water that takes effluent to its treatment destination.

This chapter refers mainly to wastewater except for discussion on

dry sewage such as pit toilets.

Wastewater is often separated into greywater and blackwater,

to indicate what types of nutrients, detergents and solid matter

(eg faeces) may be present. Although there are general distinctions

between greywater and blackwater, both contain particular

contaminants normally associated with each of the other streams.


B3 Wastewater

Further readingABS (Australian Bureau of Statistics) (2007). Housing and Infrastructure in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Communities, Australia, 2006 (Reissue), Cat. No. 4710.0, ABS, Canberra. www.fahcsia.gov.au/sa/indigenous/progserv/housing/Pages/chins.aspx

Bailie R, Siciliano F, Lane G, Bevan L, Paradies Y and Carson B (2002). Atlas of Health-Related Infrastructure in Discrete Indigenous Communities, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission, Melbourne.

Carroll S, Goonetilleke A and Dawes L (2004). Framework for soil suitability evaluation for sewage effluent renovation. Environmental Geology 46:195–208.

CAT (Centre for Appropriate Technology) (2005). Water bores. Bush Tech #21, CAT, Alice Springs.

CAT (Centre for Appropriate Technology) (2005). Pump selection and storage for water supplies. Bush Tech #29, CAT, Alice Springs.

CAT (Centre for Appropriate Technology) (2007). Disinfecting a water tank. Bush Tech #33, CAT, Alice Springs.

CAT (Centre for Appropriate Technology) (2007). Protecting your water places. Bush Tech #35, CAT, Alice Springs.

CAT and CRCWQT (Centre for Appropriate Technology and Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment) (2006). Rainwater tanks in remote Australia. Our Place #27, insert, CAT, Alice Springs.

DEP (Western Australia Department of Environmental Protection), Water and Rivers Commission and Department of Health (2002). Western Australian Guidelines for Direct Land Application of Biosolids and Biosolids Products, DEP, Perth.

Department of Environment and Department of Health (2005). Code of Practice for the Reuse of Greywater in Western Australia, Western Australia Department of Health, Perth.

DNRE (Victorian Department of Natural Resources and Environment) (1997). Guidelines for Alternative/Affordable Wastewater Management Options, DNRE, Melbourne.

FaHCSIA (Australian Government Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs) (2007). National Indigenous Housing Guide, 3rd edition, FaHCSIA, Canberra. www.fahcsia.gov.au/sa/indigenous/pubs/housing/Pages/national_indigenous_housing_guide.aspx

Groome S and Walker B (eds) (1998). Community Water: A Book About Water in Our Community, Centre for Appropriate Technology, Alice Springs.

Hagare P and Dharmappa HB (1999). Process analysis and design of on-site aerated wastewater treatment systems. In: Making On-Site Wastewater Systems Work, Patterson RA (ed), Proceedings of On-Site ’99 Conference, University of New England, 13–15 July 1999, Lanfax Laboratories, Armidale.

Huntzinger Beach DN and McCray JE (2003). Numerical modeling of unsaturated flow in wastewater soil absorption systems, Ground Water Monitoring & Remediation 23(2):64–72.

Marshall G (1996). Onsite options — an overview. In: Innovative Approaches to the On-Site Management of Waste and Water, Conference Proceedings, School of Resource Science and Management, Southern Cross University, Lismore.

Marshall G (2000). Sewage. In: Environmental Health Handbook: A Practical Manual for Remote Communities, Harris G (ed), Menzies School of Health Research, Northern Territory, Australia, 105–120.

NHMRC (National Health and Medical Research Council) (2004). Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, NHMRC, Canberra.

NHMRC (National Health and Medical Research Council) (2005). Australian Drinking Water Guidelines Community Water Planner — a tool for small communities to develop drinking water management plans, NHMRC, Canberra.

NPHP (National Public Health Partnership) (2002). A Summary of Public Health Laws of Relevance to Remote and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Communities, NPHP, online report. www.nphp.gov.au/workprog/lrn/atsilaws.htm (Viewed by author 23 November 2008)

Phillips IR and Sheehan KJ (2005). Importance of surface charge characteristics when selecting soils for wastewater re-use. Australian Journal of Soil Research 43(8):915–927.

Platzer C and Mauch K (1997). Soil clogging in vertical flow reed beds — mechanisms, parameters, consequences and … solutions? Water Science and Technology 35(5):175–181.


Insert TAB B4


B4Waste

Guiding principlesAccess and equity: The remoteness of many Indigenous communities means they are often

required to manage their own waste but lack the capacity to move it through the system. Information

services and resources to improve practices are limited. The differences in scale between typical

urban and Indigenous communities are also significant. For example, a single bin collection round per

week is not equitable when there are 10 people in a house rather than the urban average of 2.6.

Health and safety: Many remote communities lack an understanding of the health risks posed by

untreated waste and have difficulty obtaining adequate support or assistance to deal with common

hazardous materials. Risk management through education, correct handling of hazardous materials

and good facilities design will ensure a safe living and working community environment.

Environmental health: Effective waste management is essential to minimise associated health and

environmental risks. Concern is often expressed at the amount of litter and old car bodies in some

remote Indigenous communities, but it is important to distinguish genuine health risks from aesthetic

considerations. Successful waste management is more likely to follow from a clear understanding of

the health issues than from notions of tidiness.

Appropriateness: Waste management approaches differ according to climatic conditions,

particularly in the design of landfills where rainfall is a consideration. Appropriate measures to

minimise waste generation by reducing packaging and implementing waste reuse and recycling will

reduce landfill and environmental impacts.

Affordability: The high costs of collection prohibit many small communities from establishing and

maintaining a waste management service. Recycling has been introduced on a small scale into some

communities with programs for cans, car bodies, vehicle parts and heavy metal, but is often difficult

to sustain economically with fluctuating market prices and subsidies.

Sustainable livelihoods: Almost all management of waste and rubbish in a community relies on

the involvement of its Indigenous members, both as users of the service, and through employment in

waste collection and landfill operation. Appropriate, affordable local solutions are crucial in effective

waste management, particularly in providing a sustainable source of local employment and income.


B4 Waste

Systems overviewWaste management infrastructure is required at two levels: the household and the community.

Household infrastructure mainly concerns the types of bin present at the house. The external bin

choice should reflect community priorities and practices.

Community infrastructure ranges from the type of vehicle used to collect waste from households

and service buildings to the equipment at the landfill or transfer station site.

Generally, waste in communities is disposed of in internal bins, which are emptied into external bins.

These are in turn collected by community trucks and transported to a landfill site, which may or may

not be effective in containing waste. Methods to increase a landfill site’s effectiveness include wind

breaks, fencing, water drainage, and any other mechanism for retaining waste without jeopardising

nearby environmental factors such as groundwater. Most products arriving in communities ultimately

stay there because distance and low economy of scale limit the options for disposal.

The main components in a community waste management system (Figure B4.1) are:

bins■■

rubbish collection and collection vehicles■■

waste deposit and transfer facilities■■

separation and recycling■■

management of hazardous materials.■■

This chapter deals primarily with management systems for solid waste, but there is a significant

need for coordination with other infrastructure systems such as transport, water, wastewater and

stormwater. This includes:

transporting waste away from the community to landfill sites or recycling depots■■

coordinating waste disposal and bore field siting to protect the community’s water resources■■

designing landfill sites to prevent flooding damage by wastewater and stormwater.■■


B4 Waste

Figure B4.1: Community waste management system

Products Generation Disposal CollectionDeposit and

transfer

Products come into the

community

Waste is generated as products are used at the

household or community

level

Waste is disposed

of in bins or discarded as

litter

Waste is removed by individuals or a community

collection service

Waste is transferred to a waste deposit

facility:

landfill■■

transfer ■■

stationrecycling■■

Reduce packaging

Collect litter

Target litter hotspots

Provide household

and communal

bins

Collect regularly by:

community ■■

truck or trailerindividual ■■

vehicle

Provide:

heavy ■■

machinerybaling ■■

machinesshredders■■

Provide education at household and community levels

Manage hazardous materials at the

community level:

used oil■■

clinical waste■■

trade waste■■

inflammables■■

Manage equipment and facilities

landfill design ■■

and fencingdriver and ■■

operator trainingwater source ■■

and storage

Measures

Risk management



B4 Waste

Current service delivery arrangementsWaste management services are the responsibility of the community council or local shire council

depending on the jurisdiction, the size of the community and its proximity to major service centres.

It is becoming more common for councils to contract out waste management services. Smaller

communities tend not to have waste management services at the levels common in larger towns,

which can fund full-time landfill workers and recycling services. Some smaller communities may be

assisted by outstation resource agencies, but often manage the waste themselves (see Table B4.1).

Specific regulatory requirements for waste management by state and territory are listed in Table B4.2.

Table B4.1: Responsibilities and arrangements for managing waste in communities and outstations

State/ territory

Regulator Responsible body for communities with more than 200 people

Responsible body for communities with fewer than 200 people

NSW Department of Environment and Climate Change Environment Protection Authority

Local council Local council

NT Department of Natural Resources, Environment, The Arts and Sport

Environment Protection Authority

Local government shire or municipal council — post June 2008

Community council — up to June 2008

Local government shire — post June 2008

Outstation resource agency

Qld Environmental Protection Agency

Local government Local government

SA Environment Protection Authority

Community council Community council

WA Environmental Protection Authority

Local shire Community council or shire


B4 Waste

Table B4.2: Relevant Australian guidelines and standards for waste management

State Regulatory body and associated Acts Landfill licensing

NSW The waste regulatory framework is established under the Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997.

The Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Act 2001 promotes waste avoidance and resource recovery.

Most landfill sites in ‘environmentally sensitive’ areas require licensing.

Facilities that store, transfer or recover more than 30 000 tonnes of waste per year require an environment protection licence.

NT Natural Resources, Environment, The Arts and Sport (NRETAS) and the Environmental Protection Authority are responsible for administering the Waste Management and Pollution Control Act.

Specifications for landfill facilities are set out in: Guidelines for the Siting, Design and Management of Solid Waste Disposal Sites in the Northern Territory.

The Act requires that a landfill servicing the waste disposal requirements of more than 1000 people must be licensed.

Qld The Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for administering the Environment Protection (Waste Management) Policy and Regulation 2000.

Licensing applies to landfills that receive more than 50 tonnes of solid and/or inert waste per annum.

SA Development and operation of landfill facilities must be carried out in accordance with the Environment Protection Act 1993.

Guidelines are provided in the Environment Protection Authority’s EPA Guidelines for Environmental Management of Landfill Facilities (Municipal Solid Waste and Commercial and Industrial General Waste).

All landfills require licensing.

For new landfill sites a landfill environmental management plan (LEMP) is required as part of the development application process.

For existing landfill sites and sites with development approval, review and updating of the LEMP is required.

WA The waste management branch of the Department of Environment and Conservation administers:

Environmental Protection Act 1986 — Part VIIA

Environmental Protection (Landfill) Levy Act 1998

Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Act 2007

Environmental Protection Amendment Regulations 2006

Environmental Protection (NEPM — UPM) Regulations 2003.

Levies apply to waste received by metropolitan disposal premises, which may pass on these costs to any local government shire that uses their landfill.

Likewise, any local government that receives metropolitan-area waste is liable to pay a levy.


B4 Waste

Involving the communityThe level of participation in decision making about waste management services and practices

will vary for each community, and should be addressed on a case-by-case basis. In general,

communities want to know what services are in operation but may not necessarily wish to be

involved in detailed discussions about landfill design or the purchase of infrastructure. However,

people may want to participate in making choices about sites for landfill, the types and numbers

of bins, and the placement of communal bins. Community involvement is essential to the success

of schemes that seek to minimise the volume of waste through recycling or reuse.

Raising awareness about waste management should include a range of information-sharing sessions

that assist Indigenous people to determine their own level of decision making and support their

participation. An example of a discussion point to raise awareness might be the need to offset the

convenience of having readily accessible spare car parts against the risks posed by children playing

in old car bodies, from physical injury or spider bite.

Some specific participatory activities and tools that can be used to engage or raise awareness

among community members about waste management issues in the community include:

transect walks■■

photo and voice■■

waste matrix tools — identifying and mapping litter hot spots in the community■■2

the identification of waste management responsibilities.■■

Community involvement is vital in helping to plan waste management for communal gatherings (such

as sports weekends, funerals). Information such as the numbers of people expected to attend and

the location of camping sites helps organisers plan for litter hot spots at these events.

For health and safety reasons, many jurisdictions are moving to ban the still-common practice of

burning waste in drums or receptacles. Education is needed, but waste collection arrangements also

need to be sufficiently frequent and reliable to make household burning unnecessary.

Developing innovative ways to reuse materials either within the community or externally may assist in

stimulating enterprise. For example, small businesses could be created to salvage readily accessible

spare parts from landfill and elsewhere that could be resold or reused.

2 Waste matrix tools are tables developed with the residents that identify each litter hot spot, its location, and the person(s) who are to take responsibility for managing its removal (and reducing any further build-up).


B4 Waste

Appraising community requirementsThe first step in establishing effective waste management is to assess what waste is generated,

its sources, and how it is currently managed in the community. This can be done by conducting

an audit, using a waste assessment tool based on questions such as the example below.

Types of audits include:

visual assessment of landfill, the community area and pick-up arrangements■■

assessment by measurement: volume of waste produced daily or weekly, degree of sorting, ■■

recycling volume if any.

After the audit, possible ways to reduce waste production within the community should become clear

(for example, buying items with less packaging; ensuring that building contracts require the removal

of trade waste). There are also opportunities to involve community stores and develop relationships

with transport companies (who may, for example, allow waste to be transported on returning grocery

trucks). These positive steps can remove a large amount of packaging from the community landfill.

Questions to ask when appraising a community’s requirements:

Context

Where is the community located?■■

What are the rainfall/seasonal patterns of the community?■■

What forms the community’s water supply and is it at risk of contamination?■■

Where is the water supply located?■■

Who looks after the community’s waste management services?■■

Current waste collection services

What do the services include?■■

How is waste managed at the household level (such as types of bin)?■■

How often is waste collected from houses?■■

How is waste collection resourced by the community (for example, Community Development ■■

Employment Projects)?

Where are the communal access bins (such as store, outside council buildings, parks)?■■

How is waste otherwise disposed of (for example, burning)?■■


B4 Waste

Landfill

Where is the current landfill site located?■■

How is the landfill managed and whose responsibility is it?■■

What is the site’s capacity (height, length, width and fill level)?■■

Is the waste compacted, and if so, how?■■

What infrastructure is used on the landfill site?■■

Is it adequately fenced and secured?■■

Is the groundwater affected by the landfill site placement?■■

Recycling

Is any form of recycling being carried out?■■

Has recycling been tried but discontinued? What factors affected these changes?■■

Hazardous waste

Are there sources of hazardous waste in the community?■■

How are these currently managed?■■

Choosing appropriate solutionsIn making decisions about how to manage waste effectively, it is important to know what the

potential components of a waste management system are and how they fit with broader initiatives

and activities at the community level.

Figure B4.1, in Systems overview at the beginning of this chapter, shows how waste moves through

the community. Infrastructure plays a vital role in managing the waste stream from collection to

landfill, from recycling to transporting.

Disruption or poor practice at any point in the system will cause breakdown, resulting in increased

litter and risks to health and the local environment.


B4 Waste

Bins

Bins are pivotal for the collection of waste at both household and communal levels. In many

communities, only outdoor bins are used: 45% of households in Indigenous communities do not

have an indoor bin (see the National Indigenous Housing Guide Part C4). Lack of bins within the

house can lead to health problems associated with vermin and spread of disease, and undermine the

value of rubbish collection. Where households rely on external bins, there is a risk that these will be

overturned by scavenging dogs, moved or vandalised by children, scattering the waste. Internal bins

with sealable bag liners are the best means of avoiding this problem. Incineration of waste in external

bins is also common, particularly where collection is infrequent.

The types of external bin used in communities (see Table B4.3) depend on historic precedent, cost,

rubbish amount, availability of bin types and climatic conditions.

Internal bins

Internal bins (with liner bags) are important in managing waste within the house, keeping bin loads

intact and getting rubbish to external bins.

Ensure that:

household bins and liners are readily available from the local store.■■

Consider:

working with the clinic to promote the use of internal household bins from a health point of view.■■

External bins

Ensure that:

every household in a community has at least one external household bin■■

all bins have a secure stand (this can be a simple post and chain) to prevent them being knocked ■■

over by dogs

all bins have a secure lid to reduce access by vermin■■

secure outdoor bins (with stand and lid) are available in key areas of the community, particularly ■■

litter hot spots such as community parks and ovals, and all community service centres (clinic,

school and store)

the community is aware of the proper use of bins, and health and financial costs of inappropriate ■■

use

collections for household waste are sufficiently frequent that residents do not need to resort to ■■

burning waste at home

community members are aware of the risks associated with burning rubbish, particularly in plastic ■■

bins, and encouraged to avoid burning where collection services are provided


B4 Waste

the immediate areas (10 metre radius) around bins are free of fire risks such as vegetation and ■■

other combustibles

special arrangements are made for the collection or deposit of hazardous waste such as paint, ■■

batteries, oil and clinical waste.

Consider:

allowing waste management service providers or operators to charge customers a fee to cover ■■

some of the costs of providing waste management services (bins, collection, landfill management)

using bin enclosures in communities where large feral animals such as camels and wandering ■■

stock present a problem

using lockable bin stands if bins are going missing■■

child-proofing bins if necessary by reinforcing lids, drilling holes in the bottom and using lockable ■■

bin stands

buying and stocking replacement wheels and lids for wheelie bins as required.■■

Maintenance

Ensure that:

household bins are emptied at least once a week■■

community bins are emptied at least once a week and immediately following community events ■■

(such as sports carnivals)

regular audits of the state of bins are conducted, problems noted and parts ordered and fitted ■■

to maintain bins in good order.


B4 Waste

Tab

le B

4.3:

Ext

erna

l bin

s us

ed in

co

mm

uniti

es

Typ

eTy

pic

al s

izes

Co

st (a

pp

rox.

)A

dva

ntag

esD

isad

vant

ages

44 g

allo

n d

rum

s:

recy

cled

old

fuel

dru

ms

— c

omm

only

use

d fo

r bu

rnin

g ru

bbis

h

220

litre

sFr

ee to

$10

–20

(use

d dr

ums)

very

low

cos

t, ro

bust

, sim

ple

■■

stan

d no

t alw

ays

need

ed■

■

no li

d —

bird

s or

dog

s ca

n ■

■

scat

ter

cont

ents

extr

emel

y he

avy

and

awkw

ard

■■

to m

ove

whe

n fu

ll —

two

peop

le a

re n

eede

d to

lift

load

ed b

in fo

r di

spos

al in

to

colle

ctio

n ve

hicl

ew

ill co

rrod

e af

ter

num

erou

s ■

■

fires

limite

d av

aila

bilit

y■

■

Whe

elie

bin

s: h

eavy

du

ty p

last

ic b

in o

n w

heel

s as

com

mon

ly

used

in u

rban

cen

tres

60, 8

0, 1

20, 2

40,

660,

110

0 lit

res

$80–

200

easy

to m

ove

■■

repl

acem

ent l

ids

and

■■

whe

els

avai

labl

e fro

m m

ost

man

ufac

ture

rsbi

n st

ands

and

lid-

liftin

g ■

■

devi

ces

read

ily a

vaila

ble

avai

labl

e in

diff

eren

t col

ours

■

■

to a

ssis

t in

sepa

ratio

n, s

ortin

g an

d re

cycl

ing

desi

gned

for

empt

ying

by

■■

mac

hine

less

robu

st —

whe

els

and

lids

■■

fall

off w

ith m

isus

ew

heel

ie b

ins

and

lids

are

■■

som

etim

es u

sed

as to

ys b

y ch

ildre

nno

t fire

proo

f: of

ten

burn

t ■

■

delib

erat

ely

or a

ccid

enta

lly b

y pe

ople

bur

ning

rub

bish

Ro

bus

t b

in (C

AT

or

sim

ilar)

: a m

odifi

ed

met

al d

rum

cus

tom

m

ade

for

use

in

Indi

geno

us c

omm

uniti

es

220

litre

s$3

20lid

ded

to p

reve

nt a

cces

s by

■

■

bird

s an

d do

gstw

o ha

ndle

s fo

r ea

sier

han

dlin

g■

■

vent

ilate

d —

bes

t cho

ice

if ■

■

burn

ing

cann

ot b

e av

oide

d

expe

nsiv

e■

■

two

peop

le a

re n

eede

d to

lift

■■

load

ed b

in fo

r di

spos

al in

to

colle

ctio

n ve

hicl

e


B4 Waste

Typ

eTy

pic

al s

izes

Co

st (a

pp

rox.

)A

dva

ntag

esD

isad

vant

ages

Pla

stic

gar

bag

e b

ins

Up

to 2

00 li

tres

$10–

60ch

eap

and

easy

to s

ourc

e■

■

easy

to m

ove

whe

n em

pty

■■

fragi

le■

■

need

cus

tom

-mad

e bi

n st

and;

■

■

lid e

asily

lost

ofte

n to

o sm

all —

man

y ■

■

hous

ehol

ds re

quire

two

for

a w

eekl

y co

llect

ion

run

requ

ire p

rote

ctio

n fro

m d

ogs

■■

and

verm

in

Ski

ps:

larg

e m

etal

bin

s fo

r in

dust

rial/b

ulk

was

te

disp

osal

2 cu

bic

met

res

or

larg

erO

ften

hire

d by

the

wee

kex

trem

ely

robu

st■

■

suita

ble

for

com

mer

cial

■

■

quan

titie

s of

was

tem

ay b

e us

eful

for

bulk

■

■

colle

ctio

n of

recy

clab

le m

etal

s

fork

lift o

r ot

her

heav

y ■

■

equi

pmen

t req

uire

d fo

r m

ovin

g, e

mpt

ying

and

tr

ansp

ortin

g

(con

tinue

d)


B4 Waste

Rubbish collection and collection vehicles

Collection is an essential component of all waste management systems. Householders should not be

expected to dispose of waste themselves by burning, burying or adding it to the wastewater load.

The ways in which rubbish is moved from bins in households and other buildings to the landfill site

or transfer station varies according to community size.

Larger communities may use custom-built garbage trucks with loading arms and compactors.

While garbage trucks are the most efficient option for handling large quantities of waste, they are

expensive to buy and require specialist maintenance.

Smaller communities often use simpler options such as 2–4 tonne general-purpose trucks or flat-

bed trailers onto which bins are loaded then transported to the landfill site. While this option is cheap

and efficient on a small scale, it is more labour intensive and carries greater occupational health and

safety risks than using garbage trucks.

Advantages and disadvantages of different garbage collection vehicles are listed in Table B4.4.


B4 Waste

Tab

le B

4.4:

Maj

or

gar

bag

e co

llect

ion

infr

astr

uctu

re

Typ

eC

apac

ity

(no

. of

whe

elie

b

in lo

ads)

Pur

chas

e co

stO

ngo

ing

co

sts

Ad

vant

ages

Dis

adva

ntag

es

Gar

bage

truc

k w

ith

com

pact

or a

nd

tippe

r

200

Hig

hH

igh

redu

ces

volu

me

of m

ater

ial

■■

reac

hing

land

fill

high

est c

apac

ity■

■

very

low

pic

k-up

tim

e■

■

best

ope

rato

r oc

cupa

tiona

l ■

■

heal

th a

nd s

afet

y pe

rform

ance

requ

ires

spec

ialis

ed

■■

mai

nten

ance

, whi

ch m

ay b

e di

fficu

lt to

acc

ess

heav

y rig

id d

river

’s li

cenc

e ■

■

requ

ired

mor

e di

fficu

lt to

ens

ure

safe

use

■

■

at c

omm

unity

leve

l

Gar

bage

truc

k w

ith

tippe

r10

0H

igh

Hig

hlo

w p

ick-

up ti

me

■■

high

cap

acity

■■

good

ope

rato

r oc

cupa

tiona

l ■

■

heal

th a

nd s

afet

y pe

rform

ance

requ

ires

spec

ialis

ed

■■

mai

nten

ance

, whi

ch m

ay b

e di

fficu

lt to

acc

ess

med

ium

or

heav

y rig

id d

river

’s

■■

licen

ce re

quire

d

Sm

all g

ener

al-

purp

ose

truc

k30

Med

ium

Med

ium

–H

igh

mul

tipur

pose

■■

can

be fi

tted

with

aut

omat

ed

■■

arm

s fo

r lo

adin

g ru

bbis

h

limite

d ca

paci

ty■

■

poor

ope

rato

r oc

cupa

tiona

l ■

■

heal

th a

nd s

afet

y pe

rform

ance

light

rig

id o

r hi

gher

driv

er’s

■

■

licen

ce re

quire

d

Hyd

raul

ic ti

ppin

g tr

aile

r20

Low

–m

ediu

mM

ediu

mm

ultip

urpo

se■

■

easy

to o

ffloa

d■

■

can

be h

itche

d to

any

veh

icle

■■

low

cap

acity

■■

poor

ope

rato

r oc

cupa

tiona

l ■

■

heal

th a

nd s

afet

y pe

rform

ance

pron

e to

bre

akag

e —

hig

h ■

■

mai

nten

ance

Trai

ler

20Lo

wLo

wm

ultip

urpo

se■

■

read

ily a

vaila

ble

■■

no s

peci

alis

ed li

cenc

e re

quire

d■

■

can

be fi

tted

with

aut

omat

ed

■■

arm

for

empt

ying

bin

sca

n be

hitc

hed

to a

ny v

ehic

le■

■

low

cap

acity

■■

poor

ope

rato

r oc

cupa

tiona

l ■

■

heal

th a

nd s

afet

y pe

rform

ance

Ligh

t rig

id (L

R) v

ehic

le =

4.5

to

8 to

nne

gros

s ve

hicl

e m

ass

Med

ium

rig

id (M

R) v

ehic

le =

2 a

xle,

gre

ater

tha

n 8

tonn

e gr

oss

vehi

cle

mas

s H

eavy

rig

id (H

R) v

ehic

le =

3 o

r m

ore

axle

s, g

reat

er t

han

8 to

nne

gros

s ve

hicl

e m

ass


B4 Waste


Ensure that when choosing a garbage collection vehicle:

the type of vehicle is suited to the type of bin used■■

the type of vehicle is suited to the landfill design (such as adequate room for manoeuvring in the ■■

landfill, entering and exiting the site)

the vehicle is not too large for the community’s needs■■

the collection vehicle is designed for easy loading, unloading and cleaning (for example, with ■■

automated arms on trucks and ramps on trailers)

garbage vehicle drivers have the appropriate licence and training to drive and operate the ■■

vehicle safely.

Consider the following question before purchasing custom-built garbage trucks:

Can the community can afford to maintain a heavy vehicle: is there access to an on-site mechanic ■■

or ongoing funding for contract maintenance? The smaller and more remote a community, the

less able it will be to maintain heavy vehicles.

Ensure that with trailers:

the wheels and tyres on the trailer can cope with landfill conditions (such as high risk of ■■

punctures) and are secured against theft

the trailer’s tipping mechanism is compatible with the landfill design (that is, so operators do not ■■

have to reverse the trailer to the edge of a vertically cut trench that could collapse).

Consider with trailers:

using non-standard automotive wheels and hubs with solid or foam-filled tyres to reduce the risk ■■

of tyres being removed for spare parts or being ruined by punctures

installing hinged ramps on the back of trailers to assist in loading wheelie bins.■■

Maintenance

Ensure that:

there is a regular maintenance schedule for garbage collection vehicles■■

external contractors are required to undertake vehicle and trailer maintenance regularly (for ■■

example, checking brake lights, wheels and trailer brakes).


B4 Waste

Consider:

providing suitable training and awareness to workers to minimise maintenance requirements ■■

and costs.

Related services

In cyclone-prone areas, damage and injury can result from flying debris during high winds.

Communities in urban environments such as Darwin may be able to make use of existing pre-cyclone

season clean-up and collection services, or coordinate their own local services on an annual basis.

They should also consider what equipment, resources and organisation might be needed for disposal

of damaged vegetation and other waste material after severe weather events.

Waste deposit and transfer facilities

Landfill

Managing rubbish tips or landfill sites is a key component of the overall waste management system

of a community. Preparation and maintenance of a landfill operation is expensive and requires careful

planning (Table B4.5).

Table B4.5: Examples of landfill site assessment criteria

Category Criteria to be considered

Planning – Appropriate zoning land ownership■■

available buffers■■

environmentally sensitive or sacred sites■■

land use agreements■■

Technical – Integration with existing and future waste network

opportunities for regional cooperation■■

centrality■■

accessibility■■

existing services and utilities■■

capacity — area required■■

Environmental and geological – Impact on and from the environment

effect on surface water■■

effect on groundwater■■

impact of flooding■■

ecology■■

topography■■

visual amenity■■

traffic■■

noise■■

dust■■

odour■■

Community – Social social impacts■■


B4 Waste

Landfill can pose health and environmental risks, so there are strict guidelines for siting, design and

management. These guidelines differ from state to state, and in many cases licences are required

(see Table B4.2). Some of the key criteria are outlined below. However, guidance must be sought

from the relevant state or territory body before proceeding with any plans to develop or upgrade

a landfill facility.

Siting a new landfill site is a particularly challenging task. It is important to consider features of the

climate or landscape (such as groundwater) that may affect the location of landfill; sites are often

located and designed in ways that are unsuitable or unsustainable. Indigenous communities typically

obtain advice and guidance through their local shire council or environmental protection agency to

assist in siting a new landfill. Communities should also check for and conform with local Indigenous

land use agreements and heritage clearance processes. They should determine who owns the

existing site and whether there are any sacred sites or land management activities nearby.

Ensure the site is:

at least 1 kilometre from residential areas and 100 metres from public roads■■

above the 100-year flood line■■

sloped with a gradient of less than 1:5■■

big enough to carry a minimum of 10 years’ waste■■

downwind from the community, based on prevailing winds■■

fenced with a gate or entrance situated away from the downwind side (a gate on the downwind ■■

side would allow waste to blow out)

designed so that community water sources, particularly groundwater and surface water supplies, ■■

are not at risk from leachate or contamination

provided with adequate all-weather road access.■■

Consider:

locating the landfill adjacent to sewage ponds (as both have similar requirements for distance ■■

from community), but designing them to prevent leaching in either direction.


Ensure that:

the site is cleared of vegetation■■

the landfill site is graded to drain water away from the waste disposal area■■

table drains are established around the perimeter of the site or localised bunding is established ■■

around pits to prevent surface water entry (see Chapter B2 Stormwater)

final cover on landfill sites is low porosity soil compacted, mounded or graded to prevent the ■■

flow of water into trenches.


B4 Waste

Consider:

providing an area of landfill space for separation of bulky or recyclable materials (for example, ■■

metals such as cars, white goods, construction material), which should not go into the same

trench or cell as household and packaging waste

basing designs on the heavy equipment and machinery already available at the community■■

providing garbage collection vehicles with enough room for manoeuvring in the landfill and ■■

entering and exiting the site

providing machinery (such as backhoe, front-end loader) used to move, compact or cover the ■■

landfill site with enough room to manoeuvre in the site and out of the pits or trenches

keeping the working space as small as possible to prevent spread of loose waste (while leaving ■■

effective working room for vehicles)

providing a firebreak around the edge of the site■■

installing gates that can be secured to manage potential health risks (for example, physical ■■

danger to children, toxic contamination, unstable ground, exposure to putrescible waste)

calculating how long the landfill site will last and possible locations for a replacement site, ■■

preferably with at least a 10-year life span

establishing regional landfill sites for communities that are located reasonably close together, ■■

so that economic and environmental costs can be shared

constructing suitable buildings for hazardous and recyclable materials.■■

Larger communities: fencing should be at least 1.8 metres high; mesh fencing is the most

common type. Some suggest that 0.2 metres of the fence should be buried to deter

burrowing animals.

Smaller communities/outstations: 1.2 metre high fencing may be appropriate for stock control.

Fence height specifications may vary between jurisdictions. Check with state or territory guidelines

or with the local council for the applicable requirements.

Landfill methods

Three methods of landfill design are most commonly used: trench landfill, area fill and cell landfill.

Waste landfill cages may also be appropriate for very small communities.

Trench landfill

The trench landfill method (Figures B4.2–B4.4) is a long narrow channel in the ground in which

waste is placed then covered with soil. It is most commonly used in small communities in low-rainfall

regions. Trenches are dug across the contour of the slope and waste is compacted into one end

using a front-end loader or backhoe. Each trench is typically 2.5 metres deep, 6–7 metres wide and

50 metres long. Trenches are suited to sites with soil that is easy to excavate, but not rocky ground.


B4 Waste

Figure B4.2: Diagram of the trench method

Wind

Recycling area

Gate

Future pit site


Figure B4.3: Longitudinal section of a trench

1.5–2.5 m depending on soil type

50 m

Final cover 600 mm

Interim soil cover 150 mm

Soil

Slope should be at least 5 to 1

Waste Waste Waste Waste Waste



B4 Waste

Figure B4.4: Trench landfill


Used white goods, car bodies and construction materials are often located at landfill sites. Parts from

waste products are sometimes reused, so they should be publicly accessible but placed away from

the trench. It is important to minimise opportunities for scavenging from the trench site because of

the risk of wall collapse or injury from sharp objects.

Ensure that:

the trench is graded so that vehicles can drive safely in and out■■

interim cover depth of soil over rubbish is 150 millimetres, and final cover is 300–600 millimetres■■

the maximum height of rubbish is 1 metre■■

trenches are oriented at right angles to the prevailing wind.■■

Consider:

maintaining trenches properly, including interim waste cover and weed control■■

piling up earth around the landfill to make a bund or increase the size of the existing bund — in ■■

some high-rainfall areas, trench landfill may be at risk of leaching (that is, water pooling and failing

to drain, or even flooding).


B4 Waste

Absorption trenches

Typically, leachate collection systems are limited in remote communities. Highly engineered systems

that collect and treat leachate from landfill are often too expensive. An absorption trench may be an

affordable option.

These systems use a perforated pipe, which is surrounded by gravel and buried in the ground (also

called a ‘leach drain’). Leachate flows into the pipe, then out into the gravel and soil. Pathogens and

other pollutants are removed by filtering and through decomposition by microorganisms in the soil.

Loamy soil is best where the water drains away but not too quickly.

Consider:

soil type — leachate drains slowly into clay and quickly through sandy soils; contaminated ■■

surface water may be directed to an evaporation pond or a septic tank.

Area fill

This design is used in larger communities or sites in tropical regions and some high-rainfall temperate

locations (Figure B4.5). Instead of digging a trench, rubbish is filled in a flat, low area or depression to

bring it to the same height but no more than 2 metres above the ground. It requires 150 millimetres of

cover and a final cover of 300 millimetres. The active face should be at right angles to the prevailing

wind direction.

For the area fill method a large quantity of cover (fill) material must be imported.

Figure B4.5: Area fill



B4 Waste

Cell landfill design

The cell landfill method involves creating a bund wall of earth against which waste is pushed. The

bund wall prevents stormwater from running into the waste and diverts it away from the landfill. The

cell method is used for large communities and stony sites. It is the best method for flood-prone areas

(tropical areas).

As with the area fill method, a large quantity of bund and cover fill material needs to be imported.

The bund should be constructed to the height of the landfill. There should be a flat section on top to

allow a backhoe or other earthmoving machinery to cover the waste. The side of the bund should

be compacted firmly to prevent soil erosion. The slope of the outside of the bund should be 5:1; the

slope inside should be 2:1. Waste should be covered with 150 millimetres of material when pushed

up against the slope.

Fill material: consists of soil (being clay, silt or sand), gravel and rock. The industry refers to

fill material as ‘clean fill’. Fill material may contain contaminants above background levels and

may not be suitable for all uses (care needs to be taken in an agricultural environment and an

assessment made of contaminant levels and its intended use). In the community landfill context,

fill is used for bunding and cover purposes.

Putrescible waste: Problems often associated with putrescible waste landfills include vermin,

seagulls, dust, odour, flies and other insects, fires, litter, and surface water and groundwater

contamination by leachate. The design and operating requirements for a putrescible waste landfill

are generally more stringent than for a site accepting solid inert waste only.

Figure B4.6: Cell landfill



B4 Waste

Waste landfill cage

Waste landfill cages may be appropriate for very small communities. A pit is dug that is not as wide

as the cage. The cage is towed into place over a pit that is filled with waste materials that are most

often burnt. The burning process helps to reduce the mass so further materials can be dumped.

The same pit preparation and siting considerations for landfill apply here.

Design

Ensure that:

the design allows the cage to be moved to a new site when the pit is full■■

the cage is wider than the pit■■

cages are fire resistant■■

cage design takes into account the types of vehicles or trailers used for waste collection.■■

Consider:

other methods of waste disposal that do not require burning, to reduce carbon emissions into ■■

the atmosphere and the health risks associated with burning.

Management and maintenance of landfill sites

Understand and plan activities related to the day-to-day operation of the site including:

staff training■■

environmental management controls■■

ongoing promotion of occupational health and safety■■

community education■■

arrangements for direct public deposit of waste material by car or trailer■■

management of scavenging and material recovery.■■

Signage will help with landfill management, particularly if personnel are not on the site daily. It could

include:

the name of the facility manager■■

hours of access■■

emergency phone numbers■■

directions to waste disposal areas for green waste, general household waste, white goods, etc■■

a list of items that are not allowed to be dumped■■

warnings about scavenging, lighting of fires, littering and illegal dumping.■■


B4 Waste

Ensure that:

the community identifies who is responsible for the operation and maintenance of the site■■

records of existing and previous landfill locations are kept to ensure successful community ■■

planning outcomes

new landfill material is compacted when deposited at the site (compaction will extend the landfill ■■

life and reduce the risk of site subsidence)

waste is covered periodically by 150 millimetres of soil to stop vermin and reduce odour and litter■■

a final cover of 300–600 millimetres of soil is added when the trench or landfill area is full■■

requirements for management of construction or demolition waste are clearly stated in any capital ■■

works contracts; construction waste can be either removed from the community or disposed of in

a separate pit dug, filled, compacted and reinstated by the contractor

burning is avoided, especially at times of high fire danger■■

firefighting equipment is provided at the landfill site or with the collection vehicle (water supply and ■■

pump or fire trailer, knapsack, hand tools, rakes, shovels, etc).

Consider:

sharing expensive plant such as front-end loaders, excavators and bulldozers on a regional basis; ■■

this machinery (including equipment to transport it) can also be used for community work such as

clearing firebreaks, road maintenance and heavy haulage

establishing occupational health and safety equipment and facilities for handling and managing ■■

waste (that is, water supply at the landfill site for emergency wash down)

the type and frequency of supervision of the site■■

the management of traffic, dust and noise from the site.■■

Case study 9 — Considering landfill options

A small remote community located on a busy seasonal tourist route owned a waste management

landfill site that had reached its capacity. They needed a new site, but did not have the equipment

or funds to rehabilitate the old site and establish a new one.

A local non-government organisation was offered some limited funds to employ a project manager

to assist the community to manage the situation. He identified the following issues:

The community was on a small block of land excised from a local cattle station property, which ■■

restricted options for locating a new landfill site appropriately.

The community was very close to the state government–managed tourist route and the road ■■

easement was potentially an issue in siting the landfill.


B4 Waste

(continued)

The local government shire, while not able to support the community waste management ■■

system except through annual inspections and advice, requested that the project manager

conform to its standard design for landfill waste management facilities.

The shire approved a landfill design that included criteria such as minimum dimensions; outer ■■

compound fence (vermin proof, lockable); inner litter fence; excavated trench with chamfered

walls; overburden placed parallel to the trench; and appropriate siting and drainage to prevent

seasonal floodwaters from filling the trench.

The community did not have its own earthmoving equipment to handle this work. It issued ■■

a ‘call for tenders’ based on the shire-approved specifications and seeking contractors with

appropriate plant and equipment.

This tendering process revealed the high cost of mobilising contractors over the 300 kilometre

route between the community and the nearest regional centre — all tender returns were

over budget.

The project manager set about investigating ways to reduce costs. From experience, he was

aware that locking and attempting to vermin-proof the landfill was optimistic. Wrecked motor cars

and parts were often taken to the landfill site, but community members continued to rely on these

as a source for spare parts. Any attempt to lock a community landfill site would tend to result

in damage to the compound as people tried to gain access. However, leaving the compound

unlocked made it harder to keep the landfill vermin-proof.

The project manager was able to negotiate with the shire to delete reference to ‘vermin proofing’

the fence. This meant that standard cyclone fencing could be used, which was less expensive and

did not need to be buried to a depth of 300 millimetres. This reduction brought the costs down

within budget.

Several years later during the wet season, water flowed through the landfill, filled the trench, and

carried waste through the community. On closer inspection, the project manager realised that the

landfill’s drainage bunds had been breached by a grader performing routine maintenance and

had also become eroded. These issues were rectified, so the site could continue to be used until

reaching capacity.

Transfer stations

There is a nationwide trend in solid waste disposal towards the construction of large regional landfills

rather than small, rural, and often unsupervised landfill sites. This move is intended to achieve larger

well-engineered operations with improved environmental controls and opportunities for increased

resource recovery. In conjunction with this, many smaller rural locations are now opting to develop

transfer stations.


B4 Waste

In its simplest form, a transfer station is a facility with a designated receiving area where waste

collection vehicles and/or small, self-haul customers deposit their waste. The waste is then sorted

and loaded into larger vehicles for long-haul transport to a regional waste deposit site (landfill,

treatment facility, resource recovery facility or reprocessing plant).

Transfer stations play an important role by providing a means of consolidating recyclables and waste.

This is particularly the case in regional areas where the feasibility of disposing waste locally may

be limited.

Transfer stations often have separate collection areas for pre-sorting materials at the time of deposit.

Additionally, they may resell reusable material to the public (the ‘tip shop’). Ideally, there is no long-

term storage of materials at a transfer station — all wastes and recyclables are consolidated and

loaded into larger vehicles for movement off-site.

In developing transfer stations, consideration should be given to broader resource recovery networks,

transport logistics and the potential for regional cooperation.

Design

Ensure that:

the waste types and estimated volumes the station will process is assessed, including:■■

- light recyclables (plastics, aluminium, paper and cardboard)

- heavy recyclables (batteries, metals such as steel or copper)

- tyres

- white goods

- general waste (packaging)

- waste oil.

Consider:

the impact of waste volumes on selection of the appropriate material handling equipment to be ■■

used at the station, and appropriate sizing for transfer bins, storage containers and storage areas

for recyclable items

the types of structures that can be used, including:■■

- enclosed structures

- open structures

the natural topography of the site and how to make best use of wind barriers and visual screens; ■■

existing slopes can be used to provide benches and to divert water flows from operational areas.


B4 Waste


The management and maintenance requirements identified under landfill facilities apply equally

to transfer stations, with the exception of items that relate specifically to landfill compaction

and covering.

Separation and recycling

An increasing range of infrastructure is available to assist in the handling of recycled products.

Much of this is designed for larger commercial operations, but some units are suitable for small and

remote communities. These include crushers, balers and shredders that compress and repackage

recyclables for storage and transport.

Many of the considerations in planning a local recycling initiative relate to its economic feasibility.

There may be benefits for the community in recycling waste that has an economic value, such as

metals, catalytic converters and beverage containers. Communities in South Australia in particular

can benefit from utilising a legislated container deposit scheme to provide a deposit and refund on

beverage containers.

The processing of recyclable products usually occurs at a material recovery facility (MRF). Each MRF

is designed to process certain materials. Some will only process metals or plastics or various other

materials. Individual materials such as plastics require specific processing due to the combination of

chemicals they contain. Some plastic containers have a symbol (an arrowed triangle) with a plastic

identification code (PIC 1 to 7); however, the MRF may not be set up to process any given particular

type of plastic container.

The costs of handling and transporting recyclables must also be weighed against the alternative of

disposal at the community.

Consider:

costs associated with collecting the materials (such as providing and managing a deposit-funded ■■

subsidy or collector fee; extracting the material from the normal waste stream)

equipment capital costs and appropriate sizing■■

equipment maintenance and operating costs■■

the cost of transporting recyclables to a recycling depot■■

the potential for coordination at a regional level to rationalise transport costs■■

additional environmental or social benefits and costs■■

the projected income■■

the availability of grant funding for capital costs, including transportation■■

the amount of material being generated and handled■■


B4 Waste

a sensitivity analysis including changes in the prices paid for products (noting that market prices ■■

for recycled metals can fluctuate dramatically), the mix of recyclables collected, and higher or

lower yields from the collection process itself

management issues including the storage and security of the infrastructure■■

staff capacity.■■

Compare:

the base case of no recycling with all waste going to landfill.■■

Aluminium can crushers

Can crushing reduces the volume of aluminium cans by a factor of 10 or 20, which assists in

lowering associated transport costs. Crushing units suitable for community use are able to crush

many cans in one operation into blocks that can be stacked.

For smaller-scale initiatives, cans may simply be collected in cloth bales mounted on simple metal

frames, closed with bag hooks when full, and transported away if suitable haulage can be negotiated.

Multiple product baling machines

Commercial crushing and baling units are used by recycling merchants to bale waste products such

as paper and plastic into manageable blocks for recycling. Most units are not appropriate for small

remote communities because of their cost ($30 000–70 000 per unit), specialised maintenance

needs and three-phase power requirements. The cost of transporting bales to larger centres for

recycling can also be prohibitive unless arrangements can be made with operators such as mining

companies whose trucks pass through some remote communities.

Plastics need to be sorted into their material categories for acceptance by the recycling merchant.

Shredders

Shredding units are often used by small-scale recycling facilities to process waste products such as

paper, plastics and rubber. The cost of a shredder is not necessarily prohibitive. A new three-phase

shredder costs approximately $25 000; some cheaper, second-hand models may also be available.

In remote areas, products may need to be transported to larger centres for processing.

Consider:

compaction rates■■

covered secure space for storing the infrastructure, and its efficient work layout■■

equipment may require three-phase power supplies.■■


B4 Waste


Specific occupational health and safety requirements for handling these machines include the need

for closed footwear, gloves and a well-ventilated but covered area. For processing plastics, removal

of toxic fumes must also be considered.

Case study 10 — Designing a container deposit scheme

Most aluminium and plastic containers in a community were not making it to the landfill site.

The community council and other community stakeholders were concerned at the number of

containers in the litter stream and canvassed their waste minimisation options. They supported

the idea of a container deposit scheme in which consumers and community groups (such as

school groups) would be responsible for collection. They enquired about recycling options,

including funding assistance from the state government and on-ground help from the Centre

for Appropriate Technology. The result was a plan for a container deposit scheme in which

community members would be responsible for collection. Figure B4.7 shows the pathways for the

container deposit scheme that were developed by the community.

Figure B4.7: Container deposit scheme

Consumers collectors

Community store

Outside transport

Recycling or transfer

station

Employment program

Women’s centre

Community store

Transport

Local reuse or recycling

Local landfill

Dotted lines highlight workable pathways



B4 Waste

(continued)

The community store and progress association supported the project by collating data on sales

of aluminium cans and plastic drink bottles. As part of the agreement, the store increased prices

of selected items to a level deemed appropriate by the store committee. This meant a 10 cent

increase on the original price of drinks containers. This amount would then be reclaimed by

individuals returning empty containers, and would therefore remain in the community if all items

were returned for recycling locally.

The store also arranged for transport out of recycled materials with companies that normally

delivered produce to the community, at a negotiated price. A community elder administered the

daily collection and storage of containers on premises supplied by the shire council. Community

members and organisations such as the women’s centre, health clinic and school groups

collected containers within the community and returned them to the recycling shed for sorting

and baling before the items were placed onto pallets. They were then transported for processing

at a waste recycling facility in a regional centre 550 kilometres away. Council employees used a

ute to collect containers from elderly and disabled residents who were unable to take items to the

recycling shed.

During the latter part of the project a transport company approached the community offering

to assist with removing waste steel such as car bodies. As a result, an agreement may be

reached in the future where aluminium cans are carried as part of these shipments. The benefit

from such an arrangement would be a discounted transport rate. The possibility also exists for

mining companies to assist with the funding to set up infrastructure for this or additional waste

management schemes.

A commercial baling machine was purchased from Adelaide. The project provided training in

operation of the machine and employment opportunities for three community members. Over the

12 months of the initial project funding, thousands of aluminium cans and plastic bottles were

returned for recycling. Anecdotal evidence also pointed to the community streets being much

cleaner as a result.

Management of hazardous materials

It is important that community members are informed about specific local sources of hazardous

waste, and understand how to manage them appropriately to avoid injury to themselves and their

children.

Handling and disposal of the following forms of hazardous waste are discussed below:

used oil■■

asbestos-related materials■■


B4 Waste

trade waste■■

clinical waste.■■

Used oil

Used oil is a hazardous byproduct from cars, generators, boats and trucks. It can have toxic

effects even at low levels of exposure. Oil should not be deposited in landfill or on the ground, as it

presents both a fire hazard and a contamination threat to underlying groundwater. Therefore the safe

collection, storage and transport of used oil away from the community need to be considered.

The principles of management are:

collect all used oil in one place away from other buildings to reduce the pollution and fire risk■■

store the oil safely■■

transport it out to a recycler as soon as possible.■■

Used oil facilities should be:

under cover and on a concrete slab■■

well ventilated and away from strong acids and alkalis, heat and ignition sources■■

located in a well-drained site, away from houses■■

accessible and able to be monitored■■

well signed to indicate toxic waste and flammable liquids (see Figure B4.8).■■

Storage options within the facility include:

Drums

store under a roof to stop corrosion■■

seal drum lids securely■■

avoid use for long-term storage; it is preferable to store oil in a tank.■■

Tanks

tank construction and siting must comply with relevant standards; a structural engineer should ■■

advise

the best environmental protection is ensured by double-skinned, above-ground steel tanks with ■■

corrosion protection

all pipes should be above ground so that they can be inspected.■■


B4 Waste

Figure B4.8: A waste oil facility



prevent spills of waste oil by regularly inspecting drums, generators or pumps for leaks■■

regularly inspect tanks for leaks, including the valve, taps and hoses.■■

Asbestos

Asbestos was a commonly used building material throughout Australia until 1980. It has excellent

insulation and fire-resistance properties but is extremely hazardous to long-term health if ingested as

dust. Under no circumstances should asbestos be cut, drilled into or broken.

In some instances asbestos is safe if left in place, provided no disturbance or breakdown of the

material structure is likely to occur. Handling or disposal of asbestos, including related waste, is a

specialist task. Contact should be made with the local council or environmental protection agency for

further advice.

Trade waste

Trade waste includes a variety of materials that can be hazardous in terms of their flammability,

toxicity, or the physical risk they present. In addition to oil and asbestos highlighted above,

examples include:

paints and solvents■■

screen-printing waste■■

metal and glass offcuts, nails, screws, broken glass, old car bodies and parts.■■


B4 Waste

Appropriate handling, storage and disposal of each of these waste products should be considered in

terms of the particular risk they pose to children, who may knowingly or unknowingly pick up, eat or

drink, trip over or be trapped in them. Accumulations of some waste materials also provide cover for

venomous snakes and spiders.

Clinical waste

Clinical waste is a byproduct of medical, dental or veterinary activities, and has the potential to cause

disease; it includes:

discarded sharps■■ — objects with sharp points or cutting edges such as used needles, scalpel

blades, scissors and broken laboratory glass

human tissue waste■■ — includes blood and blood components such as plasma, material heavily

contaminated with blood, human tissue removed during medical procedures and some other

bodily fluids

laboratory waste■■ — a specimen or culture discarded in the course of dental, medical or

veterinary practice

animal waste■■ — any discarded material including carcases, body parts, blood or animal bedding

contaminated with an infectious agent.

Disposal and handling

Clinical waste associated with medical or dental work is normally managed by the health centre in

the community, and any specific issues should be discussed with the medical or (for animal waste)

veterinary staff. Dead animals at the side of the road or animals put down due to old age or injury

do not have to be disposed of as clinical waste.

Hypodermic needles must always be disposed of in rigid-walled, puncture-resistant containers, and

all possible care should be taken to safely dispose of any other waste. Sharps discarded at premises

that generate clinical or related waste must be disposed of into an Australian

Standards–compliant container.


B4 Waste

Useful termsBiosolid A solid end product from a wastewater treatment process.

Bund An artificial embankment formed from natural material, used to

contain waste, prevent inundation and/or screen it from view.

Clinical waste A byproduct of medical, dental or veterinary activities with the

potential to cause infection (eg discarded sharps, used bandages).

Material recovery facility (MRF) The destination for bulk recyclable materials, typically where these

are initially processed for reuse.

Organic waste Organic material consisting of anything that was or is living such as

garden waste (eg vegetation, bark), kitchen waste (eg food including

skin and eggshells) and waste from animal sources (eg horse

hair and manure) and other products that are biodegradable by

composting such as paper, cardboard and biosolids.

PIC plastic identification code

Prescribed waste The most hazardous category of waste. Requires special handling

or strict control measures to reduce its impact on the environment.

Includes explosives and reactive or corrosive substances that may

pose a threat to human and/or environmental health. Such controls

are enforced by state and territory environment protection legislation

and regulations.

Putrescible waste A subset of organic waste including food waste, animal waste and

biosolids that are likely to decay much faster than other organic

matter).

Solid inert waste Hard waste that does not break down readily (eg plastics and dry

vegetative material.

Trade waste Byproducts from industries such as building or demolition, metal

and fabrication, automotive repair trades and other production and

maintenance work carried out by tradespeople that can include

waste oil, scrap metals and products that may be contaminated

with toxic or hazardous materials.


B4 Waste

Transfer station A facility located at a point intermediate between the source of

waste and the landfill site, which enables waste and recyclables

to be deposited, separated, sorted and stored temporarily, then

consolidated for bulk carriage to the landfill site or material recovery

facility.

Waste matrix tools Tables developed with the residents that identify each litter hot spot,

its location, and the person(s) who are to take responsibility for

managing its removal (and reducing any further build-up).


B4 Waste

Further readingABS (Australian Bureau of Statistics) (2007). Housing and Infrastructure in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Communities, Australia, 2006 (Reissue), Cat. No. 4710.0, ABS, Canberra. www.fahcsia.gov.au/sa/indigenous/progserv/housing/Pages/chins.aspx

CAT (Centre for Appropriate Technology) (2003). Choosing a landfilling method. Bush Tech #13, CAT, Alice Springs.

CAT (Centre for Appropriate Technology) (2003). Landfill design. Bush Tech #17, CAT, Alice Springs.

CAT (Centre for Appropriate Technology) (2004). Maintaining your tip. Bush Tech #19, CAT, Alice Springs.

CAT (Centre for Appropriate Technology) (2004). Used oil. Bush Tech #22, CAT, Alice Springs.

CAT (Centre for Appropriate Technology) (2004). Managing liquid fuel risk. Bush Tech #24, CAT, Alice Springs.

enHealth (1999). The National Environmental Health Strategy, enHealth, Canberra. www.health.gov.au/internet/main/Publishing.nsf/Content/59A239BA8D0AAE2BCA2573CB0010E37E/$File/envstrat.pdf

EPA (Environment Protection Authority) (1994). Guidelines for Preparing Waste Assessments: A Practical Guide Towards Cleaner Production, EPA, Victoria. www.epanote2.epa.vic.gov.au/EPA/Publications.nsf/2f1c2625731746aa4a256ce90001cbb5/529f19dad2b08cb7ca256c1300233804/$FILE/277.pdf

EPA (Environment Protection Agency) (2000). Landfill Audit, report prepared by Waste Audit and Consulting Services (Aust) Pty Ltd and CR Hudson and Associates for EPA, Government of South Australia. See www.epa.sa.gov.au/pdfs/landfill_1.pdf%20

EPA (Environment Protection Authority) (2003). Guidelines for the Siting, Design and Management of Solid Waste Disposal Sites in the Northern Territory, EPA, Northern Territory. www.icat.org.au/media/Resources/waste/landfillguidelines.pdf

EPA (Environment Protection Agency) (2007). EPA Guidelines for Environmental Management of Landfill Facilities (Municipal Solid Waste and Commercial and Industrial General Waste), EPA, Government of South Australia, Adelaide. See www.epa.sa.gov.au/

Harris G (ed) (2000). Environmental Health Handbook: A Practical Manual for Remote Communities, Menzies School of Health Research, Northern Territory, Australia.

Seemann K and Walker B (1991). Remote Controlled Waste: An Introduction to Waste Management and Appropriate Technology in Remote Aboriginal Communities, CAT Report 91/1, Centre for Appropriate Technology, Alice Springs.

Wright A and Collins L (2006). Logistics of Container Deposits in Remote Communities in the Northern Territory, Centre for Appropriate Technology, Alice Springs.

Useful websitesInformation on safe removal practices for asbestos:

www.nsw.gov.au/fibro■■

www.workcover.nsw.gov.au (type ‘asbestos’ in the search box).■■


Insert TAB B5


B5Energy

Guiding principlesAccess and equity: Indigenous communities often experience difficulties in maintaining reliable and

adequate access to energy services, especially electricity, because of issues relating to:

small populations and the relative costs of maintaining a reliable energy system■■

distance from existing grid, regional centres, fuel supplies and maintenance services■■

climate (which can affect the accessibility of communities in some seasons, and the ability to ■■

maintain reliable electricity supplies).

Health and safety: Energy supplies, especially electricity, can pose potentially life-threatening

hazards. Community residents should be made aware of the dangers and how to avoid them. The

installation of electrical infrastructure must comply with relevant standards, legislation regulations

and the advice of technical professionals. Qualified professionals should be engaged at all levels of

infrastructure design, installation, operation and maintenance. Basic training should be provided to

residents in how to safely access and use electricity.

Environmental health: To ensure a basic level of health and hygiene, communities require a reliable

supply of electricity for lighting, cooling, refrigeration, heating, water pumping, communications,

clothes washing, entertainment and a range of other domestic and enterprise-related activities.

Appropriateness: Decision making about appropriate energy options should take account of the

cost, affordability, quality (design and installation) and reliability of the proposed system; the amount

of power that will be available and the ability of the community to operate and maintain a

power system.

Affordability: The cost of electricity infrastructure design, installation, operation and maintenance

is much higher in remote areas than in metropolitan areas. The cost of electricity supply to the

consumer is therefore much higher in remote areas; for example, $2 per kilowatt hour (for the full

life-cycle cost of electricity generation), compared to about 14 cents per kilowatt hour in town.

Sustainable livelihoods: Community enterprises usually involve energy consumption and therefore

increase the demand for energy. To ensure an energy system has the capacity to meet these needs,

it is important to carefully assess the community’s goals, and the likelihood of these being realised.


B5 Energy

Systems overviewIn this guide, ‘energy supply infrastructure’ refers to the hardware used to produce and distribute

electrical energy in a community. It does not include infrastructure related to the supply of other forms

of energy.

Remote Indigenous communities typically have one of the following types of electricity supply system:

Grid connection■■

- Grid power is generated in a large centralised power station and distributed over a network of

transmission and/or distribution lines to remote communities. Individual houses are supplied

by a local distribution network.

Fossil fuel generator systems■■

- Generator systems, also called gen-sets, involve an engine coupled to an electrical alternator.

The engine runs on a liquid fuel, most commonly diesel, followed by LPG (liquefied petroleum

gas) and petrol. Generator systems can connect directly into a house or a local

distribution network.

Stand-alone power systems (SP systems)■■

- Renewable energy (RE) systems draw energy from the sun, wind or water and store it in a

battery bank from where it is distributed to consumers as required. Solar photovoltaic (PV) is

the most common form used in Australia today. RE systems can connect directly into a house

or a local distribution network.

- Hybrid systems involve coupling an RE system with a generator, with contributions from

both required to meet the daily energy needs of a community. Electricity is distributed to

consumers from the batteries, which are charged by both the RE component and the

generator. Hybrid systems can connect directly into a house or a local distribution network.

A well-designed SP system with associated energy efficiency measures and management of demand

(EE and DSM — see Useful terms) is likely to be more reliable and provide better quality power

than most community generator/fossil fuel systems, though grid power is preferred if available.

The reliability of off-grid supplies is largely determined by fuel supply for generators.


B5 Energy

Current service delivery arrangementsTypical electricity supply arrangements for different sized communities are as follows:

Main towns■■ are supplied by grid power, with each house having either a standard power meter

or a prepaid ‘card’ meter.

Major communities■■ have reticulated grid power or large SP systems, with each house having

either a standard power meter or, more commonly, a prepaid ‘card’ meter. Responsibility for

the provision of electricity sits with a utility or a private contractor. A qualified essential services

operator (ESO) is employed in the community to operate and maintain the power station.

Minor communities■■ generally rely on generators and SP systems (RE or hybrid). These

communities usually do not have household metering systems, although some use prepaid

‘card’ meters. Some also use energy limiting devices.

Table B5.1 gives further details of electricity supply arrangements in major and minor communities.

Table B5.1: Responsibilities and arrangements for electricity supply in major and minor communities

State/ territory

Major communities Minor communities

NT Power and Water provides services. Construction works and some operation and planned maintenance tasks may be subcontracted to a local provider. Local participation is through the recruitment and training of community-based ESOs where this can be sustained.

Responsibility for electricity supply usually sits with the Australian Government.

Local councils or Indigenous community-controlled organisations (ORAs or ORCs) typically provide services. The Centre for Appropriate Technology also provides regional support to some outstations through the Bushlight renewable energy provisioning and maintenance project.

Qld Ergon Energy generates and distributes electricity to 34 remote Indigenous communities throughout Queensland. Ergon employs and trains local part-time power station attendants either directly or through local councils at many locations.

WA The Remote Area Essential Services Program delivers services. The WA Government funds a contracted program manager by tender to manage three regional service providers. Horizon Power, a state-owned corporation, is responsible for generating or procuring, distributing and selling electricity to five large remote Indigenous communities in regional WA through the private Aboriginal and Remote Communities Power Supply Project.


B5 Energy

State/ territory

Major communities Minor communities

NSW Typically local government authorities operate and maintain essential services. All settlements in far west NSW receive power supply via the interstate, interconnected grid managed by Country Energy.

Communities are grid-connected at least to the land trust boundary and often to each household within the trust.

SA The SA Government program manages two separate providers, the private contractor Cavill Power Products for electrical generation, and the SA utility ETSA for electrical distribution. Local participation is through the recruitment and training of community-based ESOs where this can be sustained.

ORAs or ORCs typically provide services.

ESO = essential services officer; ORA = outstation resource agency; ORC = outstation resource centre

Relevant Australian guidelines and standards

Most electricity distribution companies have their own construction standards and operating

guidelines for grid supply. Refer to the local utility for details.

Table B5.2 shows relevant Australian standards for generators, stand-alone power systems and

energy audits.

(continued)


B5 Energy

Table B5.2: Australian standards for energy systems

Standard (year) Topic

Generators

AS/NZS 3010:2005

Electrical installations — generating sets

AS 2790–1989 Electricity generating sets — transportable (up to 25 kW)

AS 1940–2004 The storage and handling of flammable and combustible liquids

AS/NZS 3000:2007

Electrical installations (known as the ‘Australian/New Zealand Wiring Rules’)

Stand-alone power systems — 100% renewable energya

AS 4509.1–1999 Stand-alone power systems — safety requirements

AS 4509.2–2002 Stand-alone power systems — system design guidelines

AS 4509.3–1999 Stand-alone power systems — installation and maintenance

AS 4086.1–1993 Secondary batteries for use with stand-alone power systems — general requirements

AS 4086.2–1997 Secondary batteries for use with stand-alone power systems — installation and maintenance

AS 2676.2–1992 Guide to the installation, maintenance, testing and replacement of secondary batteries in buildings — sealed cells

AS/NZS 5033:2005

Installation of photovoltaic (PV) arrays

AS/NZS 3000:2007

Electrical installations (known as the ‘Australian/New Zealand Wiring Rules’)

AS/NZS 3008.1.1:1998

Electrical installations — selection of cables — cables for alternating voltages up to and including 0.6/1 kV — typical Australian installation conditions

AS 1768–2003 Lightning protection

AS/NZS 1170.0:2002

Structural design actions — general principles

AS/NZS 1170.1:2002

Structural design actions — permanent, imposed and other actions

AS/NZS 1170.2:2002

Structural design actions — wind actions

Stand-alone power systems — hybridsb

AS/NZS 3010:2005

Electrical installations — generating sets

AS 4594.1–1999 Internal combustion engines — performance

AS 1359.101–1997

Rotating electrical machines — general requirements — rating and performance

AS 1319–1994 Safety signs for the occupational environment

AS 1940–2004 The storage and handling of flammable and combustible liquids


B5 Energy

Standard (year) Topic

AS 1692–2006 Steel tanks for flammable and combustible liquids

AS 2149–2003 Starter batteries — lead acid

AS 4044–1992 Battery chargers for stationary batteries

Energy audit

AS 2725–1984 Guidelines for reporting energy use as part of an energy audit

AS = Australian Standard; NZS = New Zealand Standard

a Current government rebates schemes require all RE systems to be designed and installed by persons accredited by the Clean Energy Council of Australia.

b Renewable energy and generator standards also apply to hybrid systems.

Involving the communityThe design, management and maintenance of energy systems in Indigenous communities should be

informed by people’s expectations of their involvement in their energy system and their capacity to

be involved.

In major communities with larger energy systems, residents’ involvement will mostly be limited to

reporting faults.

In minor communities, residents’ involvement is more likely to include operating the system and

performing some level of maintenance.

In all communities it is important that residents know how to use the system in a safe and

responsible manner.

Managing energy use

The high cost of electricity supply to remote communities means that every household needs to

manage their energy use so that:

their consumption does not exceed their capacity to pay for the energy used■■

the community’s total consumption does not exceed the overall capacity of the system or the ■■

service provider’s fuel budget.

Poor management will lead to high operating and maintenance costs or reduced availability of power,

at either the household or community level. In some situations, an existing energy system may not

need to be upgraded or replaced if appropriate energy management practices (such as DSM)

are implemented.

(continued)


B5 Energy

EE and DSM measures can increase available electricity without increasing the supply and are the

key means by which communities can manage their energy consumption. Examples include:

turning off lights and fans when a room is unoccupied■■

switching from incandescent to fluorescent lights■■

closing doors and windows when using air conditioners and heating■■

fixing broken windows and doors, and fitting them with seals■■

improving building insulation and establishing trees or shade structures around buildings to ■■

reduce cooling needs

increasing the efficiency with which energy is used by appliances; for example, by■■

- swapping old appliances for new, energy efficient (‘5-star’) appliances

- selecting appliances appropriate to the local climate

- fuel switching (for example, changing from electric to gas stoves)

managing the time of energy use to reduce peak loads (load scheduling)■■

using other load management measures such as timers on lights and fans.■■

EE and DSM measures can:

reduce operating costs, including consumer costs■■

increase the reliability of an energy system■■

increase system life■■

reduce greenhouse gas emissions (for generator and grid systems)■■

be a cheaper and easier option than upgrading energy infrastructure■■

provide residents with greater control over their energy expenditure, particularly if accompanied ■■

by an education and awareness program.

Installation of the following hardware to improve EE and DSM requires wiring modifications

for installation:

circuit and appliance timers■■

one-shot boosters for solar hot water systems■■

circuit splitting and low-ampere circuit breakers■■

daily enable button■■

daylight (photo-electric) switches■■

segregated circuits.■■

More complex hardware can also be used to manage energy use, such as systems that track

household (or building) energy use and limit supply on all or some circuits once a predetermined

threshold has been reached. Clipsal C-BUS energy management units and the Centre for

Appropriate Technology’s EMU (energy management unit) are examples of such systems.


B5 Energy

Ensure that:

consumer agreement is reached before implementing EE and DSM measures■■

training to implement these measures is provided■■

visitors are aware of what EE and DSM measures are in place and how to use them.■■

Consider:

Literacy and education■■

- improving uptake of measures by linking the energy consumption of different appliances

to the running cost

- using demonstration kits of DSM fittings as education and awareness tools

- fixing stickers and putting up posters to remind people to turn off lights, fans and other

appliances when not in use

- using pictorial resources (such as posters) that clearly relate energy consumption to

household expenditure.

Affordability■■

- making energy efficient appliances and fittings locally available and affordable

- charging more for electricity, as a way of encouraging people to change their energy

use behaviour

- assessing the amount of extra work (and cost) that will be involved to maintain the

proposed measures.

Safety

Household electricity (240 volts AC) can kill on contact. Community residents should therefore be

informed about the safe and responsible use of electricity. Liquid fuel storage areas or battery banks

(such as those used in RE systems) are also hazards and need to be managed appropriately.

Ensure that residents know:

how to identify and avoid potential hazards (through education, training, warning signs and ■■

restriction of access)

when they should contact a licensed electrician, and how to identify and report faulty or damaged ■■

household wiring

how to identify and when to replace faulty appliances■■

how to store fuel safely and securely and comply with appropriate standards.■■

Education should cover issues such as not tampering with house wiring, and not stealing fuel or

batteries from generators.


B5 Energy

Appraising community requirementsWhen planning to install a new community electricity supply system or upgrade or augment an old

one, the following issues should be addressed.

Ensure that:

project workers and the community have an accurate picture of current and future energy use ■■

patterns, including associated cost-recovery mechanisms.

Consider:

whether EE and DSM measures may be all or part of the solution.■■

An overall assessment is essential to making a decision about the appropriate size, functions, costs

and future capacity of the system. A wide range of information about the community is required,

including an estimate of total electrical energy demand. The main issues that need to be considered

are described below.

Determine the community’s energy requirements

Consider the following issues:

Community information■■

- population profile and demographics (permanent and mobile populations including seasonal

variations, number of infants, children, teenagers, adults and the elderly)

- size, location and access, including distance to goods and services (including the

electricity grid)

- employment, enterprise and education levels, including people’s capacity to pay for electricity

and potential to contribute to the operation and maintenance of an electricity supply system

- support structures for existing community infrastructure operation and maintenance

- community plans and aspirations for the future, particularly as they relate to future electrical

energy demands

- community population increase or decrease: realistic estimates of the future size of a

community are needed to design an appropriate solution; high growth requires expansion

capacity to be built in, while low or negative growth allow tighter designs.


B5 Energy

Current status of energy infrastructure■■

- current electricity supply arrangements: ownership, capacity, usage patterns, reliability and

community satisfaction

- existing distribution networks: depending on quality and safety laws, existing networks can be

extended or upgraded, at significantly lower cost than a new installation

- the condition of the existing infrastructure: depending on quality and safety laws, existing

infrastructure can be incorporated into the new or upgraded system, which can significantly

reduce capital costs

- current running costs (check logbooks and system financial records; review fuel and

meter records)

- cost-recovery arrangements, including the use of meters or prepaid ‘card’ meters, the

metered cost of electricity, or type and details of other arrangements used (such as monthly

user contribution)

- current arrangements for service and maintenance needs of the system (see system operating

and maintenance manuals), including the service regime and funding

- system configuration and design, including original intent of the system and capacity for

upgrade (see system operating and maintenance manual and/or system design paperwork

if available).

Energy service needs■■

- number, size, location, design and construction of houses and other buildings in the

community, and their usage patterns

- refrigeration and space heating and cooling requirements in the buildings (in relation to the

climate of the area)

- other infrastructure in the community, such as police station, schools, clinic, store, workshop,

service station, water supply, communications, sewerage system

- commercial activities and related electrical equipment, including any existing or planned

tourism ventures

- type and number of hot-water systems in the community

- existing energy management/control measures, such as timer buttons on lights, one-shot

hot-water system electric boosters

- critical services that require uninterrupted 24-hour power (such as medical equipment)

- current or prevailing energy use habits within the community.


B5 Energy

Quantify the community’s energy needs

It is standard practice for an energy audit to be carried out to assess a community’s energy needs.

Every energy-using item needs to be considered: coolrooms, water treatment and reverse osmosis,

cooling and heating, lighting, computers and information technology equipment, wastewater,

pressure pumps, cooking, etc (see Healy 2007). This process is described in AS 2725–1984

Guidelines for reporting energy use as part of an energy audit.

Ensure that:

community members are thoroughly involved in the audit process, so that appliance use patterns, ■■

and current and future energy needs are assessed accurately.

It is often impractical to undertake a detailed energy audit in larger communities. Instead, sample

energy audits of individual homes can be used (for an example, see Table B5.3).

AS/NZS 3000:2007— Electrical installations provides guidelines for energy demand assessment.

A professional experienced with such assessments should be involved in any such process.


B5 Energy

Tab

le B

5.3:

Exa

mp

le o

f a

hous

eho

ld e

nerg

y au

dit

Ap

plia

nce

Mo

del

Ag

e (y

ears

)Q

uant

ityP

ow

er

ratin

g

(W)

Sur

ge

po

wer

(V

A)

Ave

rag

e (h

our

s/d

ay)

Ave

rag

e lo

ad (k

Wh/

day

)A

nnua

l av

erag

e (k

Wh/

day

)S

umm

er

or

wet

Win

ter

o

r d

ryS

umm

er

or

wet

Win

ter

o

r d

ry

Frid

geFi

sher

&P

ayke

l E

373

New

181

910

12.0

10.0

0.97

0.78

0.87

Che

st

freez

erW

estin

ghou

se

FD21

2N

ew1

105

700

12.0

10.0

1.25

1.01

1.13

Kitc

hen

CFL

New

118

4.2

4.8

0.08

0.09

0.08

Livi

ng ro

om

CFL

New

118

5.2

6.0

0.09

0.11

0.10

Str

eet l

ight

, flu

ores

cent

Unk

now

n1

1810

.512

.10.

190.

220.

20

Kitc

hen

ceilin

g fa

n1

652.

00.

30.

130.

020.

08

Livi

ng ro

om

ceilin

g fa

n1

658.

01.

30.

520.

090.

30

Tele

visi

onU

nkno

wn

113

07.

07.

00.

910.

910.

91

DV

DU

nkno

wn

130

4.0

4.0

0.12

0.12

0.12

Tele

visi

onU

nkno

wn

15

2.0

2.0

0.01

0.01

0.01

Was

hing

m

achi

neTo

p lo

ader

Unk

now

n1

500

3500

1.5

1.5

0.75

0.75

0.75

To

tal

1110

3551

1068

.459

.05.

024.

114.

55

CFL

= c

omp

act

fluor

esce

nt li

ght

bul

b; k

Wh

= k

ilow

att

hour

s; V

A =

vol

t-am

per

es; W

= w

atts


B5 Energy

When quantifying the electrical needs of a community:

Ensure that the following parameters are assessed

total daily kilowatt hour load — total volume of electrical energy required in a day■■

total maximum demand (in kilowatts) — total of all peak instantaneous loads■■

after-diversity maximum demand — total maximum demand after a diversity factor (see Useful ■■

terms) is applied.

The diversity factor assesses load-usage patterns and load management in the community. It is

needed to prevent oversizing the system. This is particularly relevant to systems that include a

generator. Peak or maximum loads can be quite brief in small communities, and minimum loads can

be much lower than these peaks. There is no standard way of estimating ‘after-diversity

maximum demand’.

Once a community’s electrical energy demands have been quantified, costs and a range of other

factors that may influence future demand should be considered in order to make an informed

decision about the most appropriate supply solution (see ‘Assess costs’ and ‘Assess other issues’,

below). Much of the relevant information will have been collected during the assessment process.

Assess costs


Local policies■■

- Contact your local government representative or Indigenous Coordination Centre (ICC) to find

out what the current energy policies are in your state or territory, and how they affect your

community for issues such as rebates, renewable energy and cost recovery.

Capital costs■■

- What level of capital (specific purpose, one-off) funding is available? The level of capital

funding available will influence the supply solution ultimately chosen. Generally a community-

scale generator will be the option with the lowest capital cost. Capital funding is only one

aspect of the total cost picture (which is only fully revealed by a life-cycle cost analysis).

- What are the sources of funding, and what is the purpose? Energy supply infrastructure

funding is usually provided by government grants. Funding may be tied to specific projects

(for example, renewable energy grants).

- Are rebates available? Generally, rebates are available for RE systems.


B5 Energy

Operating (recurrent) costs■■

- How will the operating costs be met? Operating costs include fuel, maintenance, breakdown

and replacement costs. Access to recurrent funding in some form is essential. Grants and

ongoing funding arrangements may be available.

- What are the sources and purpose of funding? Energy supply infrastructure recurrent funding

is usually provided by government.

- What level of recurrent funding is available? The level of funding is critical to the sustainability

of the energy system, but depends on policy and may vary from state to state and over time.

- What is the duration of the funding commitment? Ensure that recurrent funding is available for

the expected lifespan of the system.

- Are rebates available? Rebates may be available for diesel.

Cost recovery■■

- What cost-recovery mechanisms are currently in place? Cost-recovery mechanisms are one

way to meet operating costs and may include rates, levies and tariffs. See utilities, and local

and state/territory governments for relevant policies.

Life-cycle cost assessment■■

- What does a full life-cycle cost assessment show about the relative costs associated with the

various options available? The ideal option is the one that costs least over the working life of

the system while delivering the required level of service. Figure B5.1 shows further information

about life-cycle costing.

Life-cycle costing of an energy supply system

Life-cycle costing (LCC) analysis provides a valuable assessment tool when considering the

long-term financial implications of a variety of potential supply solutions. LCC analyses are usually

applied over 10 or 20 years. They account for the capital and recurrent costs associated with a

system in net present value (NPV) terms, allowing for easy comparison between options.

It is recommended that an LCC analysis always be undertaken when considering upgrading or

replacing a community energy system. An LCC analysis should be carried out after the process of

appraisal and before making a final decision as to the appropriate supply solution.

Figure B5.1 is an example of a comparison of life-cycle cost for various supply options for a

remote community. In this example, pure renewable energy (RE) is the cheapest solution and grid

connection the most expensive solution, because significant amounts of new distribution cabling

(poles and wires) must be deployed. In other circumstances, where the grid is already in place

locally, grid connection capital costs for new customers are minimal and grid connection is the

cheapest solution.


B5 Energy

(continued)

Figure B5.1: Life-cycle cost comparison of energy supply systems

24-hour diesel

Intermittent diesel

Pure renewable

energy

Grid connection

Renewable energy with generator backup

Cos

t $

Equipment replacement costs (NPV)

Maintenance (scheduled/unscheduled)(NPV)

Fuel (NPV)

Initial capital

NPV = net present value Source: Centre for Appropriate Technology, 2009

Assess other issues

Consider:

Servicing, support and access■■

- How easy is it to access maintenance service networks and resources? All systems require

regular maintenance. Adequate maintenance resources need to be available.

- What technical skills are available locally and are they likely to be retained? Maintenance

duties can be carried out more effectively and at less cost if such skills are locally available.

Suitable accreditation, qualifications and licences may be required for many of these tasks.

- How far is the community from an existing grid, regional centres, fuel supplies and

maintenance services? There are extra costs and difficulties associated with delivery of reliable

energy services to more remote communities.

- Does accessibility to fuel, maintenance and transport vary with the seasons? Communities

with poor seasonal access present special challenges (for example, larger fuel storage

to cater for wet season inaccessibility; higher levels of inbuilt redundancy to cover longer

maintenance response times).


B5 Energy

Climate and geography■■

- What are the community’s climatic conditions? Tropical regions tend to require higher levels

of space cooling, particularly fans. An extended wet season reduces the availability of solar

energy. Soil type and presence of rock may also affect the type of distribution system that can

be installed in a particular area.

- Are there specific environmental considerations (such as cyclone or tsunami risk, marine

environments, extreme temperatures)? All structures must meet appropriate wind loading

standards and codes. Marine environments can be particularly harsh on equipment and

materials, so may necessitate resistant construction; likewise, areas with extreme temperature

variations. System design and siting need to minimise potential damage from flooding.

- Will there be seasonal load variations? Different climates have different seasonal load

variations and these affect the maximum and peak demands the system needs to be

designed for. Oversizing is wasteful and may also lead to reduced generator life; load diversity

factors need to be properly applied.

Environment■■

- Are there noise, exhaust, fuel supply, vibration or visual issues? Every supply solution attracts

different costs and benefits in terms of environmental impact. A community’s attitude towards

these needs to be assessed. For example, liquid fuel systems require large areas for safe

storage and containment. Generators produce noise, exhaust and vibration; diesel generators

produce more than LPG generators. Large solar systems involve large PV arrays; these may

attract tourism.

- How much greenhouse gas will be emitted? RE systems do not produce greenhouse gases;

diesel produces a lot; LPG produces less than diesel. Greenhouse gas abatement is now

widely viewed as desirable. Also, costs associated with liquid fuels continue to increase.

Land tenure■■

- What type of land tenure does the community have? The ability to establish new infrastructure

will depend on community type and the degree of access to the land on which they are

settled.

Cultural issues■■

- Are there any sacred sites on the land involved? Inappropriate development on culturally

significant land will be unacceptable to community members. Up-front consultation can avoid

costly changes later.

- What are the residents’ attitudes towards energy supply options? People’s attitudes towards

different technologies and fuels vary. It is best to first consult with people about proposed

changes so that agreement can be reached and any required support program planned for

and implemented.


B5 Energy

- Will access to the site be restricted (at times) by ceremonial activities? Every system type

requires regular scheduled maintenance and, if there is a failure, unscheduled access.

Restricted access can mean extended down time or potential capital costs associated with

replacement of parts as a result of poor maintenance. Siting and design of systems need to

take account of such considerations.

Emerging technologies■■

- What emerging energy supply technologies need to be considered? Many emerging energy

supply technologies boast improved efficiency, capacity, reduced capital and/or recurrent

costs and improved reliability. The use of any new technology that has not been thoroughly

and exhaustively tested in appropriate environmental conditions is not recommended for

installation in a remote Indigenous community.

Choosing appropriate solutionsThe following sections discuss different energy supply options (grid, fossil fuel generator, stand-alone

power systems; see Table B5.4) in terms of:

system capacity■■

initial cost■■

recurrent cost■■

power system relative to recurrent costs■■

reliability■■

quality of supply■■

growth capacity■■

design life■■

environmental impact■■

greenhouse gas impacts.■■


B5 Energy

Tab

le B

5.4:

Ad

vant

ages

and

dis

adva

ntag

es o

f d

iffer

ent

ener

gy

sup

ply

op

tions

Num

ber

of

rem

ote

co

mm

uniti

es w

ith

this

sup

ply

op

tiona

Ad

vant

ages

Dis

adva

ntag

es

Grid

274

Qui

et, e

asy

to m

anag

e so

lutio

n fo

r co

mm

unity

pro

vidi

ng re

liabl

e

24-h

our

pow

er.

Res

iden

ts g

ener

ally

acc

ess

equa

lised

tarif

fs

(ie e

lect

ricity

cos

ts a

re s

ubsi

dise

d by

the

gove

rnm

ent)

so c

ost t

o re

side

nts

is lo

w.

Hig

h ca

pita

l cos

t — o

nly

cost

-effe

ctiv

e w

ith

larg

e co

nsum

er b

ase

so o

nly

appl

icab

le to

larg

e co

mm

uniti

es c

lose

to a

n es

tabl

ishe

d gr

id.

Pow

er c

an b

e un

relia

ble

at th

e en

d of

a lo

ng li

ne.

Exp

oses

gov

ernm

ent t

o ad

ditio

nal,

effe

ctiv

ely

unca

pped

, cus

tom

er s

ervi

ce o

blig

atio

n lia

bilit

ies.

Foss

il fu

el g

ener

ator

(d

iese

l, LP

G, p

etro

l)55

5R

elat

ivel

y ea

sy to

mai

ntai

n an

d ch

eap

to

repl

ace.

Can

be

nois

y if

not i

nsta

lled

in s

ound

-pro

of ro

om.

Exh

aust

gas

es s

mel

l and

pol

lute

loca

l env

ironm

ent.

Req

uire

s re

liabl

e fu

el s

uppl

y.

Saf

e an

d ad

equa

te fu

el s

tora

ge c

ostly

for

larg

e sy

stem

s.

Saf

e st

orag

e of

fuel

s ca

n be

an

issu

e in

sm

alle

r co

mm

uniti

es.

If sy

stem

siz

e is

wel

l mat

ched

to lo

ad, t

here

is li

mite

d ca

paci

ty fo

r lo

ad g

row

th; i

f it i

sn’t,

sys

tem

ope

rate

s in

effic

ient

ly.

Sta

nd-a

lone

pow

er

syst

em: 1

00%

re

new

able

ene

rgy

desi

gn

105

Qui

et; n

o ou

tlay

on fu

els;

can

ope

rate

in

isol

ated

loca

tions

for

long

per

iods

. Low

er

life-

cycl

e co

st th

an o

ther

opt

ions

in

sm

alle

r co

mm

uniti

es.

Hig

h ca

pita

l cos

t and

lim

ited

capa

city

to p

ower

he

avy

load

s.

Bat

terie

s m

ust b

e di

spos

ed o

f app

ropr

iate

ly.

Sta

nd-a

lone

pow

er

syst

em: h

ybrid

de

sign

107

Gre

ater

flex

ibilit

y in

mee

ting

peak

load

s m

ore

effic

ient

ly th

an e

ither

rene

wab

le

ener

gy o

r fo

ssil

fuel

alo

ne.

Low

er li

fe-c

ycle

cos

t tha

n di

esel

ge

nera

tion

in s

mal

l to

med

ium

-siz

ed

appl

icat

ions

.

Incr

ease

d co

mpo

nent

cou

nt. I

ncre

ased

sys

tem

co

mpl

exity

. A

ll is

sues

rela

ting

to g

ener

ator

sys

tem

s.

LPG

= li

que

fied

pet

role

um g

as

a R

emot

e co

mm

uniti

es th

at h

ave

this

sup

ply

optio

n ac

cord

ing

to th

e A

ustr

alia

n B

urea

u of

Sta

tistic

s pu

blic

atio

n H

ousi

ng a

nd In

frast

ruct

ure

in A

borig

inal

and

Tor

res

Str

ait I

slan

der

Com

mun

ities

(200

6)


B5 Energy

Ensure that:

a program of EE and DSM is seriously considered before making decisions about upgrading or ■■

replacing an energy system

the final decision is made with input from someone knowledgeable and experienced with all the ■■

available options

further consultation with the community occurs to help determine whether the system needs to ■■

be a hybrid system or a pure renewable energy system with a generator available to run certain

loads and as backup.

Case study 11 — Upgrading a power system

The resource agency (RA) for a community in the central desert region of the Northern Territory

agreed to upgrade the community’s current, unreliable power system. As a first step they spoke to

Power and Water Corporation, who informed them that there was little likelihood of the community

being connected to the grid as it was too small and too remote. This left them with the option

of either a generator system or stand-alone power system. The RA was concerned that a new,

possibly larger, generator system would lead to a steep increase in running costs, particularly with

the increasing cost of fuel, and was worried that at some time in the near future they might not

be able to afford to provide 24-hour per day power. Having seen similar-sized communities with

renewable energy power systems, the RA decided to discuss the option of an renewable energy

system replacing the current diesel generator. The discussions included the need for residents to

manage their energy use if the renewable energy system was installed. People agreed with the

idea.

The RA then began to look in detail at the financial implications of the new system. A significant

rebate on renewable energy systems was discovered. In order to better understand what was

involved, a consultant was brought on board and asked for a financial comparison between a

pure renewable energy system, a hybrid system and a diesel generator system.

Using data from the current system’s operation logbooks, and information collected during an

energy auditing process, the consultant was able to determine a rough load schedule and design

for each option, from which two 10-year life-cycle costings were developed, one inclusive of

initial capital and the other exclusive. These showed quite clearly that a renewable energy system

would have very low running costs compared to a generator system, although it would have a

high capital cost. The RA soon realised, however, that a renewable energy system needed regular

and skilled maintenance, which the RA could not provide given the skill sets of its current staff.

Furthermore, the consultant advised that a number of loads in the community could not be run

from a pure renewable energy system and would need a generator to power them.


B5 Energy

(continued)

As a result, the RA had to:

determine if the required capital funding could be accessed to pay for a stand-alone ■■

renewable energy power system

determine what technical capacity was needed to maintain such a system adequately and ■■

whether current staff could be up-skilled, or if there was a service and maintenance program

already in place that could be tapped into, or both

consult with the community further to help determine whether the system needed to be a ■■

hybrid system or a pure renewable energy system with a generator available to run certain

loads and as backup.

Subsequent research revealed there were schemes in place from which to access the necessary

capital funding. An essential services officer was identified who was happy to be trained to help

support a renewable energy system. The consultant was re-employed for a more thorough

assessment of the costs and benefits of the various options, and a hybrid stand-alone power

system was chosen. The final design involved close negotiation with residents about daily energy

demands and demand-side management measures. As a result, when the system was installed,

the generator needed to run (on average) for only an hour or two every day.

Grid supply

Connection to grid supply involves the design and construction of a high-voltage transmission

and distribution line connecting an established utility-owned and operated grid to a community

(Figure B5.2).

Figure B5.2: Grid or external power station electricity supply



B5 Energy

One or more high/low-voltage transformers (substations) are installed, depending on the size of

the community.

System capacity■■ : limited by the capacity of the distribution lines and transformer(s) and the

upstream capacity of the generation and transmission system.

Initial cost■■ : largely a function of the distance and terrain between the community and existing

grid connection point; upstream costs may also need to be taken into account.

Recurrent cost factors■■ : maintenance of the line and substations — related to the type of

construction and the distance and terrain between the community and the power station, and

size of load.

Power system relative recurrent costs■■ : generally low.

Reliability■■ : typically better than local fossil fuel–based generation.

Quality of supply■■ : generally good.

Growth capacity■■ : good, as long as there is additional capacity available within the network.

Design life■■ : 40 years.

Environmental impact■■ : usually fairly low — lines will require clearing underneath.

Greenhouse gas impacts■■ : medium to high, depending on the generation technology supplying

the grid.

A grid system may be used to connect a number of smaller communities to a larger community

power station. An example is the Urapuntja Outstation in the Northern Territory where 16 outstations

are connected by 150 kilometres of power lines back to a central power station located at Arlparra

Store, requiring only one power station to be built and operated.

Local distribution networks are generally three-phase, with either single or three-phase service wires

to individual consumers. Motors and many industrial appliances often require three-phase power

for operation.

Most utilities do not allow (or at least discourage) new extensions from existing grids and do not

generally fund grid extensions. Ownership regimes vary but usually the distribution utility owns

and operates the power line, while another retail company sells the power to the community or

customers. The viability of a grid extension is dependent on several factors:

access arrangements, including rights over the land the line traverses; most electricity distribution ■■

companies will require secure access or tenure over the line route such as through formal

agreements or easements)

line ownership and service arrangements■■

distance■■

load of the community■■

construction type (overhead or underground)■■


B5 Energy

reliability and response times required■■

funding availability.■■

Appropriate design and installation

The design and installation of grid connection systems is generally undertaken by the electricity

distribution company or a suitably qualified person. It is possible (and fairly common) to include the

design of the grid extension (including surveying the line route) as the first phase of the

construction contract.

Ensure that:

ongoing funding arrangements for the operation and maintenance of the line are established and ■■

documented prior to installation

cultural issues, sacred sites and heritage sites are considered as part of the design process■■

cost-recovery arrangements for the power consumed are determined before installation; most ■■

grid connected supplies are metered by an electricity retailer, with the customer charged through

credit meters or prepayment systems (for example, card meters).

Maintenance

Most grid connections are operated and maintained by an electricity distribution company because

it requires specialist skills and safety procedures not generally found outside the industry. Local

involvement may be limited to maintenance of the line corridor, such as grading and vegetation

removal. Therefore, no specific skills are needed by the community.

Ensure that:

contractual obligations of the electricity distribution company regarding scheduled and ■■

unscheduled (that is, breakdown or power failure) service provision are well documented and

understood

contact details of the relevant utility representative are readily available■■

all damage and faults are reported immediately.■■


B5 Energy

Generators

Generator systems, also called ‘gen-sets’, consist of an engine coupled to an electrical alternator.

Different engines run on different liquid fuels, the most common being diesel, followed by petrol

and LPG. Generators can run independently or together (using an automatic control system that

synchronises their operation so that they are switched on and off-line as required). Generator

systems can connect directly into a house or a local distribution network (Figure B5.3).

Figure B5.3: Community generator electricity supply


Capacity■■ : generator size, number and configuration can be scaled to meet community needs;

only petrol generators are small.

Initial cost■■ : low.

Recurrent cost factors■■ : fuel as well as maintenance consumables and periodic generator

replacement.

Power system relative recurrent costs■■ : high.

Reliability■■ : good, if system is well designed, operated and maintained.

Quality of supply■■ : typically poor.

Growth capacity■■ : if sized correctly, then growth capacity is limited, as oversizing leads to lower

running efficiency and may also lead to shorter generator life; however, can be upgraded or

augmented with another generator at relatively low cost.

Design life■■ : 3–5 years for generator running 24 hours per day every day, longer for intermittently

run generators (such as backup generators). Petrol generators are designed for intermittent use

only. Diesel engine life is typically 30 000 hours; petrol engine life is less than 10 000 hours.

Environmental impac■■ t: high — fuel or oil required to be transported and stored.

Greenhouse gas impacts■■ : high.


B5 Energy


Ensure that:

generators have the capacity to meet the known design loads over their operational life and ■■

are correctly sized to supply the baseload and the after-diversity maximum demand (see Useful

terms) efficiently; this can often mean that more than one generator (as well as control gear) is

required

arrangements are in place for regular provision and storage of fuel; determine who will be ■■

responsible for organising and paying for fuel supplies and what their capacity is to maintain and

deliver fuel supplies to the community throughout the year and on an ongoing basis

fuel storage depots meet relevant standards (such as AS 1940–2004; see Table B5.2) with ■■

appropriate safety measures in place (for example, all relevant safety signage is provided where

appropriate)

fuel storage capacity is sufficient to cover periods of poor or no access to the community■■

fuel infrastructure is lockable, bunded and metered■■

fuel-level gauges are fitted■■

adequate measures (such as fencing, locked sheds) are in place to restrict access to generating ■■

equipment and fuel supplies to qualified staff only

starter batteries are secured to avoid unauthorised removal.■■

Consider:

life-cycle cost of fossil fuel power generation compared with alternatives (that is, renewable ■■

energy)

whether single or three-phase distribution lines are required (this is usually a function of distance ■■

and the size and type of loads)

the level of automation required for reliable operation■■

the possibility of installing at least two gen-sets in smaller systems where the water pump relies ■■

on the generator

the location of the power generation and reticulation equipment in relation to■■

- community housing, to minimise the environmental and social impacts from noise and

localised air pollution

- sacred and heritage sites

- the effects of extreme climatic events such as flooding and cyclones

the impact of corrosive environmental conditions on equipment, such as those caused by dryland ■■

salinity and marine environments

potential effects of fuel storage in water catchment areas that supply drinking water■■


B5 Energy

greenhouse gas emissions■■

the design life of proposed generators and funding arrangements for replacement costs■■

using a separate charging mechanism for starter batteries if the gen-sets are not going to be ■■

operated 24 hours a day every day, or do not have battery chargers fitted (small trickle-charge PV

systems tend to be a reliable option).

Maintenance

Large generator systems (>50 kilovolt ampere and multi-generator systems) require trained

personnel, such as a dedicated ESO supported by an essential service provider, to operate

and maintain them. A small generator can be maintained and operated by someone with basic

knowledge of engine mechanics. Smaller, single unit systems tend to be maintained by a mix of

community residents, ESOs and resource agency staff, depending on the community. Generators

need regular servicing (every 300 hours).

As part of cyclic maintenance:

record all meter readings, including fuel use, on a daily or weekly basis in system logbooks■■

check oil and fuel levels on a daily basis■■

change oil, fuel and air filters after every 300 hours of operation (or as per engine manufacturer’s ■■

specifications)

have scheduled engine overhauls and annual maintenance checks carried out by a qualified ■■

service mechanic.

Ensure that:

system logbooks are provided■■

essential replacement parts for the generator and control systems are always available on site (for ■■

example, filters, oil, control boards)

an appropriate process for disposing of used oil and filters is established and maintained (see ■■

Chapter B4 Waste).

Consider:

availability of personnel with the skills and training required to deliver the appropriate level of ■■

scheduled and unscheduled maintenance

funding for relevant training■■

funding for recurrent costs, including the provision of regular fuel supply and maintaining fuel ■■

supply networks

cost-recovery arrangements and funding for purchase of fuel.■■


B5 Energy

Stand-alone power systems — 100% renewable energy

Remote area RE systems draw energy from the sun, wind or water and store it in a battery bank from

which it is distributed to consumers as required (Figure B5.4).

Figure B5.4: Stand-alone renewable energy system electricity supply


All of the energy required to meet the normal day-to-day requirements of the community are drawn

from RE sources in 100% RE systems. Solar PV is the most common RE source used in remote

Indigenous communities. Solar PV systems consist of solar panels that convert sunlight into low-

voltage direct current (DC) electricity, a battery bank and an inverter for changing the low-voltage

DC power into 240-volt alternating current (AC) electricity. Wind power is another form of RE and

operates in a similar manner to solar PV; however, it provides DC electricity from wind turbines and

requires the relevant control hardware.

Smaller systems that do not use an inverter must use DC-only appliances, which are expensive and

can be difficult to access. Many RE systems either have built-in backup generators or the capacity

to have a backup generator; however, this refers to manual generator use and not automatic (see

Stand-alone power systems — hybrids, below, for RE systems with automatic generator use). RE

systems can connect directly into a house or a local distribution network.

Capacity■■ : small to medium.

Initial cost■■ : high.

Recurrent cost factors■■ : periodic replacement of batteries and balance-of-system components

(see Useful terms).

Power system relative recurrent costs■■ : low.


B5 Energy

Reliability■■ : very good if system is well designed, operated and maintained.

Quality of supply■■ : high.

Growth capacity■■ : moderate — expansion capacity can be built into systems.

Design life■■ : overall system design life 20 years (battery replacement required every 5–10 years).

Environmental impact■■ : low.

Greenhouse gas impacts■■ : low.


Ensure that:

system design, installation and maintenance is carried out in accordance with AS 4509■■ —

Stand-alone power systems Parts 1, 2 and 3 (see Table B5.2)

the community is involved in energy budgeting to ensure loads and usage patterns are accurately ■■

assessed

the community is consulted about the location of the solar panel array and infrastructure■■

battery size is large enough to provide sufficient autonomy during cloudy periods to prevent the ■■

need for regular generator backup; allow for 2 days autonomy in desert regions and 3 days in

tropics as a minimum, and (if possible) design the system to operate normally through one in

10-year low solar insolation levels

design and installation work is only carried out by Clean Energy Council (CEC) accredited RE ■■

system designers and installers

a qualified electrician carries out all AC installation work and any RE installation work over ■■

120 volts DC and provides a certificate of compliance with AS/NZS 3000 — Electrical installations

(see Table B5.2).

system commissioning is carried out by experienced personnel, using CEC checklists■■

protection from system overuse is built in — either through inverter set-points or energy limiting ■■

hardware or both; load shedding can be part of this

all relevant safety signs are provided (system voltage, access restrictions, spark hazard signs)■■

where flooded cell batteries are installed, an emergency eyewash station is supplied along with ■■

appropriate signs

adequate measures (such as fencing, locked sheds) are in place to restrict access to electrical ■■

equipment and batteries to qualified staff only

solar panels are not shaded; even a small amount of shading can have a significant impact on ■■

energy generation

solar panel arrays have a minimum slope of 10 degrees to facilitate dust removal and ■■

self-cleaning


B5 Energy

arrays are accessible for cleaning and maintenance■■

all array cabling is in UV-stabilised conduit and preferably concealed from direct sunlight■■

training is delivered to consumers in use of the system, including energy management and ■■

system limitations

training in basic maintenance and fault finding is delivered to local system operators■■

all operating and maintenance manuals are present on-site, and system operations, including ■■

start-up and shut-down procedures, are clearly described and visible next to the relevant

equipment

all electronic components are adequately rated and tested to withstand the environmental ■■

conditions in which the system will be operating

there is adequate ventilation for heat removal from electronic components and enclosures■■

electrical equipment is protected from adverse environmental conditions (such as moisture) and ■■

insect ingress

battery and equipment shelters have passive solar design and adequate insulation (air ■■

conditioners are not desirable for keeping equipment cool because of their high energy

consumption, and reliability and maintenance issues)

all electrical enclosures have two-digit ingress protection (IP) ratings appropriate to the installation ■■

circumstances; IP ratings describe

- first digit: the maximum size of objects, dust, insects, etc that can enter a sealed area (the

higher the rating, the smaller the size of objects excluded; a minimum rating of five ‘dust

protected’ is generally recommended)

- second digit: the degree of protection against water ingress (the higher the rating, the better

the protection: a minimum rating of six ‘powerful water jets projected against the enclosure

from any direction shall have no harmful effects’ is generally recommended).


The environmental conditions in which the equipment will be operating. System physical design ■■

should be robust enough to withstand dust, insects and water, and withstand high temperatures

and wide temperature variations.

Use of valve-regulated (sealed) gel batteries over flooded cell batteries will minimise maintenance ■■

requirements.

The impact of dust on the system can be minimised by siting solar panel arrays away from roads ■■

and landfill.

The system needs to be protected from lightning.■■

A backup generator with battery charger may be needed for charging batteries at times of ■■

extremely low solar input or unusually high loads.


B5 Energy

If there are high levels of mobility in the community, the system should be designed to meet the ■■

needs of the community infrastructure (such as house size), not the current population.

Savings can be made by implementing DSM measures — each kilowatt hour per day saved off ■■

the design load of a 100% RE system can save up to $7500 of the capital cost of the system.

Examples of common DSM measures include

- circuit or appliance timers

- identifying loads that can be deferred until batteries are fully charged (such as washing

machines)

- replacing appliances with more efficient ones.

When powering multiple houses from one RE system, it is necessary to ensure that one house ■■

cannot abuse the energy supply and disadvantage others. An energy meter that allocates/

enforces the daily budget is one means of achieving this.

Wind turbines can have lower capital cost than solar PV, but have increased maintenance ■■

requirements and technical complexity. Reliable wind data are less readily available than solar

data.

Use user-friendly labels and meters on key equipment, such as main control panels, to provide ■■

easily accessible information about battery state of charge and system operation.

Insect infestations can be deterred by placing naphthalene flakes or a similar product inside ■■

equipment enclosures.

Weed growth around and under the solar array and associated infrastructure can be eliminated ■■

by using weed matting and aggregate cover.

Damage from stock, or vandalism, can be prevented by fencing around solar arrays, and battery ■■

and equipment sheds or enclosures.

Use of modularised, standardised, factory-tested enclosures can assist installation and facilitate ■■

fault finding — especially with multiple, similar installations.


B5 Energy

Maintenance


establish a maintenance regime with clearly defined roles and responsibilities for ensuring long-■■

term reliability of RE systems; for example

- community maintenance tasks: keeping system clean, basic fault finding — checking circuit

breakers, reporting faults

- essential service provider tasks (trade qualification not required): regular thorough system

checks including battery voltage levels and recording of system meter readings, as well as

responding to faults reported by the community

- trade maintenance tasks (scheduled) — maintenance and repair check on an RE system by

qualified personnel

- trade maintenance tasks (unscheduled) — maintenance and repair response to faults unable

to be resolved at non-trade level.

Ensure that:

funding arrangements for ongoing maintenance of an RE system are established before ■■

installation (including the cost of replacement of batteries); for example, government, service

provider and community contributions

appropriate training in operation and maintenance of RE systems is provided to■■

- community members

- non-trade RE system maintenance service providers (such as local government council)

- trade RE system maintenance service providers (such as a subcontracted CEC-accredited

electrician)

maintenance specifications are clearly detailed in maintenance checklists and manuals, which are ■■

provided on-site and to relevant organisations and personnel

user manuals for community members/consumers are appropriate to their level of literacy ■■

and education.

Consider:

implementing approaches to building the skills of local people in operating and maintaining the ■■

RE system.


B5 Energy

Stand-alone power systems — hybrids

Hybrid systems couple an RE system with a generator and use contributions from both to meet the

daily energy needs of a community (Figure B5.5).

Figure B5.5: Stand-alone community hybrid system electricity supply


Both the RE component and the generator charge the batteries from which electricity is distributed

to consumers. Hybrid systems commonly have the ability to run all loads off the generator if required.

The level of contribution from each component can be varied, depending on a variety of financial

considerations as well as expected load variations. Hybrid systems can connect directly into a house

or a local distribution network.

Capacity■■ : system is scaled to community needs with the RE component meeting the baseload

requirement and the generator covering the rest.

Initial cost■■ : medium to high depending on the design of the system (higher RE component will

increase capital cost).

Recurrent cost factors■■ : fuel, maintenance and consumables, and periodic replacement for

generator and batteries; this is a function of the design of the system, specifically the percentage

of generator contribution (the higher the generator contribution the higher the recurrent cost).

Power system relative recurrent costs■■ : medium.

Reliability■■ : good if system is well designed, operated and maintained.

Quality of supply■■ : generally quite high.

Growth capacity■■ : able to meet a wide range of loads if designed appropriately.

Design life■■ : generally as for generator and RE systems; however, generator design life depends

on its level of contribution (less run-time means longer life).

Environmental impact■■ : low.

Greenhouse gas impacts■■ : low.


B5 Energy

All attributes of RE systems and generator systems apply for hybrid systems, including the

areas below.


Ensure that:

only CEC-accredited designers and installers carry out such work■■

commissioning is by experienced personnel, using CEC checklists■■

the generator maintenance regime is given the same high priority as it would if it were the only ■■

source of energy, because reliability of the generator component is critical

fuel infrastructure is lockable, bunded and metered■■

fuel level gauges are visible from a distance.■■


It is good design to ensure that load shedding occurs if the generator fails to start when called ■■

by the inverter.

Running a number of life-cycle cost analyses to account for different contribution levels from ■■

the solar and generator components will ensure that the most economic mix is achieved for the

funding available (both capital and recurrent).

A purpose-built passive-solar shed for housing the infrastructure is preferable to shipping ■■

containers.

It is preferable to include a new gen-set and fuel infrastructure as part of the installation unless ■■

the existing generator is in very good condition and is able to synchronise with the inverter.

Maintenance


record all meter readings for both the generator and RE system on a daily or weekly basis in ■■

system logbooks

run an annual maintenance check of all generators by a qualified service mechanic, and of the ■■

RE system by a qualified electrician.

Ensure that:

system logbooks are provided■■

essential replacement parts for the generator, generator control systems and RE system are ■■

always available on site.


B5 Energy

Consider:

availability of personnel with the skills and training required to deliver the appropriate level of ■■

scheduled and unscheduled maintenance to each component of the hybrid system

cost-recovery arrangements and funding for the purchase of fuel and replacement of batteries.■■

Case study 12 — Managing energy use

A remote community relied on a diesel generator system for their power. Operated and maintained

by an essential services officer (ESO) employed by the local council, the system had been failing

regularly, particularly in the evening, leaving the residents without power for several hours at a

time while the ESO travelled out to the community. This was a major problem, as one of the older

residents required reliable power for a respirator and had to move back to town for safety. The

residents began asking the council to fix the problem.

At first glance it seemed that the system was simply not large enough to meet the community’s

loads and needed an upgrade to a larger generator. This was reinforced by the fact that the

system had begun to shut down more often after another family moved into the community and

occupied an empty house.

The council was worried about the system’s reliability and the increased fuel consumption and

costs, but was unsure what to do. They called in a consultant with a thorough understanding of

the options available to fix the problem. The consultant looked at all of the system performance

data available and conducted energy audits on every house, which included speaking to residents

about appliance use and their impressions of the electricity supply.

The major findings were:

The peak, or maximum, loads of the community were quite high and the minimum loads ■■

relatively low. This was attributed to widespread and heavy air conditioner use during the

afternoons and evenings in the build-up and wet season.

Where the peak demand exceeded the capacity of the power system, system protection ■■

caused the power to be cut entirely. These peaks appeared to be the result of numerous

air conditioners and electric stoves being used at the same time.

The generator itself was in relatively good condition, having had regular maintenance, but ■■

needed to be replaced in another year or so when it would be at the end of its service life.


B5 Energy

(continued)

The consultant made the following major recommendations:

Maintain the current generator, but implement a demand-side management (DSM) regime ■■

to handle how and when electricity is used in the community. (Increasing the generator size

would lead to poor loading on the new generator, compromising its sustainability and resulting

in higher fuel costs.)

Promote the use of gas by providing new gas stoves, removing electric ovens, facilitating the ■■

delivery of gas bottles and providing training in the use of gas stoves. Residents indicated that

they were open to this idea as long as refills were readily available, and training and support

were provided.

Renovate houses to provide seals on all doors and windows in rooms with air conditioners; ■■

and replace air conditioners fitted in areas open to the outside with overhead fans. This

would require negotiation with residents, which would fit naturally within a broader education

program about energy use in the community and DSM.

Consider installing a load controller for the generator that is capable of shedding certain loads ■■

during demand surges, instead of simply cutting all power.

Engage a consultant later in the year to evaluate the best solution for replacement of the ■■

current generator at the end of its life, making sure the future energy needs of the community

are fully explored and taken into account. Options would include like-for-like replacement or

a hybrid system.

Taking this advice, the council spent around $15 000 on appliance replacements, renovations

and training. System performance data from the months after this work showed peak loads to

be significantly lower than previously, with no power drop-outs at all. This allowed the respirator-

dependent resident to move back into the community.


B5 Energy

Useful termsAfter-diversity maximum The demand capacity or load capacity that a power system is

demand designed for, after taking into account the fact that not all maximum

or peak (appliance) loads will be present at the same time.

Alternating current (AC) An electric current that reverses direction (polarity) 100 times per

second. All common household and industrial appliances use AC

electricity.

Alternator A device generating AC electrical power.

Ampere or amp The unit of electric current.


Autonomy Number of days the fully charged battery bank of an RE system can

provide the energy requirements of a community without any energy

input from the normal source (solar PV panels, wind generator, etc)

due to dense cloud or lack of wind.

Balance-of-system (BOS) The components of a photovoltaic power plant other than the

photovoltaic panels themselves. This includes all electronic

components like cables, switches and, most prominently, the DC/

AC inverter and storage batteries. Supporting structures for the

array, if any, are also part of the BOS. For economic analyses, the

cost of land for a free-standing power plant is sometimes included

as part of the BOS.

Baseload The power available in an electrical system to meet minimum

expected requirements at a given time.

Bunding An earth wall or an outer tank around fuel infrastructure (tanks,

pipes, etc) to contain spills or leaks.

CFL compact fluorescent light bulb

Clean Energy Council (CEC) The accrediting organisation for RE system designers and installers.

Daylight (photo-electric) switch A device that senses the level of ambient light and switches a

light or other circuit on or off accordingly as an energy efficiency

measure.

Direct current (DC) Electric current in which electrons flow in one direction only.

Opposite of alternating current (AC). This is the form of output for

solar panels and batteries, and must be converted to AC for use in

most appliances.


B5 Energy

Diversity factor The ratio of the sum of the individual non-coincident maximum

demands of various loads on the system (the total theoretical maximum

demand), to the after-diversity maximum demand of the complete

system. The diversity factor is usually greater than 1, since it is unlikely

that all of the maximum or peak loads will occur at the same time.

EE and DSM energy efficiency and demand-side management.

These related measures are based on modifying behavioural

patterns of energy use and providing tools to achieve this. They

include putting timers on lights and fans and turning off lights,

air conditioning and fans when not needed; modifying energy

infrastructure to use energy more efficiently, including swapping

old appliances for new energy efficient (‘5-star’) appliances; and

modifying other infrastructure to reduce the need for energy

consumption (eg insulating buildings).

ESO essential services officer

Grid power Electrical power provided by a system where the power source or

power station is outside the community and connected to it by a

transmission/distribution network of poles and wires.

kilowatt (kW) Kilowatt, 1000 watts of real power (see Watt). The consumption of

a 2-bar radiator or electric kettle is roughly equivalent to 1 kW.

kilowatt hour (kWh) The use of 1000 watts for one hour; the unit of electricity used for

billing.

LCC life-cycle costing

Load The electrical load that is placed on a power source such as

a solar PV cell or generator by appliances. Larger loads imply

greater current flow and greater power and energy consumption.

Some loads cause greater current flow but relatively lower power

consumption. These are referred to as low power factor loads

(eg certain kinds of electric motor).

LPG liquefied petroleum gas

NPV net present value

PV photovoltaic

RE Renewable energy: in the context of this chapter, RE refers to any

power system using technology that is powered by renewable

energy, including solar PV systems, wind turbines and microhydro

power systems. In Australia, the most widely used RE technology is

solar PV, due to the high levels of solar radiation prevalent in most

remote northern areas.


B5 Energy

Redundancy Backup power supply options in case the main power system fails.

Usually this refers to a generator. As such, any backup generator

needs the same level of maintenance and support (eg reliable fuel

supply) as the main power system. Redundancy is particularly

important where critical services such as water supply and medical

equipment rely on uninterrupted supply.

Solar PV Solar photovoltaic: general term describing an interconnected

system of photovoltaic modules that convert sunlight into electrical

energy (DC voltage and DC current).

SP stand-alone power

SP systems Stand-alone power systems: includes renewable energy (RE)

systems that draw energy from the sun, wind or water and store it in

a battery bank, and hybrid systems that couple an RE system with

a generator, with contributions from both required to meet the daily

energy needs of a community.

Three phase Refers to a high-capacity electric power system having at least three

conductors. Generation utilities generate three-phase power and

transmit it to load centres where it may be consumed at three phase

or single phase.

Utility Distribution (or transmission) utility: an organisation supplying and

maintaining the distribution network (the poles and wires or ‘grid’)

between a large generating plant or power station and in some

cases a very high voltage transmission system, and the customer

premises.

Generation utility: an organisation supplying and maintaining large

power generation plant or power stations.

Volt (V) The unit of electric potential difference, or force.

Watt (W) The unit of electric power. With AC measurements, effective power

(measured in watts) equals the product of voltage (volts), current

(amps) and power factor.


B5 Energy

Further readingABS (Australian Bureau of Statistics) (2006). Community Housing and Infrastructure Needs Survey 2006, Housing and Infrastructure in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Communities, Cat. No. 4710.0, ABS, Canberra.

Checklists and other materials are available from the Clean Energy Council www.cleanenergycouncil.org.au

Healy Engineering (2007). Sustainable Power Systems — Holistic Concepts for Isolated Power Systems, Healy Engineering, Perth.

Ove Arup and Partners, Smith and Hooke Architects, Healey Engineering, d’ENVIRON Health and Morton Consulting Services (2000). Code of Practice for Housing and Environmental Infrastructure Development in Aboriginal Communities in Western Australia, Western Australia Department of Indigenous Affairs, Perth.


Insert TAB B6


B6Telecommunications

Guiding principlesAccess and equity: Access to services involves both household facilities and centralised public

facilities. All households in the community should have ready access to a basic telephone service

(preferably within the house itself). Services should also be provided for groups with special needs

(such as elderly, disabled).

Health and safety: Telecommunications services are lifelines for remote communities, often

playing an integral role in emergency situations. Adequate communications coverage is required for

emergency and essential services between a community or regional centre and its service satellites.

Environmental health: Some telecommunications infrastructure has potential consequences for

public health and safety (such as electromagnetic radiation) that should be considered when planning

and installing services.

Appropriateness: The following factors should be considered when selecting appropriate

telecommunications infrastructure for remote communities: robustness, location, availability, expected

lifetime, capacity requirements and environmental impact.

Affordability: Up-front capital costs (for example, costs for designing, procuring and installing

infrastructure) and costs for operation and maintenance (such as costs for ongoing building, heating,

cooling and equipment power costs, spare parts and maintenance contractors) should be taken into

account when selecting telecommunications infrastructure and services for remote communities.

Sustainable livelihoods: Maintenance and provision of high-quality telecommunications

infrastructure is vital in remote areas, given the low population density, and the high cost and limited

availability of other means of communication and transport (for example, roads, public transport,

railways, air services).


B6 Telecommunications

Systems overviewThe basic components of telecommunication services are user equipment (telephones, computers,

mobile phones and radios) and networks (linking the user equipment). Different technologies and

implementation approaches are used for each application.

Telecommunications networks should also be considered in terms of:

local networks within the community■■

connectivity to external networks, national and international.■■

Technologies used in remote communities are often different from those used in urban and regional

contexts. At the community level, wireless technologies (such as Wi-Fi; Worldwide Interoperability

for Microwave Access, or WiMax) or various forms of copper cabling are typically used. Connection

to external networks usually requires high-capacity long-distance technologies, such as optical fibre

cable, high-capacity microwave radio systems or satellite links.

Current service delivery arrangementsTelecommunications services are regulated on an Australia-wide basis. State and territory or local

authorities do not regulate or operate telecommunications services, other than at a town

planning level.

The Australian Government Department of Broadband, Communications and the Digital

Economy (DBCDE) is responsible for administering the Telecommunications Act 1997 and the

Telecommunications (Consumer Protection and Service Standards) Act 1999, and funds a number

of schemes to support services in remote and sparsely populated areas that would not otherwise be

available at a reasonable cost from the open market.

Regulatory functions are shared by the Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) and

the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC):

ACMA is responsible for the regulation of broadcasting, internet, radio communications and ■■

telecommunications, including performance and safety standards.

ACCC regulates competition, access arrangements and pricing for bottleneck services ■■

(for example, access by other carriers to Telstra’s network facilities) in the

telecommunications industry.



Relevant legislation

Telecommunications Act 1997■■ (Cwlth)

Telecommunications (Consumer Protection and Service Standards) Act 1999■■ (Cwlth)

Telecommunications (Low-impact Facilities) Determination 1997 (Cwlth).■■

A telecommunications carrier (such as Telstra) licensed by ACMA is usually responsible for

implementing telecommunications services including public phones, private phones and mobile

network infrastructure. When providing a standard telephone service, the carrier incurs a regulatory

obligation referred to as the Customer Service Guarantee (CSG). This means that they are obliged to

provide basic services of a certain quality and they must rectify faults within the timeframes specified

in the CSG. If the telecommunications carrier does not comply with the CSG, they can be penalised,

and customers can claim compensation.

The Telecommunications Industry Ombudsman (TIO) provides a dispute-resolution scheme for small

business and residential consumers who have a complaint about their telephone or internet service.

Universal Service Obligation

The Universal Service Obligation (USO) is a legislated scheme that ensures standard telephone

services and public payphone services are available to all Australians on an equitable basis. It is

particularly relevant to remote areas, where provisioning and operating costs are high and exceed

the revenue earned.

Telstra is designated as the Universal Service Provider under the USO, and is funded by

contributions from all telecommunications providers. Telstra is also required to offer USO

customers access to an interim service if there is an extended delay in connecting or repairing

their standard telephone service.

Performance outcomes (such as operating data rates) for remote area customers often lag behind

those in the cities. Those in remote areas are also less likely to have access to telecommunications

services than those in urban areas, and many remote Indigenous communities do not have access to

public phones (Table B6.1).



Table B6.1: Number of remote Indigenous communities with access to public phones

State/ territory

With access (% of surveyed

communities)

Without access With unknown access status

Communities surveyed

NT 347 (54) 224 70 641

WA 163 (60) 94 14 271

Qld 54 (44) 63 7 124

SA 50 (55) 29 12 91

NSW 14 (25)a 43 0 57

Vic/Tas 2 (67)a 1 0 3

a Small sample size

Source: ABS (2006) CHIN survey / ACMA

Relevant Australian standards and guidelinesGuidelines and standards Topic

AS/ACIF C524:2004 Industry code — external telecommunication cable networks

AS/ACIF C564:2004 Deployment of mobile phone network infrastructure

AS/ACIF S009:2006 Installation requirements for customer cabling (wiring rules)

AS/NZS 4536:1999 Life cycle costing — an application guide

IEC standard 60529 Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP code)

ACIF = Australian Communications Industry Forum; AS = Australian Standards; IEC = International Electrotechnical Commission; NZS = New Zealand Standards

Involving the communityCommunity residents should be involved in the design and maintenance of their telecommunications

facilities, particularly in terms of:

placement of public facilities so that users have ready physical access to them, but also privacy ■■

and security so that they feel comfortable using the equipment; in the case of computing facilities,

this includes creating an effective learning environment

choice of location so that other community activities are not disturbed or disrupted, and cultural ■■

considerations are addressed

provision of appropriate security for the equipment■■

incorporation of the facilities in broader community plans and backup strategies for emergencies■■

accounting for special needs of disabled and older members of the community.■■



In the case of local radio broadcasting services, community members may also have opportunities to

participate in studio production operations and technical support.

Because public communications facilities are lifeline services, education and training should be

provided for these services. This process can also encourage ownership and ensure that faults are

reported promptly to the appropriate maintenance person or channel. Training should also explain the

effective use of the facilities, and safety aspects, particularly if the associated equipment is

mains powered.

Appraising community needsKey factors for determining the requirements for any telecommunications service should include

the following factors.

Importance or availability

The availability of a service is the amount of time it or a piece of equipment is fully operational as a

percentage of total time.

Service availability is determined by the reliability of the equipment or service, and the time out of

service when a failure occurs, including the maintenance response time.

Availability can be improved if multiple services operate in parallel. For example, the risk of a

community being without a lifeline phone service is significantly reduced if two public phones are

provided.

Ensure that:

the impact of ‘down time’ is considered: identify how long the community can afford to be ■■

without each service should a failure occur.

Scoping

For a community facility, take into account service areas and functions such as equipment rooms,

kitchens, reception areas, fax machines, alarm connection, tie circuits to other nearby organisations

(direct telephone circuits that do not connect via the public phone network), emergency channels

and public address connections.

Consider:

the expected lifetime of the service■■

the capacity requirement (how many channels or circuits, telephones or access points ■■

are required).



Location

Consider:

where to place user equipment (such as balancing access and privacy issues for public phones)■■

site availability, including access to electrical power and a suitable location for batteries■■

the need for trenching and cabling for cable-borne services■■

placing radio antennae to maximise coverage for mobile services and, where required, radio links ■■

to a carrier’s network.

Emergency plans

Community planning should take into account how each of the telecommunications facilities (fixed

phones, satellite phones, satellite internet, radio and mobile phones, if applicable) may serve as a

backup for the others in an emergency. This means a lesser level of availability will be required for

each individual service, minimising costs.

Ensure that:

telecommunications services are incorporated into the community’s emergency plan■■

planning for extreme weather events includes communications equipment and sources of ■■

information (such as cyclone tracking websites, and flood and bushfire warning systems)

documentation showing important phone numbers, how to access communications facilities ■■

in an emergency, and appropriate procedures to be followed in an emergency is displayed in

prominent locations

the emergency plan specifies how existing telecommunications services will be used; it may also ■■

provide for the procurement of additional equipment to be used only during emergencies.

Flexibility

As with any technology, the cost of providing additional capacity for projected growth is lower at the

time of initial procurement. Service providers can provide information to assist with making decisions

about expanding capacity.

Ensure that:

allowance is made for future services and growth when choosing appropriate technologies and ■■

equipment types, and when determining the size of equipment or services

advice is sought from relevant service providers regarding existing infrastructure (exchange ■■

equipment, communication link capacity, cabling, etc) and its capacity to accommodate the

extra services.



Environment

Environmental conditions can have a substantial impact on the performance of equipment.

Ensure that:

the capacity of equipment to tolerate local environmental factors is specified and quantified where ■■

possible

equipment operates well within its rated temperature range, through appropriate design of ■■

containers, and passive or active cooling mechanisms

the location and type of building or tower housing the equipment is chosen to minimise the risk ■■

of damage or failure due to flooding, rain damage, or marine or other corrosion.

To minimise entry by insects, moisture and dust, consider:

sealing points of cable entry to buildings and equipment■■

providing door and window seals■■

using chemical or other methods to protect equipment.■■

To minimise damage by or to other community activities, consider:

locating mast guy wires where they will not interrupt the flow of foot traffic■■

protecting mast guy wires and making sure they are visible■■

locating equipment in huts and cabinets to minimise the danger of damage from vehicular traffic■■

protecting equipment from damage by animals, particularly large feral animals (for example, ■■

camels and horses).

Privacy and security

Information storage and protection, and security of access and equipment are essential in any

community.

Ensure that:

community training and education in the appropriate use of passwords and personal identification ■■

number (PIN) codes is provided.

Consider:

safe storage of private and sensitive information; special arrangements may be required to protect ■■

culturally sensitive information

the need to control access to prevent theft of services.■■



Emergency and essential services

A community is likely to have requirements for guaranteed communications coverage throughout its

operating area (including travel between the community and its service towns) for emergency and

essential services. If the terrestrial mobile phone or mobile radio coverage is not continuous, satellite

phones will be required.

Consider:

whether portable hand-held or vehicle-mounted units will best meet the needs of the community.■■

People with disabilities

Consider:

the needs of community members and visitors with mobility, speech, hearing or sight impairments ■■

and limitations.

Life-cycle costing

Life-cycle costing is the calculation of the cost of infrastructure over its life — from design to disposal

(Figure B6.1).

Figure B6.1: Life-cycle costs for telecommunications infrastructure

Operational phase

Early life maintenance

Late life maintenance Disposal

Implementation

Design

Time

Co

st


Ensure that:

up-front capital costs (such as design, procurement and installation) and operating and ■■

maintenance costs (for example, ongoing building space, heating, cooling and equipment power

costs, spare parts and maintenance) are calculated.



Documentation

Design and operational parameters, and evaluations should be documented and securely stored.

Ensure that:

design and operational documents are securely stored and accessible■■

planning and design decisions are recorded to save ‘reinventing the wheel’■■

operational documentation is of a high quality and relates to the actual equipment installed, ■■

including labelling for plugs, sockets, cables and switches.

Choosing appropriate solutionsTelecommunications service options in remote communities might include:

public payphones (telephones provided throughout Australia for use by the general public)■■

community phones (telephones provided solely to Indigenous communities, and intended ■■

primarily for use by community members)

private phones■■

mobile phones■■

mobile radio■■

computer networks■■

broadcast radio and television.■■

Technical aspects of design will typically be the domain of network operators (carriers), service

providers or equipment and cabling suppliers.



Telephones

Telephones may be private or public and mobile or static, depending on community need.

Public phones

Public phones in remote communities perform a ‘lifeline’ function — often there are few or no

telephones in private homes and no mobile phone coverage. Most public phones are public

payphones installed and maintained by Telstra. Community phones have also been installed in some

Indigenous communities and outstations. Table B6.2 compares these two classes of

telephone service.

Table B6.2: Remote community public phone services

Public payphone Community phone

Number of units installed 949 (approx) 236

Payment method Coin, prepaid smartcard or prepaid PIN card

Prepaid PIN card only

Free emergency and 1800 calls

Yes Yes

Telephone provisioning and maintenance

Telstra Telstra or government contractor

Eligibility 50 or more residents Based on need; a few families

Note: Includes all Telstra-supplied payphones in remote Indigenous communities whether supplied commercially or under the Universal Service Obligation.

Source: ACMA (2008)

Payphones

Payphones can only be connected to a network by a telecommunications carrier. They may be

installed and maintained by commercial service providers other than Telstra, such as the suppliers of

goldphones, bluephones and equivalent products (Figure B6.2 shows some examples). Payment for

calls can be made by coins, prepaid smart cards, credit cards and prepaid PIN cards.



Figure B6.2: Typical public payphones


Under the USO, Telstra is obliged to provide a payphone facility to communities with a permanent

population of more than 20 adult residents or more than 50 people in total, subject to the proximity

of other payphone services and the site’s accessibility to customers and maintenance staff. If a

community is eligible for a public payphone, it must make a written request to Telstra. Telstra is

required to repair faults in its payphones within three working days.

Telstra is also required, under the USO, to provide appropriate assistance in the form of special

products and equipment modifications to improve physical access for disabled customers.

Ensure that:

the needs of older community members and people with disabilities are identified for new and ■■

existing services, and documented with the service provider.

Design and installation

Ensure that:

the community is involved in deciding the location of a new USO public payphone service■■

access to mains power is available to operate the payphone and to supply cabinet lighting.■■



Consider:

reducing the cost by locating the payphone as close as possible to existing telecommunications ■■

cabling and mains power

locating the payphone strategically to minimise the risk of misuse and vandalism.■■

Operation and maintenance

Most problems with public payphones are due to coins jamming or a full coin box. Prompt reporting

of problems to the carrier will minimise outage time. Carriers provide a specific freecall phone number

to call in the event of payphone faults or full coin boxes.

Ensure that:

community members are encouraged to report faults promptly.■■

Consider:

arranging with the service provider for a community-based contractor to empty coin boxes.■■

Community phones

Community phones provide an alternative to coin or smartcard public payphones in Indigenous

communities. They have no coin mechanism or card reader, and require the use of a prepaid card

with a PIN code. This reduces capital and maintenance costs, making them suitable for use in

remote areas.

They may be mounted on an external building wall or in a shelter (remote area cabinet, or RAC) in an

accessible public place (Figure B6.3). They do not require an electrical supply for their operation as

they are powered from the network line.

Community phones are provided, installed and maintained under a targeted Australian Government

funding program. To be considered for the installation of a community phone, community

members should provide an expression of interest in writing to the Indigenous Telecommunications

Development Section of the DBCDE.



Figure B6.3: Community phone and installation in a remote area cabinet


Design

The primary design consideration for a community phone is its location in the community.

Ensure that:

the telephone is located so that community members can hear incoming calls■■

compatible prepaid cards (Country Calling and Phone Away cards) are available to buy from ■■

a local sales outlet (such as community store, nearby station store)

special needs of older community members and people with disabilities are identified.■■

Consider:

cabinet mounting for clear and visible access for all community members■■

mounting on a building wall for greater privacy and personal safety— with suitable eaves cover ■■

for weather protection

locating the telephone strategically to minimise the risk of misuse and vandalism.■■




Community phones share a simple and robust design; the instrument is a widely used consumer

handset and the handpiece is common to Telstra-supplied public payphones. A fault in the telephone

itself can usually be addressed by replacing the instrument or handpiece.

If spare parts and tools are available on-site, maintenance can be undertaken by trained members

of the community. Otherwise, repair at all Australian locations can be requested through the Telstra

Indigenous Directorate office in Darwin.

Private phones

Individual telephones may be provided to private houses in a community, but if a community

organisation requires more than one or two telephones, it is usually more cost-effective to provide

a telephone system (see below) to share the lines that connect to the carrier’s network between the

telephones. Calls can then be made between members of the organisation without incurring carrier

call charges. These telephones can share their own internal numbering or naming scheme (extension

numbers or equivalent) and other facilities.

Services for individual community members

Ensure that:

phone service plans are selected to meet each customer’s pattern of use — some plans (such as ■■

Telstra InContact) offer reduced line rental, but with eligibility conditions and restricted outgoing

call access.

Telephone systems

Institutions such as council administrations, health centres, police stations and schools typically

require telephone and computing systems.

Ensure that:

the mix of required primary functions (telephone, fax, modem and high-speed data) is considered ■■

carefully, as this will affect the choice of system

the number and placement of telephone extensions is identified■■

requirements for special facilities are documented■■

the number of outgoing and incoming telephone calls, and their expected duration, is estimated ■■

to help determine the number of network lines required

battery backup capacity is specified in hours — telephone services must be available if mains ■■

power fails, to coordinate emergency services; 4 hours is a common choice, but greater backup

capacity may be required in some cases (for example, unreliable mains electricity supply; extreme

weather events).



System type

Telephone systems fall into two broad categories:

traditional private automatic branch exchange (PABX) or key systems for small office telephone ■■

systems (up to approximately 10 extensions), where the external exchange lines use the same

technology and cabling as individual telephone services

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) systems, where the internal and external network connections ■■

use data communications technologies.

Telephone and computing functions have traditionally been implemented as separate systems,

but current VoIP technology enables both to be implemented in a common data communications

system.

Ensure that:

a specialist telephone system supplier is consulted for advice on the appropriate system to meet ■■

community requirements

the relative merits of each approach are compared, including■■

- maintenance issues

- existing investments in equipment and cabling

- reliability — the advantages and disadvantages of a single system approach

- operation when the mains electricity supply fails

- access to the emergency phone number, 000.

Handset type

Two broad classes of handset are available:

standard handsets that can be connected as an extension phone or direct to an exchange line ■■

(may include cordless phones)

proprietary handsets that have special features, such as hands-free operation, stored number ■■

calling and incoming calling number display; these handsets are only compatible with a particular

manufacturer’s telephone system or equipment, and cannot be connected directly to a standard

exchange line.

Consider:

handset options with your specialist system provider■■

customer equipment and services for people with disabilities, such as■■

- handsets with large numeric keys

- telephone typewriter (TTY) equipment

- handsets with high receiver volume and a volume control knob.



Installation

Only a carrier can provide network connection for a private telephone service or telephone system.

Consider:

although a carrier will supply the first telephone on an individual telephone service, responsibility ■■

for supplying additional telephones or other equipment lies with the customer

although the customer can provide approved telephone instruments (such as in a home ■■

situation), telephone systems are normally installed by the system provider.

Telephone and telephone system cabling

The carrier provides cable connection from its network to a network termination point or network

boundary, which is the boundary between its own and the customer’s areas of responsibility,

including repairs.

If telephone cabling into the building is already in place, the boundary is usually defined:

as a ■■ private residence: the first telephone socket (telecommunications outlet or TO) in the

house (see Figure B6.4)

as ■■ business premises: the main distribution frame, a telephone cable connection panel

in other cases■■ : a small plastic connection box mounted on an external wall.

Figure B6.4: Typical cabling for a residential connection

Lead-in cabling Customer cabling

Customer equipment

Pit

Network boundary

FenceStreet or footpath

Property entry point Building entry point

Wall box

First TO

Additional TO Plug

TO = telecommunications outlet

Source: Australian Standard AS/ACIF S009–2006 (www.commsalliance.com.au)

If a community member or organisation applies to have a new private telephone service installed

where there is no existing carrier cabling to the building, the customer may be responsible for

trenching and cabling. Property and network boundaries may be poorly defined in some remote

communities, so the nearest existing Telstra connection point may be taken as the boundary.



Consider:

the carrier arranges and pays for new cabling on the network side, and the customer arranges ■■

and pays for cabling on the customer side

a registered cabler must install the cabling, but others, including community members, may do ■■

preparation work, such as trenching

cabling inside buildings is the responsibility of the customer (but still requires a registered cabler ■■

to install it).

In-building (customer) cabling

The two types of in-building cabling are:

conventional copper wire telephone cabling: suitable for telephone, fax and modem signals, ■■

but not for computer data

data cabling (unshielded twisted pair, or UTP): a modern, high-precision form of copper wire ■■

cabling, which can carry telephone or computer data or both. UTP cables are recognisable by

their colour-coded sheathing (generally bright blue). UTP is terminated at the user end on a

wall socket.

Where community resources are used to trench for new buried cabling, ensure that:

extreme care is taken to avoid existing sewer, water, power, gas and telecommunications services■■

community and service provider reticulation records are consulted before digging■■

new cable is buried at the required depth and separated from other services ■■

community records are updated to record the exact location of the new cable.■■

Consider:

locating new telephone facilities close to an existing pit or pillar, to reduce costs to the community ■■

of trenching and cabling.

Cable separation

Ensure that:

all telecommunications cables are separated by a specified distance separation or a barrier ■■

from mains electrical cabling for safety purposes, and to prevent interference from mains-

operated devices.



Call accounting

A call accounting system is an optional component that enables the telephone system manager to

monitor traffic patterns, individual or group phone usage, and outgoing call costs. It can also assist

with the distribution of call costs to organisational cost centres, and with checking carrier or service

provider bills.

Configuration changes

Most telephone systems allow the system manager to change system parameters (extension

numbers, recorded voice messages, etc) through an attached or remotely connected

computer terminal.

Case study 13 — Applying for a community phone

A remote outstation community in the Northern Territory, about 250 kilometres from Alice Springs,

had 80 permanent residents. Until recently, the community relied on a single Telstra public

payphone, the maximum entitlement under the Universal Service Obligation payphone provisions.

This was installed some years ago at one end of the outstation outside its sole community

building.

Through the DBCDE Community Phone Project, the community applied to install a community

phone to complement the existing payphone, with the assistance of a local resource agency.

The community cited the following factors in its application:

The widely dispersed houses and the size of the community made access to the payphone ■■

difficult — older community members, living 500 metres or a 10-minute walk from the

telephone, could not receive incoming calls.

There is no mobile phone coverage and the nearest community with a telephone was about ■■

70 kilometres away.

The payphone coin box often filled up, and emptying by Telstra took time.■■

The application was accepted on the grounds that a significant proportion of residents were not

adequately serviced by existing arrangements. A regional DBCDE agent visited the community

to start a dialogue about specific requirements. The community’s preference was to locate the

new telephone in a free-standing cabinet within earshot of the surrounding houses. There were

concerns about personal security, so a site near a power pole was identified to provide lighting.

The residents agreed and signed off to this location, which was then mapped.

As the community did not have its own store, a bulk purchase arrangement of prepaid phone

cards was established with the store owner at a nearby large community, with a buffer stock of

cards kept for local use.

Implementation, including the trenching and laying of an extension cable from the existing Telstra

network cabinet and tower to the new location, took 12 months to complete.



Mobile phones

Service coverage for mobile phones in most remote Indigenous communities is limited. In

communities where terrestrial coverage has been provided, take-up of mobile phone services often

far exceeds fixed-line home phone services. Prepaid is the main account type used by Indigenous

customers.

Although carriers expand mobile networks based on commercial grounds, in some instances the

Australian Government provides funding to target areas of public need (typically smaller population

centres and highways).

When purchasing a mobile phone, consider:

whether coverage is adequate in the area■■

cost of the equipment and the offered plans■■

monthly data download quota.■■

Communities can request that a mobile carrier install a base station to provide community coverage.

If the carrier considers that the expected level of usage is sufficient, it will install a base station.

Carriers are required to consult local communities when selecting a site for the base station within

the local area. A base station’s location is often a trade-off between good coverage, and low

physical and visual impact. Impact on cultural sites may be a significant consideration in Indigenous

communities.

Ensure that:

consultation meetings are arranged with the carrier and take into account the community’s ■■

cultural and other needs.

Design

The community should decide if portable hand-held or vehicle-mounted units can best meet

their needs.

Consider:

that vehicle-mounted mobile phones have a longer range and greater penetration of obstructions, ■■

but are less flexible than hand-held equipment.

Base stations

Ensure that:

mobile phone base station buildings and towers are securely fenced to prevent ■■

unauthorised access.



Environmental safety

A mobile phone base station transmitter emits a relatively low level of electromagnetic radiation and

most of this is directed away from the antenna to provide coverage in the surrounding area.

Ensure that:

communities are briefed by the carrier on public safety arrangements.■■

Power supply

Base stations require electrical power from a local electricity source or solar panels and a battery.

The carrier may ask the community for the provision of local mains electricity supply.

Satellite phones

Satellite phones are useful in general communications and have an important role in emergency plans

and as backup safety devices for remote area travel. Some features of satellite phone networks are

listed in Table B6.3.

Table B6.3: Satellite phone network features

Satellite phone network

Network type Mobile/portable Data rate (with accessories)

Other features

Globalstar Low earth orbiting

Portable hand-held

9.8 kbps Telephone models with dual satellite/ terrestrial mobile GSM capability (cross reference)

Iridium Low earth orbiting

Portable hand-held

2.4 kbps Magnetic bonnet mount external antenna kit (option)

Optus MobileSat Geo-stationary Vehicle mounted 12–24 volts

2.4 kbps Transportable (‘laptop’) telephone models also available

GSM = Global System for Mobile Communications; kbps = kilobits per second

Each of the low earth orbiting satellite networks uses its own system of satellites, which are

continuously moving overhead. The satellite phone antenna is designed to provide reasonable

‘all-round’ reception/transmission when fully extended.

The geo-stationary satellite networks use a single satellite that orbits at the same rate as the earth

rotates. It appears in a fixed direction from any given position on the earth (that is, over the equator

and in the northern Australian sky).



Consider:

the antenna for vehicle-mounted satellite phones must provide all-round reception and ■■

transmission, as vehicle orientation will vary

a higher gain directional antenna for fixed-location satellite phones can be used and some laptop-■■

style satellite phones have a panel antenna that must be oriented towards the satellite to optimise

performance.

Lifeline, emergency and essential service communications

There are requirements for adequate communications coverage for emergency and essential services

between a community and its service towns. Satellite phones are required where terrestrial mobile

phone or mobile radio coverage is not continuous.

Ensure that:

mobile communications requirements for emergency and essential services are identified.■■

Consider:

the use of positioning devices incorporating satellite communications, such as emergency ■■

position-indicating radio beacons, personal locator beacons or satellite tracking devices as safety

equipment — some of these devices use global positioning system (GPS) data received from

satellites and they all transmit to the monitoring satellite, so they must be used in the open and

be clear of obstructions.



Mobile radio

Mobile radio provides two-way communication over relatively short distances up to a radius of a few

tens of kilometres (high-frequency radio may cover much greater distances). Mobile radio networks

are generally private. Vehicle-mounted or hand-held radios communicate with each other and with

a fixed base station. Characteristics of the different types of mobile radio are given in Table B6.4.

Repeater stations can extend the geographic range of the network.

Table B6.4: Characteristics of mobile radio technologies

High frequency (HF)

Very high frequency (VHF)

Ultra high frequency (UHF)

Vehicle or fixed Hand-held

Equipment size Large Intermediate/compact

Compact

Range Long Intermediate Short (line of sight)

Very short

Ability to penetrate buildings

Not applicable Variable Variable (may be improved by signal reflection)

Ability to penetrate vegetation

High Intermediate Low

Terrain tolerance High Intermediate Low

Speech quality/ noise levels

Variable Intermediate to good

Good

Licensing

Mobile radio transmitters require an operating licence, while receivers do not. Some equipment

operates under a class licence. The equipment supplier and user do not need to apply for a specific

licence to operate a service and there are no licence fees. When shared among many users,

interference and congestion may occur.

Other radio communications equipment, systems and services require a licence, which involves

application to ACMA and the payment of a fee to authorise operation of specific transmitting

equipment at specific locations and using particular frequencies. A segment of the spectrum is

allocated for exclusive use by a user without interference by other users.

Ensure that:

a licence application is made, if required.■■



Range required for radio units

The required operating range and the availability of suitable radio frequency spectrums determine

which radio technology to use (UHF, VHF or HF).

Ensure that:

the coverage area meets activity requirements; these might range from the local area (up to ■■

10 kilometres in radius from the community), to mid-range (10–50 kilometres) to long-range

(above 50 kilometres)

the preferred transceiver site location for fixed radios takes into account the topography of the ■■

coverage area — where possible, choose high points.

Mobile and portable equipment

Ensure that:

requirements are defined for mobile and portable equipment.■■

Base stations

Base station transceiver equipment is compact and may be located in a special room or in a general

office area. Associated equipment includes a microphone, loudspeaker, antenna system and

power supply.

Consider:

locating the user terminal, microphone and loudspeaker in a special area to prevent disturbance, ■■

or providing the operator with a headset.

Repeaters

Repeaters are automatic unstaffed transceivers, located at high points in the terrain in order to

receive signals from mobile and portable radios within the operating area, and retransmit signals over

a wider area than is possible from individual mobile units. Repeater masts are visible from a long

distance and from all directions. Locations are commonly some distance from the community and

require vehicle access roads, equipment housing and sources of electrical power.

Antenna mast height for base stations and repeaters is typically a three-way compromise between

technical effectiveness, cultural and visual impact, and cost.

Ensure that:

landowners and community members are consulted at an early stage in the design and location ■■

of repeaters and masts

there is access for installation and maintenance, and equipment huts, site security and power ■■

sources (including battery or other backup) are provided.



Batteries

Most mobile radio equipment requires battery power as the primary source or as a backup to

the mains supply. Battery charger models that allow the transceiver plus battery to be left in the

switched-on charging mode at all times are the best option.

Ensure that:

batteries have sufficient capacity for the base station to operate if the primary electrical ■■

power fails

battery chargers and spare battery stocks are available.■■

Consider:

placing repeater equipment at a site that already houses radio equipment and transmission ■■

towers; negotiation with landholders and the use of existing facilities can be a cost-effective way

to provide the new facilities.


Ensure that:

regular preventive battery maintenance occurs, as battery loss is a major cause of equipment and ■■

service failure

equipment is maintained by the system owner and licence holder in accordance with licence ■■

conditions

operational procedures are well defined and documented■■

all users undergo regular refresher training in the effective use of radios (including procedures for ■■

emergency situations)

education about economical and disciplined use is provided to avoid congestion, particularly ■■

in emergencies.

Computer networks

The primary components of computing network infrastructure are local area networks (LANs) and

wide area networks (WANs).

A LAN consists of:

servers, local cabling or wireless interconnection■■

networking devices, such as routers, switches and modems■■

workstation devices, such as personal computers and printers.■■



A WAN includes all external connections (that is, those linking the LAN to other public or private

networks, such as a corporate central office and the internet).

Connection to the internet is a key part of any effective community public access. A range of

technical options may be available, including:

asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) via telephone cables if the local exchange connection ■■

with the ‘outside world’ has sufficiently large capacity

local connection via wireless using mobile phone technology, but this requires large and ■■

expensive capacity.

Government funding may be available to subsidise the cost of connecting community-based

computers and networks to the Internet.

The size and capacity of the LAN will largely be determined by the required number and location of

computers. The speed for the WAN will be determined by the volume of traffic between the LAN and

the external network(s) (see Tables B6.5 and B6.6).

Table B6.5: Local area network (LAN) technologies

Transmission technique or service

Typical data transmission rates

Maximum transmission distance from customer telephone or computer to central equipment

Special characteristics

Wi-Fi Up to 20 Mbps 50–100 metres with clear line of sight, or greater with directional antenna

Transmission speeds and distances depend strongly on antenna characteristics and obstructions

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

100 Mbps 90 metres Similar to conventional telephone cabling but optimised for data communications

Conventional (voice grade) telephone cabling

Up to 56 kbps (modem only)

About 10 kilometres — modem speed for data transmission reduces with increasing distance

Modem speed is subject to the quality of the cable between the computer and the exchange, and the number of intermediate cable joins

kbps = kilobits per second; Mbps = megabits per second



Table B6.6: Wide area network (WAN) technologies

Transmission technique or service

Typical data transmission rates (towards customer)

Maximum transmission distance from customer location to network connection point

Special characteristics (including limitations)

2-way satellite Up to 1 Mbps Unlimited Signal travelling from the earth to satellite and back results in a delay that may be noticeable

High-capacity (microwave) radio concentrator (HCRC)

Up to 19.2 kbps (ie dial-up only)

Customer equipment is connected to HCRC network equipment using conventional telephone cabling: about 10 kilometres

A widespread means of network connection for fixed phones and low data-rate services in communities in very remote areas; the microwave tower must be close to the community

Asymmetrical digital subscriber line (ADSL)

Up to 1.5 Mbps (best case, 8 Mbps)

Depends on wire diameter and quality, but typically 4 kilometres from exchange equipment

Only available from selected exchanges; delivered to customer premises on conventional telephone cabling

ADSL2+ Above 1.5 Mbps (eg 12 Mbps at 2.5 kilometres from network equipment; best case, 24 Mbps)

Depends on wire diameter and quality but typically 3 kilometres from exchange equipment

Only available from selected exchanges; delivered to customer premises on conventional telephone cabling

Optical fibre cable Limited only by connecting equipment

Primary means of providing very high capacity linking between network nodes. Typically not available in very remote areas

3G mobile phone network

Approaching ADSL data rates (best case, 7 Mbps)

Limited areas of coverage Data rates are affected by terrain as with voice services, but effects are more exaggerated

kbps = kilobits per second; Mbps = megabits per second



Ensure that:

requirements are defined, including:■■

- number and location of computers and computing applications

- estimated level of user activity

- volumes of download and upload information

internet download volumes are managed — over-quota use is expensive.■■

Consider:

formal (telemedicine, teleconferencing) and informal (browsing, entertainment) use of facilities ■■

when estimating information volumes.

Design

Location of equipment

Ensure that:

the location for satellite WAN has a clear line of sight and the dish is oriented appropriately■■

Wi-Fi-equipped computers can communicate with a central wireless access point; this is affected ■■

by distance and obstructions, particularly metal surfaces in the transmission path

community members are consulted about the training and education required for use of public ■■

access computing facilities.

Consider:

providing separate locations or access times for men and women■■

privacy requirements when introducing or relocating computers■■

experimenting with different positions within the room to improve the connection data rate ■■

of a Wi-Fi-connected computer.

Protection of equipment

Ensure that:

appropriate security is provided for buildings that house computer equipment (for example, ■■

lockable doors, secure windows)

there is provision for regular backup (and preferably off-site storage) of essential computer data.■■

Consider:

using a generator-compatible uninterruptible power supply (UPS), as computer equipment is ■■

susceptible to power outages and over-voltage spikes resulting from lightning strikes or irregular

loading of the mains system.



Trade-off: complexity and ease of maintenance

Consider:

using relatively simple computer hardware and software if local technical support within the ■■

community is limited.


Ensure that:

there are people in the community resourced to supervise the facilities and to mentor others■■

locally stored spare equipment is available together with repair and replacement contracts, and a ■■

schedule of regular visits for maintenance

appropriate ‘responsible use’ measures are implemented to prevent downloading of undesirable ■■

material — this is required by legislation in some locations (such as Northern Territory National

Emergency Response Act 2007 (Cwlth)

regular backup of essential data forms part of the operational plan.■■

Consider:

developing appropriately paced training programs for community members early in the ■■

planning process.

Charging for services

Community public access internet facilities are rarely self-funding, because high operating costs are

usually more than people can afford.

Consider:

charging a nominal fee to encourage responsible use of public access facilities.■■



Broadcast radio and television

Radio and television services in remote Indigenous communities are provided by a combination of

wide area and local transmission arrangements. Free-to-air and Pay TV options are available; Pay TV

may be combined with 2-way phone and internet access.

Wide area satellite broadcast arrangements

Free-to-air broadcast content for remote area customers is delivered (as at 2009) from the Optus C1

satellite ‘Aurora’ platform Australia-wide.

The Aurora broadcasts — the Remote Area Broadcast Services (RABS) — are encoded in digital

format and include 13 free-to-air television services and many free-to-air radio services.

Broadcast licences for content providers are allocated on a regional basis. The signal coding is

arranged so that decoding for a given location only provides access to a subset of the total number

of services.

Local area arrangements within the community

Although many communities have receiving and retransmission facilities, only a subset of these can

provide local broadcasts.

Centralised receiving facilities

Remote communities are typically equipped with centralised satellite receiving facilities to receive and

decode the RABS transmissions. These comprise a dish antenna and an integrated receiver decoder

(IRD) set-top box.

Ensure that:

an ‘Aurora ready’ certified receiver package (including the dish and cabling as well as the ■■

electronic equipment and smart card) is purchased — others are unsuitable for receiving

RABS services.

Retransmission equipment

Transmitting equipment located with a satellite receiver retransmits television and radio services in

analog format at low power within communities. As these signals are not encoded, normal analog

television and frequency modulation (FM) radio antennae and receivers can be used for reception.

Most RABS communities can now retransmit five television channels (Australian Broadcasting

Corporation, or ABC; Special Broadcasting Service, or SBS; two commercial channels; National

Indigenous Television, or NITV) and two radio services (ABC and their regional Indigenous

media service).



Local production and broadcast facilities

Local audio and video studio recording and production facilities include switching equipment to

select either the incoming satellite service or the locally produced content for broadcast to

the community.

Some communities also have facilities to transmit local content via their regional Indigenous media

organisation over a landline to the Central Australian Aboriginal Media Association (CAAMA) for

general broadcast on the Imparja satellite service.

Equipment housing

Consider:

room space, rack space and power requirements■■

furniture and low noise room furnishings for studios, if the capacity to produce and transmit local ■■

programs is required.

Licensing

Apparatus licences and community broadcasting licences are issued by the regulator, ACMA.

Ensure that:

community-based retransmission equipment has an apparatus licence — one for each ■■

channel transmitted

community-based broadcasting services have community broadcasting licences — only ■■

communities with this licence receive funding under the Indigenous Broadcasting Program.

Antenna arrangements

Broadcast antennas and masts need to be located at a high point with clear line of sight across

the community.

Consider:

co-locating the antenna with antennae for other community radio equipment■■

whether a high-gain receiving antenna is required if the line of sight to community houses ■■

is blocked.

Power backup

Consider:

appropriate electrical power backup for equipment, as broadcast services are generally regarded ■■

as 24-hour services.



Implementation

Installation is normally carried out by the equipment provider.

Maintenance

Ensure that:

arrangements are made for rapid maintenance responses to equipment failure — in most cases ■■

this will be provided by the regional Indigenous media organisation under contract.

Managing and maintaining servicesThere are two broad approaches to equipment repair: ‘on-site repair’ and ‘return to base’.

For remote areas, the cost of a service technician travelling to the customer location is the most

expensive system of maintenance and is time consuming. Alternatively, the return to base approach

returns faulty equipment to a regional service location for repair and uses spare equipment in local

storage to replace the equipment quickly. Replacement is done by trained (semi-skilled) local people,

under the supervision of a central maintenance depot.

Remote access facilities can enable a skilled maintenance worker at a distant location to:

connect to the telephone or computer system using a computer terminal■■

identify the problem■■

direct a local semi-skilled person to take corrective action.■■

This reduces maintenance time and costs.

Ensure that:

there is a sufficient level of security for remote access■■

batteries, solar panels and other items with a limited service life■■

- receive preventive maintenance according to the manufacturer’s recommendation

(taking into account local climate, environmental and operating conditions)

- receive maintenance according to the steps: ‘clean, service, test and replace unserviceable

equipment, then test again’.



Useful termsACCC Australian Competition and Consumer Commission

ACIF Australian Communications Industry Forum

ACMA The Australian Communications and Media Authority, the regulator

for broadcasting, the internet, radio communications and

telecommunications.

ADSL asymmetric digital subscriber line

Availability The availability of a service is the amount of time it or a piece of

equipment is fully operational compared with the total time. It is

expressed as a percentage and gives a measure of the reliability

or ‘up time’ of the service.

Bottleneck services Services that are constrained by pricing or other factors, making

their cost to customers high, and inhibiting economic growth.

Carrier A telecommunications carrier licensed by ACMA.

Community phone Phones provided solely for Indigenous communities, and intended

primarily for use by community members.

Customer Service A regulatory obligation that requires a telecommunications carrier

Guarantee (CSG) to provide basic services of a certain quality and rectify faults within

specified timeframes. If the carrier does not comply with the CSG,

they can be penalised, and customers can claim compensation.

Australian Government Responsible for administering the telecommunications legislation

Department of Broadband, Australia-wide.

Communications and the

Digital Economy (DBCDE)

HF high frequency

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

kbps kilobits per second

Local area network (LAN) A computer network and associated technologies that provide

connection within a relatively small area, such as a building or group

of buildings; in the case of an Indigenous community — within the

confines of the community itself.

Mains electrical cabling Cabling that carries a dangerous voltage and is subject to special

protective design and safety rules.

Mbps megabits per second

Mobile (radio) transceiver A vehicle-mounted two-way radio.



Network termination point The boundary between a telecommunications carrier’s infrastructure

and the customer’s infrastructure — usually a small box on the

external wall of the customer’s premises.

PIN personal identification number

Portable (radio) transceiver A hand-held two-way radio.

Public payphone Phones provided throughout Australia for use by the general public,

where calls are charged and paid for at the time of calling. To be

eligible for a public payphone, a community needs to have 50 or

more permanent residents.

RABS Remote Area Broadcast Services

Radio base station The fixed part of a radio or mobile phone network with which

individual mobile or portable transceivers or mobile phones

communicate directly.

Telecommunications cabling Cabling that carries a low voltage signal and does not pose a

danger to people. Such cabling must be separated from mains

electrical cabling for safety reasons.

Tie circuits or tie lines Direct telephone circuits between locations that do not connect

via the public telephone network.

UHF ultra high frequency

Universal Service Obligation A legislated scheme that ensures standard telephone services and

(USO) public payphone services are available to all Australians on an

equitable basis.

UTP unshielded twisted pair

VHF very high frequency

VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol

Wide area network (WAN) A computer network and associated technologies that connect local

area networks (LANs) together or connect individual equipment to

a network over long distances.



ContactsEnquiry Contact

Australian Government telecommunications and computing programs

www.dbcde.gov.au/funding_and_programs

Public payphone www.telstra.com.au/contact/payphones.htm

Payphone and Community Phone faults and repairs

Telstra Phone Freecall 180 2244

Community phone www.dbcde.gov.au/funding_and_programs/indigenous_communications_program

‘PhoneAway’ and ‘Country Calling Card’ prepaid phone card distribution

J.Comm Distributors Telephone (07) 3264 4090

Radiocommunications (mobile radio) licensing

www.acma.gov.au/WEB/STANDARD/pc = PC_481

Telephone/internet complaints Telecommunications Industry Ombudsman www.tio.com.au

General telecommunications enquiries

The Centre for Appropriate Technology www.icat.org.au

Further readingABS (Australian Bureau of Statistics) (2006). Community Housing and Infrastructure Needs Survey 2006, Housing and Infrastructure in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Communities, Cat. No. 4710.0, ABS, Canberra.

ACMA (Australian Communications and Media Authority) (2008). Public Phone Services in Indigenous Communities: ACMA Communications Report 2006–07, ACMA, Canberra.

ACMA (Australian Communications and Media Authority) (2008). Telecommunications in Remote Indigenous Communities, ACMA, Canberra.

ACMA (Australian Communications and Media Authority) (2008). Cabling Regulation, ACMA, Canberra. www.acma.gov.au

ACMA (Australian Communications and Media Authority) (2008). Your Rights to a Telephone Service, ACMA, Canberra. www.acma.gov.au

ACMA (Australian Communications and Media Authority) (2008). Customer Service Guarantee Standard 2000 (No.2), ACMA, Canberra. www.acma.gov.au

ACMA (Australian Communications and Media Authority) (2008). CSG Overview, ACMA, Canberra. www.acma.gov.au

Optus (2008). Optus Disability Action Plan, Optus, Macquarie Park. www.optus.com.au

Tangentyere Council Research Hub and Central Land Council (2007). Mobile Phone Use Among Low Income Aboriginal People: A Central Australian Snapshot, Tangentyere Council Research Hub and Central Land Council, Alice Springs.

Telstra (2008). Telstra Disability Action Plan, Telstra, Melbourne. www.telstra.com.au


Insert TAB B7


B7Transport

Guiding principlesAccess and equity: Programs to improve the health and infrastructure of remote communities often

overlook transport systems, particularly roads. However, transport systems are particularly important

for remote communities, linking and integrating them with the wider community and essential

services.

Health and safety: Reliable transport is required to deliver food supplies and health and medical

services. People need transport to cultural, traditional and entertainment activities, and to commercial

enterprises. Transport is also required for emergency evacuations, disaster relief and maintenance

services.

Environmental health: Planning for roads and airstrips needs to take account of issues such

as culturally significant locations, and the preservation of local vegetation and drainage patterns.

Building and maintenance work should be carried out to minimise disturbances due to dust

generation.

Appropriateness: Access to transport is affected by geographic, seasonal and economic factors;

proximity to existing transport systems; the number of people and quantity of freight to be moved;

and access to fuel. If more than one transport option (land, air, water) is viable, the second or third

option can be used to provide backup for seasonal and other disruptions.

Affordability: The cost of transport infrastructure, equipment, vehicles and fuel, and the costs to use

and maintain vehicles (including cars, road trains, aircraft and watercraft) are much higher in remote

communities than in metropolitan areas. Many communities have limited funds for infrastructure,

and the cost of building and maintaining roads, aerodromes and barge landings is often prohibitively

expensive.

Sustainable livelihoods: To ensure safety and minimum standards of living, communities should

have access to a range of transport options (including transport via land, air and water). Planned

maintenance schedules and appropriate use help to reduce costs.


B7 Transport

Systems overviewIn the National Indigenous Infrastructure Guide, the term ‘transport system’ refers to transport

options: land, air or water. The term ‘transport infrastructure’ refers to the hardware and design

options that a community needs to utilise these transport systems.

Typical transport system options available for Indigenous communities include the following:

Land (typical community infrastructure — roads)■■

- Roads and tracks in remote communities usually link to a cattle station road (funded by local

government), then to a major arterial road (funded by local, state or territory government)

and then to major towns, cities or capital cities via a highway (funded by state or territory

governments or the Australian Government). Roads can also link remote communities to

rail networks.

Air (typical community infrastructure — aerodromes)■■

- For passengers in remote communities, air transport can be an economically viable alternative

to road transport. Air transport is the usual source of mail delivery, medical services (such as

the Royal Flying Doctor Service) and emergency evacuations for remote communities.

Waterways (typical community infrastructure — barge landings)■■

- Heavy rainfall during the wet season and unseasonable downpours can isolate remote coastal

communities from road and air transport, so waterway transport becomes the only option.

Barges and other watercraft can transport food, fuel, people and heavy equipment. However,

barges require appropriately designed landings, and access may depend on factors such as

tides.

Current service delivery arrangementsResponsibility for transport systems depends on the size of the community.

In major communities (at least 200 people), a state, territory or local government authority is

responsible for maintaining roads and aerodromes. Major communities are usually accessed via

a highway.

In minor communities (fewer than 200 people), outstation resource agencies or community

councils are typically responsible for maintaining roads, airstrips and barge landings. However,

these organisations often lack the specialist capacity and funds for this work. One-off grants from

the Australian Government are occasionally available to reconstruct aerodromes, barge landings or

sections of access roads.


B7 Transport

Relevant Australian standards and guidelines

Roads

Austroads guides for road design■■

ARRB Group transport research guidelines■■

construction and maintenance procedures, and road specifications used by local governments ■■

or main roads departments are available from local governments, main roads departments and

other resource agencies.

Aerodromes

Community aerodromes must comply with aviation standards. These include the Transport Act 1983

and regulations, the Aviation Transport Security Act 2004 and regulations, and the Civil Aviation

Safety Authority (CASA) Manual of Standards Part 139 — Aerodromes. Physical feature data and

pilot requirements are described in Air Services Australia publications.

CASA classifies aerodromes according to the types of aircraft and the aggregate aircraft weight that

they can support; an aerodrome must comply with the standards for its particular classification.

These standards include specifications for runway length, width, construction type and pavement

type. For more information, see the CASA Manual of Standards Part 139 — Aerodromes, Chapter 5.

CASA requires aerodromes to be inspected regularly in accordance with their standards. Aerodrome

owners are responsible for maintaining aerodromes to the standards of CASA and the Royal Flying

Doctor Service.

Waterway landings

Barge facilities are regulated by the state or territory department that controls shipping movements.

Owners and operators are responsible for maintenance.


B7 Transport

Involving the communityIt is essential that project managers and designers consult with the community before and during any

transport infrastructure projects.

Roads

Ensure that:

town plans and serviced land availability program (SLAP) maps are consulted during planning■■

the community is informed about potential disruption, noise and site safety issues■■

planning takes into account floods that occur once in 50 or 100 years■■

elders are consulted about sacred or sensitive sites such as burial grounds■■

contractors are made aware of local people who are skilled in any aspect of the project (such as ■■

plant operators) and may be available for short-term employment during the construction phase

or later maintenance work.

Aerodromes

Location of airstrips will affect how nearby land is used, because aerodromes use a considerable

amount of land. Therefore, community consultation is essential.

While the management of the aerodrome will depend on its classification, usually the owner or

manager of the land is responsible for the governance of the aerodrome.

Ensure that:

community members are involved in the decision-making process for aerodrome design ■■

and construction

local knowledge is sought about weather patterns■■

the location of heritage sites and sacred sites in the area is investigated■■

suitable local sites for extracting gravel or other construction materials are identified, and access ■■

is negotiated with the owner well in advance

where possible, local community members are trained to be aerodrome reporting officers ■■

(duties include daily, weekly and monthly inspections of the airstrip and associated equipment,

instruments and communication systems).


B7 Transport

Waterway landings

Waterways and sea access points are generally places of cultural significance and sites for

community meetings or fishing.

Ensure that:

cultural issues are discussed with the community before a location for a barge landing facility ■■

is selected

community members are consulted about weather conditions, including storms, wind direction ■■

and tidal movements

the community is engaged during the design of barge facilities (such as helping to gather ■■

readings such as wave action, tidal flows and tidal velocity).

Appraising community requirementsAn accurate picture of the community’s current and future transport needs and usage patterns

is important when providing or improving access to a transport system, or when constructing or

changing infrastructure. This information is essential for making decisions about the appropriate

design, size, functionality, costs and capacity of the system.

Community

Consider how the following features of the community will affect the choice of transport

infrastructure:

population profile and demographics (including permanent and mobile populations, seasonal ■■

variations in population size, and the number of infants, children, teenagers, adults and

the elderly)

employment, enterprise and education levels (including capacity to pay for transport and freight)■■

community plans and aspirations for the future (including the community business plan), ■■

particularly planned or expected population growth or decline over the next 5–10 years

community attitudes to transport systems (fear of light aircraft or rough waterways).■■


B7 Transport

Current status of transport infrastructure

Consider:

potential obstacles to reliable transport to main supply centres, such as flowing rivers and creeks, ■■

rough or dangerous waterway conditions, fallen trees or vegetation regrowth on aerodromes

the reliability and capacity of current transport infrastructure and supply arrangements■■

community use of and satisfaction with current infrastructure and supply arrangements■■

cost of each transport option, including freight and fuel costs (note: fuel costs include the cost of ■■

transporting fuel for uses within the community such as power generation and the cost of fuel for

the transport vehicles themselves)

service and maintenance needs of the current system (check logbooks and system financial ■■

records and check, maintain and download traffic counters)

current maintenance arrangements (including the service regime and funding for planned ■■

maintenance)

ownership of current transport infrastructure■■

current system configuration and design, including capacity for upgrades.■■

Community transport service needs

Consider:

accessibility of the community via land, air and waterways■■

prevailing climate of the area and potential climate change■■

transport requirements associated with institutions and infrastructure in the community (such as ■■

police station, schools, clinic, store, workshop, service station, water supply, communications

and sewerage system)

transport needs of commercial activities in the community■■

access to medical services and likely need for emergency evacuations.■■

Quantifying a community’s transport needs

It is good practice to carry out a transport audit to assess a community’s transport needs and

available options. All services that depend on transport should be considered in the audit.

Community members should be involved in the audit process as much as possible to ensure that

accurate records of use and estimations of current and future transport needs are made.


B7 Transport

Consider surveying, calculating or estimating:

the annual transport pattern for people entering and exiting the community (consider patterns ■■

associated with people buying food and other supplies, accessing medical services and attending

funerals, cultural activities and entertainment)

average daily, weekly, monthly and annual use of transport systems (including patterns of use, ■■

such as weekly mail plane, monthly delivery of powerhouse fuel and monthly medical service)

transport patterns associated with school children (including school buses and private vehicles)■■

the average number of people evacuated for emergency medical treatment (include Royal Flying ■■

Doctor Service and local health clinics)

annual tonnages of freight for food supplies, spare parts and other stores■■

annual tonnages of freight for transporting powerhouse/generator fuel■■

annual mail delivery requirements■■

annual requirements for transporting service crews to repair and maintain essential services■■

peak passenger loads or maximum freight tonnages for the various transport systems (such as ■■

road trains carting fuel, cattle, building materials, transportable homes; barges carrying heavy

equipment or building materials; aircraft carrying people and freight; and specifications required

by the Royal Flying Doctor Service for aerodromes).

Policy

Consider:

contacting your local government representative or Indigenous Coordination Centre for ■■

information on current state or territory policies on providing transport to Indigenous communities.

Reliability

Consider:

how reliable access has to be (for example, Royal Flying Doctor Service access and medical ■■

services to the community).

Costs

There can be huge differences in capital outlay for all aspects of transport, ranging from relatively low

cost to millions of dollars. Security of appropriate levels of capital funds and of recurrent funds for

preventive/planned maintenance are key factors in deciding which transport system(s) will best suit

your community.


B7 Transport

Funding

Bringing earthmoving plant and equipment to remote communities is expensive, so it is important

to consider whether other nearby communities or municipal services may also require the use of

equipment so that costs can be shared.

Consider:

the level of funding currently available■■

sources of funding currently available■■

specific types of projects for which funding is currently available.■■

Recurrent/ongoing costs

Consider:

rebates (such as diesel used in road maintenance or construction)■■

the duration of funding commitments (for example, whether recurrent funding will be available for ■■

the expected life of the system).

Cost recovery

Consider:

existing cost-recovery mechanisms that may help to meet operating costs (such as rates, levies ■■

and tariffs, and landing fees)

whether operating cost subsidies are available■■

which organisations have the capacity to collect rates, levies and tariffs (for example, local ■■

government or road utilities)

whether the community is large enough to have the administrative resources to manage cost-■■

recovery arrangements.

Servicing and support

Consider:

whether the community has access to servicing networks and adequate resources for ■■

maintaining transport infrastructure (for example, earthmoving equipment)

whether community members themselves have the technical skills to maintain transport ■■

infrastructure (such as accreditation to operate earthmoving equipment)

existing support structures to allow the community to operate and maintain ■■

transport infrastructure.


B7 Transport

Distance and proximity

Consider:

the distance from the community to major transport systems, regional centres, fuel supplies ■■

and maintenance services — providing reliable transport services to remote communities can

be difficult and expensive (for example, long roads between communities in remote areas often

require river or creek crossings, cost more to maintain and require more time to recover from

flooding)

seasonal changes to accessibility (for example, communities that are inaccessible during the wet ■■

season require large fuel stores for maintenance vehicles, and inbuilt redundancy to allow for

longer maintenance response times).

Climate and geography

Many remote Indigenous communities in the Northern Territory, Queensland and Western Australia

are located in areas with a range of extreme climates. Climate is an important factor to consider

when designing, constructing and planning maintenance for transport systems and infrastructure.

For example, in tropical zones the extended wet season can reduce access to external resources,

so maintenance must be carefully planned. Systems should also be designed so that damage from

flooding is minimised.

Geographical considerations include the likelihood of flooding and proximity to the ocean. All roads

and creek crossing structures must meet appropriate stormwater loading standards and codes.

Marine environments can be particularly harsh on materials.

Consider:

the location of the community and the prevailing geographical and climatic conditions (such as ■■

cyclone, tsunami, seawater, extreme temperatures)

whether scientific modelling is available on the likely effects of climate change■■

variations in maximum transport loads according to seasons.■■

Environmental concerns

Every transport solution will have different environmental impacts.

Consider:

noise■■

exhaust fumes■■

fuel type and consequent greenhouse impact■■

visual impact.■■


B7 Transport

Cultural issues

Consider:

the location of sacred sites — inappropriate development on culturally significant land is ■■

unacceptable to community members; an initial consultation can avoid costly changes later

the likelihood of restricted site access at certain times due to ceremonial activities — every ■■

system type requires both regular scheduled maintenance and unscheduled access for repairs,

so restricted access can mean extended downtime or potential costs associated with major

repairs due to poor maintenance.

New technologies

Transport technologies improve in small increments over time, and such improvements often go

unnoticed. ‘Dust control’ is an example of a new technology that is cost-effective and offers potential

health benefits and improved reliability. However, new technologies that have not been thoroughly

tested in appropriate environmental conditions should not be installed in a remote Indigenous

community. For example, many government-sponsored tests have demonstrated the short-term

benefits of dust-control agents, but bitumen seal is still cheaper when all life-cycle costs

are considered.

Consider:

whether new transport technologies are available■■

whether new technologies are appropriate for use in Indigenous communities.■■

Choosing appropriate solutionsThere are two sets of choices to make when considering community transport options:

Choosing the transport option or options (land, air, water) most appropriate to the community ■■

— in most cases, access to these will already will be in place, dictated by geographical factors,

proximity to existing major transport systems (such as national highways, ports and major

airports), the size of the community, and the number of people and amount of freight and fuel to

be transported.

Choosing the most appropriate type of transport infrastructure — informed decisions about ■■

transport infrastructure need to be made, such as

- what type of road to build or upgrade (for example, whether it should be sealed or unsealed,

how wide and what materials)

- what standard of aerodrome (length, sealed or unsealed) is appropriate

- what infrastructure (floating pontoon landing, concrete barge ramp, etc) is required to land the

barge or ferry at the waterway.


B7 Transport

If no transport system is readily available (because of proximity, seasonality, economic or other

factors) a range of influencing factors should be considered and the community’s transport demands

quantified before a final decision is made. The implications of each factor are explored in Figure B7.1,

which can be applied to land, air and waterway transport systems and infrastructure. Much of the

information relating to these factors will have been collected during appraisal.

Figure B7.1: Factors to consider when choosing a transport system

Quantified community

transport system demand

Survey/assess total range of community transport demands

Measure, calculate and consider the nearest/most economically viable options for accessing

transport systems (land, air,

waterways)

Assess and consider

community acceptance of the

viable transport system options

Arrange for costing analysis

for providing reasonable

access from the community to the transport system

option/s

Influencing factors

Policy

Financial considerations

Service and support

Distance and proximity to

existing systems, such as road/rail, airports, waterways

Reliability

Climatic/geographical

Environmental

Cultural

Growth

Existing infrastructure

Physical land availability

Emerging technologies

Informed choice

Based on assessment of need and

consideration of other issues to decide the

most appropriate supply solution

Transport system

Land and transport options

(rail or road)

Air and transport options (size and type of aircraft)

Waterways and transport options

(barge, small boat, ferry, etc)



B7 Transport

Roads

Roads are classified using formation types or standards:

kerbed and bitumen-sealed formation internal roads■■

bitumen-sealed formation access roads■■

type 3 gravel formation access roads (unsealed)■■

type 2 formed formation access roads (unsealed)■■

type 1 flat-graded formation access roads (unsealed).■■

A bitumen-sealed formation access road is usually the best choice in terms of lifespan, dust control,

environmental health and accessibility. In particular, community council workers, service providers

and funding agencies should aim to have community internal roads kerbed and bitumen sealed.

However, bitumen-sealed roads are expensive, so for community access roads that connect with

other communities or major transport systems, the most likely choices are the various types of

unsealed roads.

Materials

Locally sourced materials such as gravel will be required to construct, reconstruct and maintain

transport infrastructure.

Gravel can be acquired from existing quarries and pits. The local government authority may require

an extractive industries permit where quarry industries are already in place (such as excavation works

and crushing plants). Australian Government and state and territory government departments will

need to give clearance for all gravel sources, including environmental clearances (for issues including

wildlife protection and waste and noise minimisation) and heritage clearances. Royalties may also

need to be paid to the owner of the land where gravel is sourced.

Each geological area will have different material types that can be used for different construction

tasks. Material may also be brought from other locations.

When a gravel pit or quarry is exhausted, the site must be rehabilitated by levelling, covering with

topsoil and revegetating using native grasses and plants. If the pit is on a cattle station, the pit may

remain as a dam or water source for stock; requirements should be discussed with the

station management.

Roadside furniture

Roadside furniture includes signs and devices to warn users of hazards, and to control water, traffic

and stock. Appropriate roadside furniture can enhance road accessibility and safety.

Consider:

river and creek crossing designs■■

road drainage (see Chapter B2 Stormwater for information on culverts, pipes and drains)■■


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stock control (including fencing, cattle grids and gates)■■

traffic control (including gates and signage).■■

Kerbed and bitumen-sealed formation internal roads

Kerbed and bitumen-sealed formation roads are preferred for a community’s internal roads

(Figure B7.2). If properly maintained, these roads can last 10–15 years. Construction of kerbed and

bitumen-sealed roads is expensive, but if the correct design and construction techniques are used,

asset maintenance costs will be reduced.

Figure B7.2: Kerbed and bitumen-sealed formation access roads

5.5 m 5.5 m

–3% crossfallKerb

Base layerSub-base

Kerb and channel

Subgrade


Appropriate design and construction

If a community is fortunate enough to have funding for internal kerbed and bitumen-sealed

formation roads, a skilled project manager should be employed to oversee all aspects of design and

construction.

The design and construction of kerbed and bitumen-sealed formation roads is a specialist job —

from accurate survey of the landfall, to the design, then preparation, formation, compaction and

sealing of the road. Final finishing requires precision graders and operators, which are not usually

available within a community.

Bitumen does not absorb water, so bitumen-sealed roads require stormwater drains. There are many

possible options for internal road stormwater drainage — professional surveys should be conducted

before a choice is made (see Chapter B2 Stormwater for more information on drainage).


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Maintenance

Maintenance should be planned and budgeted for each year. Bitumen reseals will be required every

8–15 years, depending on the rate of deterioration. Failure repair procedures are available from local

governments, local resource agencies and main roads departments. The type of failure and the

amount of area affected will determine the rate of deterioration and will inform maintenance cycles.

Building a dataset over a period of years will help to determine the rate of deterioration for each

community’s road network more accurately; this will allow more accurate budgeting.

Ensure that:

streets are swept at least once a year or, in northern Australia, after the wet season or other ■■

downpour — sand, silt and rocks on the road surface can cause damage to the bitumen seal;

some communities own streetsweepers or tractor-drawn brooms, or local contractors may hire

them

potholes are repaired as soon as they appear, and are repaired before the wet season — pre-mix ■■

(bitumen), a compactor (often known as a ‘wacker rammer’) and shovels are required

cracks in the bitumen surface are repaired as soon as possible — these appear on a regular ■■

basis and are repaired by pouring tar into them to reseal the surface and protect the sub-base

from becoming damp

‘patching’ is carried out where larger sections of bitumen surface have failed — this type of repair ■■

requires specialist equipment such as a small ride-on roller, and perhaps a bitumen truck to spray

and lay the new surface.

Bitumen-sealed formation access roads

Remote communities are unlikely to construct a bitumen-sealed formation access road (Figure B7.3).

In most cases, funding for these roads would include state, territory or local government authorities

accepting responsibility for construction and maintenance. Bitumen-sealed formation access roads

have similar requirements to kerbed and bitumen-sealed formation internal roads, except they have

greater width and load ratings.

Ensure that:

shoulder damage is repaired — this is a common failure along the edges of a bitumen road ■■

(where kerbing is not installed), which can rapidly cause deep erosion; damage should be ‘boxed

out’ to an even depth and width, filled with pre-mix and compacted.


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Figure B7.3: Bitumen-sealed formation access roads

2.0 m 2.0 m 1.0 m 4.5 m 4.5 m 1.0 m 2.0 m 2.0 m

–3 to 4% crossfall

Table drain batters 8:1


Type 3 gravel formation access roads (unsealed)

Type 3 gravel formation access roads (Figure B7.4) are best when bitumen seal is prohibitively

expensive for the funds available and the volume of traffic carried. Type 3 earthworks are constructed

using tested and appropriate imported road materials — shaping, sheeting and compacting suitable

gravel to an appropriate thickness, and ensuring proper drainage. This kind of road design may be

used for new roads, but is often the result of upgrading previously existing tracks or roads. It is a

viable solution if the previous road was too expensive to maintain, or if there would be economic or

social benefits to improving the road.

Figure B7.4: Gravel formation access road



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Appropriately skilled designers, plant operators and earthmoving contractors are essential for gravel

formation road design and construction. These roads should be constructed to specifications

appropriate for a bitumen-sealed formation road. Type 3 roads are formed using local material to

create the formation — water is added to the local material and the surface is then compacted

and trimmed to create a subgrade layer. A base layer of suitable imported gravel is then spread,

compacted and trimmed to create a wearing surface for the road. A base layer depth of

150 millimetres will last eight years before requiring gravel re-sheeting.

Access road profiles are dependent on the amount and type of traffic. If the road is frequently used

by large trucks (such as road trains or semitrailers) then the formation should be at least 15 metres

wide (see Figure B7.5; further details can be found in the Austroad Guides to Road Design). Roads

with less traffic and smaller, lighter vehicles can have smaller road formation widths and strengths.

Figure B7.5: Gravel formation road — typical dimensions

2.0 m 2.0 m 4.5 m 4.5 m 2.0 m 2.0 m




Stormwater considerations

If there is the opportunity to realign a road where experience has shown past problems with drainage

or rapid breakup of the road surface, expert surveyors should be employed to survey the highest

route possible to assist stormwater drainage. Safe curves can be designed at the same time.

Type 3 roads are expected to have appropriate drainage (Figure B7.6). Table and cut-off drains are

mandatory, with catch drains required in areas where water cannot easily escape from cut-off drains.

Stops are also important where cut-off drains leave the road on a downhill stretch of road, because

they reduce the tendency for the water to scour table drains.


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Figure B7.6: Typical stormwater drain system used for types 1, 2 and 3 roads

Cut-off drain Catch drain

Stop Table drain


If a type 2 road is being upgraded, varying degrees of drainage will already be installed. Contractors

must ensure that existing drains are cleaned during grading maintenance, before they are upgraded

to type 3 standards.

For lighter traffic or smaller roads, single or one-way crossfall (the slope of the road surface across

the road cross-section) can be considered to enhance road profile, drainage and easier grading

techniques.

Ensure that:

windrows (lines of mounded earth) are installed on the high side of the road where appropriate ■■

so that rainwater falling above the road and flowing downhill toward the road is caught by

the windrow on the high side of the road formation, then diverted to the nearest cut-off drain,

watercourse or culvert.


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Maintenance

Maintenance grading of the formation and clearing of cut-off drains is essential to prolong the life

of the road. Wherever possible, grading the formation should commence by cleaning table drains

and cut-off drains, and the fines (fine material) washed away during rain should be returned to the

pavement. Maintenance operators should strive to keep the pavement higher than the surrounding

natural surface level of the land to improve drainage. This type of maintenance grading requires a

high level of expertise.

The most economical method to maintain the road is to lay the material out in one layer and ‘wheel’

compact it as a single layer, trim the surface to profile, then remove any excess and surface rocks.

Ensure that:

grader operators leave all material in the road running surface, including larger ‘unwanted’ rocks. ■■

The larger rocks give the pavement its strength; if the rocks are graded out of the road, it loses

strength and the fines are easily blown away.

Type 2 formed formation access roads (unsealed)

The type 2 formed formation access road can be used when the community budget or grant is

limited (Figure B7.7).

Figure B7.7: Type 2 — formed formation access road


Type 2 formed formation access roads (Figure B7.7) are constructed using local road-making

material, by forming up and compacting the running surface with a crown for improved drainage

control. This also discourages traffic from seeking detours, helping to reduce erosion. Grader

operators should attempt to maintain the shape of the crown, and keep stormwater drains open.


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Appropriately skilled plant operators and earthmoving contractors are essential for formed

formation road design, alignment (location of the road both horizontally and vertically in relation

to the surrounding landscape and land features) and construction. Ideally, these roads should be

constructed almost up to the standard of a gravel formation road. Formed formation access roads

are constructed using local material — water is added, and the material is compacted and trimmed

to profile as the main running surface (Figure B7.8). This formed and compacted surface should

be at least 150 millimetres thick. With appropriate maintenance, it can last 8 years before requiring

reforming.

Figure B7.8: Formed formation access road typical dimensions

1.8 m 1.8 m 4.0 m 4.0 m 1.8 m 1.8 m




Should the opportunity arise to re-align a road where experience has shown past problems with

drainage or rapid breakup of the road surface, the highest route possible should be chosen to assist

stormwater drainage. With appropriate supervision, a good team of operators and a contractor can

construct this type of formation road without detailed design input; this will be cheaper.

Maintenance

Maintenance grading of formed formation access roads is similar to grading for gravel formation

roads: clearing cut-off drains is essential to prolong the life of the road. Wherever possible, grading

the formation should commence by cleaning table drains and cut-off drains, and the fines washed

away during rain should be returned to the pavement. It is important that maintenance operators

try to keep the pavement higher than the surrounding natural surface level of the land, in order to

improve drainage. This type of maintenance grading requires a high level of expertise.

Type 1 flat-graded formation access roads (unformed road)

The type 1 or flat-graded formation access road design is the most basic of road types, and is used

only where the community budget is very limited or where traffic is intentionally restricted, such

as roads to sensitive or sacred sites, very small private outstations or fishing tracks (Figure B7.9).

Constructing a new road of this type usually requires only a grader fitted with a bulldozer blade to

clear trees and other foliage and vegetation, then normal grader formation of the road surface to a

width of 6 metres (equivalent to two grader bladewidths).


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Figure B7.9: Type 1 flat-graded formation access road


The cross-section of a type 1 road is shown in Figure B7.10. This road allows for only light traffic and

is prone to closure during periods of heavy rainfall due to lack of drainage.

Figure B7.10: Flat-graded formation access road (unformed road) cross-section



Grader operators with limited skills can successfully maintain this type of road; where possible, they

should aim to cut some crossfall (slope across the road) or crowned top to aid stormwater drainage

(Figure B7.11). Type 1 roads have the disadvantage that each maintenance pass with the grader cuts

the surface deeper, increasing its vulnerability to flooding.

As with formed formation access roads, the highest route possible should be chosen to assist

stormwater drainage. With appropriate supervision, a good team of operators and a contractor can

construct this type of formation road without detailed design input; this will be cheaper.


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Figure B7.11: Flat-graded formation access road: (a) on level ground and (b) on a slope

(a)

2.0 m 6.0 m 2.0 m

0 to 3% crossfall

(b)

2.0 m 6.0 m 2.0 m

-3 to 4% crossfall

Source: Centre for Appropriate Technology (2009)

Table B7.1 gives some simple examples of possible community needs, options and approximate

costs for road construction. Cost estimates are based on prices at June 2008 on similar contracts

issued in the Kimberley area of Western Australia.


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Tab

le B

7.1:

Diff

eren

t ro

ad o

ptio

ns f

or

likel

y co

mm

unity

sce

nari

os

Req

uire

men

tS

eale

da

Typ

e 3

Typ

e 2

Typ

e 1

Co

nstr

uctio

n (a

pp

roxi

mat

e

cost

per

kilo

met

re)

Mai

nten

ance

(a

pp

roxi

mat

e co

st)

To a

cces

s a

cultu

ral s

ite

or fi

shin

g sp

ot$1

40 p

lus

any

bulld

ozer

cl

earin

g th

at m

ay b

e re

quire

d

$140

per

kilo

met

re p

er y

ear

To a

cces

s th

e co

mm

unity

wat

er

supp

ly, e

nerg

y su

pply,

la

ndfil

l site

or

smal

l ne

arby

out

stat

ions

$50

000–

100

000

$250

per

kilo

met

re p

er y

ear

To a

cces

s a

maj

or

arte

rial r

oad

or n

atio

nal

high

way

, or

for

acce

ss

betw

een

larg

er

com

mun

ities

(can

car

ry

road

trai

ns)

$80

000–

110

000

$300

per

kilo

met

re p

er y

ear

Com

mun

ity in

tern

al

road

s fo

r ac

cess

to

hous

ing

and

serv

ices

$180

000

–200

000

Sw

eepi

ng $

70 p

er h

our

Pot

hole

s $5

0 pe

r sq

uare

m

etre

Res

eal $

10 p

er s

quar

e m

etre

Pav

emen

t fai

lure

$12

0 pe

r cu

bic

met

re

a K

erbe

d, re

cons

truc

ted

grav

el w

ith b

itum

en s

eal.


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Consider:

recurrent costs for maintenance■■

whether stormwater drainage will be required during construction and maintenance.■■

The reliability of unsealed roads is largely determined by the quality of maintenance.

Case study 14 — Choosing a safe, affordable access road

Every year, access by road between a remote outstation in the subtropics and its ‘hub’

community 38 kilometres away was cut off. The outstation had no airstrip and relied on the hub

community for employment, schooling, stores, mail, clinic services, medical evacuation and

maintenance of essential services. The access road was a rough, black soil, flat-graded track

that quickly became impassable when wet. There was also a river crossing between the hub

community and outstation. The community and outstation did not have appropriate earthmoving

equipment for road construction, but they did have a grader that was adequate for regular road

maintenance.

The outstation’s resource agency was successful in applying for a grant to improve access

between the outstation and the hub, so they appointed a project manager (following a standard

government procurement process).

The project manager was initially shocked by the high cost of using earthmoving plant and

equipment from the nearest towns. After some research, the project manager concluded that the

funds would allow the construction of a gravel road that followed the existing road, but no further

works would be possible. The project manager discussed this with the community, and learned

that the road was usually passable with care 6 hours after rain. However, the river often flowed

for 3–4 days, making the river crossing too deep for vehicles to cross. The project manager

concluded that the most beneficial improvement would be a better river crossing.

The project manager found that further funding was not available, so talked to the community

about building a formed road (a lower cost option that involves forming up local natural surface

materials and compacting the road running surface) rather than a gravel road, and constructing

a simple river crossing. The outstation members agreed to this solution.

The project manager proceeded to scope the works required, to develop their design and

specifications, and to seek estimates from contractors in the region with appropriate experience

and earthmoving equipment. The tender included encouragement for the contractors to use local

labour and operators.

The successful contractor constructed the access road to a good standard, using a local operator

on his self-propelled roller. He also employed three local workers to assist with cementing work

and consolidating the river-crossing surface with crushed rock. The contractor also trained a local

grader operator in best practice for ongoing grading and maintenance of the new road.


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Aerodromes

Many individual Indigenous communities, ranging from very small to large, own or share an

aerodrome. The ideal design is one sealed with bitumen, and well-formed, with a slight crossfall

or crown for drainage. Airstrips can be of varying dimensions, depending on registration or licence

conditions, and the size and type of aircraft expected to use them.

Larger, sealed aerodromes are likely to have a large number of design requirements. They may

have ‘furniture’ such as drainage systems with drains, culverts or drainpipes, fences and gates or

cattle grids for stock control, a windsock, an aircraft hardstand area (an area where engines can be

warmed without the danger of propellers or turbines ‘sucking’ up rocks), pilot-activated lighting for

night landing, shelter and toilets for passengers, refuelling facilities for the aircraft, and signage for air

and ground traffic control.

Sealed aerodromes require regular surface inspection and maintenance. They will sometimes require

sweeping, specialised bitumen maintenance equipment and skilled operators.

Ideally, the placement of aerodromes within the region should be arranged so that the time taken to

drive from each community serviced by a given aerodrome to the aerodrome is the same or less than

the time taken for the Royal Flying Doctor Service to fly there from their base. This is not always the

case, and road conditions and accessibility to the aerodrome can be a problem for injured patients.


Designing and siting an airstrip is a complex and important task; where possible a qualified airport

technician should be employed to do this work. A new bitumen-sealed airstrip can cost up to

$1.2 million for construction and an average of $60 000 per year to maintain; a community’s need for

an airstrip must justify the cost.

Issues that the designer will take into account include:

prevailing wind directions and speeds throughout the year■■

geographical information (including the height of the surrounding country in a 25-kilometre radius)■■

availability of suitable land to construct an airstrip of the required dimensions (the Royal Flying ■■

Doctor Service requires a strip 2.1 kilometres long and 30 metres wide)

the need to clear obstructions■■

stormwater and subsoil water flows, directions, volumes and velocities■■

the required sizes for aircraft parking area, apron and taxiway■■

accessibility of the airstrip from the community through all weather conditions■■

availability of construction materials (preferably within 10 kilometres of the strip location)■■

stock-proof fencing and security fencing around the perimeter of the aerodrome — including ■■

access points for emergency and passenger vehicles


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runway lighting requirements, including whether a pilot-activated lighting system is required■■

communication systems for the pilot and ground personnel■■

navigation aids■■

whether bitumen sealing should be used; this will increase the initial costs, but reduce the ■■

maintenance costs

sealing the shoulders, including the area around and between runway lights (for easier ■■

maintenance of the lights)

requirements for CASA inspection of registered airstrips, and requirements for other airstrips to be ■■

inspected by a CASA-approved agent.

Maintenance and operations

Community aerodrome managers must understand the significance of the standards and the related

maintenance required for their aerodromes (see ‘Relevant Australian standards and guidelines —

Aerodromes’). Should aerodromes become neglected and an emergency occurs, aircraft operators

or pilots may be unable to use the aerodrome safely, and they may refuse to land.

Ensure that:

runway lighting is checked every week■■

fuel-powered lanterns (such as kerosene lanterns) are full■■

light bulbs work■■

batteries are in good condition and are smart-charged (that is, trickle charged with charge level ■■

measurement — replace batteries every 6 months)

solar powered lights are functioning■■

hardwired lights are checked daily by manual switch or a control system (have an electrician ■■

check them every 6 months)

permanent light fixtures (hardwired or solar) are painted around with black paint or bitumen ■■

(2 metre radius) to reduce the likelihood of damage by vehicles

any maintenance on the runway is carried out within a 24-hour period, including slashing, repairs ■■

to lights, replacement of damaged gable markers (elongated markers at airstrip ends), cones,

windsocks, other navigation aids and communication equipment — other aerodrome facilities

should be repaired within a week

gable markers and cones are repainted once a year and replaced every 10 years■■

all people entering the airside area, including passengers and vehicle drivers, are aware of the ■■

regulations for approaching an aircraft

operational procedures are followed■■


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daily checks are conducted, including fencing, airstrip and runway condition, airstrip grass height, ■■

lighting, communication system, windsock and signal circle (the circle surrounding the windsock),

and navigation aids

- every community aerodrome is inspected by a responsible officer on the day of any aircraft

landing — aerodromes with a higher classification can be inspected by a qualified reporting

officer, who records observations on a daily checklist.

Gravel formation airstrip runways

Maintenance

Gravel formation runways need to be graded at least once a year and the gravel re-sheeted every

8 years.

The airstrip must be cleared of all shrubs, trees and ant mounds, and the grass must be kept to a

height that does not obstruct the pilot’s view of the runway lights, gable markers and cones. The

airstrip should be mowed regularly and the grass around the lights, gables markers and cones

sprayed with herbicide regularly. The signal circle and windsock circle must be cleared and the

ground painted black or sprayed with a black bitumen product.

The windsock must be checked daily for damage and its bearings must be greased regularly to

ensure it swings freely.

Ensure that:

grader operators only perform very light maintenance to the runway landing strip■■

the compacted surface is never broken or cut■■

maintenance of the verges does not damage the runway landing strip, airport drainage system, ■■

or fencing

revegetation is controlled with a light tractor and slasher immediately after the wet season in ■■

tropical and subtropical regions, and as regularly as required to ensure that it does not grow

beyond the capacity of a tractor and slasher.

An affordable alternative to a grader for remote communities is a tractor towing a drag (Figure B7.12).


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Figure B7.12: Alternative airstrip maintenance equipment — types of drags

Bar Mesh grid

Tyres


Bitumen-sealed formation strips

Maintenance

Bitumen-sealed formation strips should be resealed every 10 years with two coats of seal — a

7-millimetre aggregate seal and a sand seal.

The reseal width should also include the area between the runway lights to prevent lights being

overgrown by grass or damaged by equipment such as mowers and slashers. The area between

the seal and the lights is often neglected because it is difficult to mow around small objects, so they

become overgrown and invisible to the pilots. If the area between the lights is bitumen sealed, then

the lights are always visible and less maintenance is required.

All runway markings should be repainted annually.

Bitumen-sealed formation strips should be checked every day for potholes or cracking in the bitumen

seal, especially after electrical storms.

Case study 15 — Designing an airstrip

A small, remote community was located on a seasonally busy tourist route over 3 hours drive from

the nearest major town and all-weather airstrip. The community asked for support from local, state

and territory governments and the Australian Government, and local non-government support

and resource agencies so that they could procure a grant for an airstrip. However, the community

did not have the capacity to meet the complex requirements for a grant application. A local non-

government organisation was asked to assist the community; and seed funding was provided to

site and design the airstrip.


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(continued)

The project manager soon established that the community was located on a small block of land

that was previously part of a cattle station. The community produced a letter signed by the owner

of the cattle station allowing the use of additional land for the airstrip. The project manager then

investigated all of the necessary requirements (including approvals and clearances) and found the

following:

The ‘land-use agreement’ with the cattle station had ‘strings attached’ such as ownership ■■

of the land (and therefore the airstrip), creating complex liability issues. The state agricultural

authority needed to investigate the situation.

The airstrip was to be used by the Royal Flying Doctor Service, meaning the community would ■■

have to tender for and procure a licensed airport technician to design and site the airstrip.

A sensitive cultural site further restricted land access to the airstrip. Clearance was therefore ■■

required from the state environmental protection authority and local Indigenous land council.

The site was close to hills and ranges, so limited area was available for correct orientation of ■■

the airstrip to meet Royal Flying Doctor Service requirements for night landing.

A main road easement restricted the correct siting/orientation of the airstrip.■■

Royalties would have to be paid to the local landowner for gravel for the construction of the ■■

airstrip.

The community needed to agree to provide access to water for the airstrip construction from ■■

a local creek.

The project manager then set about accessing the funds for the construction of the airstrip,

applying to several state government and Australian Government departments because funding

for the full amount was not available from a single agency. Sources included the state government

department overseeing aerodrome development schemes and the Australian Government

department overseeing flood mitigation support. Other state government department stakeholders

in the proposed airstrip included the main roads authority, tourism authorities, police, health

services, essential services and maintenance providers.

Water landings

There are many remote communities on islands, peninsulas or in tropical areas where flooding of

roads and river crossings during the wet season limits access or isolates them from the mainland or

regional centres. Generally, the only remaining access is either by aircraft or by watercraft, such as

barges. While aerodrome and aircraft size will limit the amount of cargo to these communities, a large

coastal barge or ship will increase the volume of freight that can be transported in a single trip.


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Barge landings

The most basic landing is a graded ramp from the natural surface level of the access road down

to the water level, where the tide level is sufficient to land the barge or other regular watercraft

safely. The ultimate designs are non-slip concrete slabs, concrete block mats or other prefabricated

materials.

Floating pontoons

Occasionally a floating pontoon landing may be an option, depending on factors such as the type of

watercraft used and the depth of landing areas.


A barge landing is an important item of infrastructure that requires specific design and maintenance

techniques. Professional marine engineers should be employed to investigate, design and construct

a barge landing facility. They will require measurements of the barge draft and the manufacturer’s

specifications for the barge.

To support the barge landing facility, the community layout plan should include:

potable water■■

fuel facility — storage for incoming fuel and/or fuel for the barge ■■

electricity for storage sheds■■

secure areas, including hardstand berths■■

loading and unloading equipment — forklifts and/or prime movers■■

truck(s) to deliver the goods from the barge to the end user.■■

The town plan or layout plan should show any future industrial development and access points to

and from the barge facility.

Ensure that:

the hardstand area will not be affected by poor weather, if the barge facility is the only form of ■■

access available at these times.

Maintenance

The most likely causes of failure of barge landings are concrete corrosion and damage from rough

landings. Maintenance to a barge landing requires professional input to the scope of works and

methods of repair, and only experts should be employed for these tasks.

Ensure that:

the landing is clear of floating debris (such as logs) before barges are landed■■

assistance is available for landings in rough weather.■■


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Useful termsAlignment Location of the road both horizontally and vertically in relation to the

surrounding landscape and land features.

CASA Civil Aviation Safety Authority — www.casa.gov.au

Crossfall The slope across the road cross-section of the top of the road

surface.

Draft Depth of water displaced by a boat or ship.

Fines Fine material in road surface.

Gable markers Elongated markers at the ends of airstrips.

Hardstand A hard-surfaced area for parking aircraft, boats or vehicles. Aircraft:

an area where engines can be warmed without the danger of

propellers or turbines ‘sucking’ up rocks. Water vessel: a berth or

mooring area.

Signal circle The circle surrounding the windsock.

Transport infrastructure The hardware and design options that a community needs to utilise

a transport system.

Transport system A generic term for any of the three broad transport modes or

options: land, air or water.

Windrow A line of mounded earth.

Further readingAir Services Australia: www.airservicesaustralia.com

ARRB Group publications:

Sealed Local Roads Manual: Guidelines to Good Practice for the Construction, ■■

Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Pavements, revised and expanded edition (2005)

Unsealed Roads Manual: Guidelines to Good Practice■■ , 3rd edition (2009).

Austroads guides to road design:

AGRD01/06 : ■■ Guide to Road Design — Part 1: Introduction to Road Design

AGRD02/06 : ■■ Guide to Road Design — Part 2: Design Considerations

AP-G1/03 : ■■ Rural Road Design — A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads.


Index

Aabsorption trenches, 199

access to infrastructure, principles, 5

energy, 217

sanitation, 143

stormwater, 119

telecommunication, 257

transport, 293

waste management, 179

water, 83

aerated wastewater treatment systems, 160–163

aerobic treatment unit, defined, 173

aerodrome design, 316–320

Australian standards and guidelines, 295

maintenance, 317–318, 319

aerodromes, 294, 295, 296

affordability of infrastructure, principles, 7

energy, 217

sanitation, 143

stormwater, 119


transport, 293


water supplies, 83

agreements, 37

airstrip design, case study, 319–320

airstrip runways, 318–320

aluminium can crushers, 206

anaerobic, defined, 173

animal waste disposal, 211

appropriateness of infrastructure, principles, 7

energy, 217

sanitation, 143

stormwater, 119


transport, 293


water, 83

area fill, 199

asbestos disposal, 210

assets

audits, 74

case studies, 69, 72

condition assessment, 64–66

defined, 59, 76

disposal, 74

gap analysis, 70

inventory creation, 64

life-cycle cost analysis, 70, 72

maintenance scheduling, 72–73

management of, 60–66

operational life assessment, 67–69, 71, 76

rating of, 64–66

replacement of, 66–72, 74

risk management, 71–72

audits, 74, 227–229

Aurora, 285

Australian Drinking Water Guidelines, 86, 88

Australian standards and guidelines

accounting, 75

aerodromes, 296

electrical installations, 227

energy supply infrastructure, 220–222

road design, 295

safety codes of practice, 75

stormwater infrastructure, 120

telecommunication infrastructure, 260


wastewater management, 151

wastewater reuse, 147–148

water system management, 86–87

waterway landings, 295

Bbaling machines, 206

barge landings, 321

bins, 187–190

bitumen-sealed formation roads, 306–307, 319–320

blackwater, 173. see also wastewater

boning rods, defined, 139

bore water, 93–96

bottleneck services, defined, 288

broadcasting services, 285–287


Ccabling for telecommunications, 272–273, 289

call accounting, 274

capstone, defined, 139

case studies

airstrip design, 319–320

asset life-cycle cost analysis, 72

asset replacement planning, 69

community phones, 274

container deposit scheme, 207–208


energy use management, 249–250

landfill options, 202–203

power station upgrade, 235–236

recycled water irrigation, 171

road design, 315

solar pump selection, 96

stormwater management, 125–126, 136–138

wastewater gardens, 168–169

water supply selection, 90

catch drains, 129, 139

cell landfill, 200

climate factors

in energy supply management, 134

in stormwater management, 122–124, 134

in transport infrastructure management, 301

in wastewater management, 150

clinical waste disposal, 211, 212

community involvement, 17–44

agreements, 37

basic steps, 25–37

consultation techniques, 33

decision-making techniques, 31

defined, 42

in energy supply management, 222–224

guidelines for, 20–25

information sharing techniques, 29

in infrastructure installation, 40

in infrastructure maintenance, 41

in infrastructure requirement appraisal, 38

in infrastructure solution design, 39

negotiation techniques, 33

ongoing participation techniques, 33

outcomes, 28

skills development and employment, 34

stakeholder identification, 35–36

in waste management services, 184

in wastewater issues, 145–146

in water supply management, 86–87

community needs. see infrastructure requirements appraisal

community phones, 274, 288

community requirements appraisal. see infrastructure requirements appraisal

compost, defined, 173

composting toilets, 156–157

computer networks, 280–284

consultation

defined, 42

fatigue, 24

payment for, 24

techniques, 30

container deposit scheme, case study, 207–208

corrosive water, defined, 113

crossfall, defined, 322

cultural issues and beliefs, 20–22, 24, 35


transport infrastructure, 302

water, 122

culverts, 127, 139

Customer Service Guarantee, 259, 288

cut-off drains, 129, 139

Ddecision-making techniques, 31

demand-side management, 42, 62

denitrification, defined, 173

disinfection, defined, 173

disinfection of water, 104–109

disposal of assets, 74

distribution utility, defined, 253

diversity factor, defined, 252

drains, 128–131, 308–309

drinking water, 81–115

Eeffluent disposal systems.

see wastewater infrastructure

electricity supply infrastructure. see energy supply infrastructure


emergency planning, 262, 264–265, 277

employment, 34, 40, 172

energy audit, 227–229

energy demand-side measures, 223–224, 252

energy efficiency measures, 223–224, 252

energy requirements appraisal, 225–233


Australian standards and guidelines, 220–222, 227

case studies, 235–236, 249–250

community involvement, 222–224

guiding principles, 217

requirement appraisal, 225–233

safety, 224

solution design and choice, 233–250

energy use management, case study, 249–250

Environmental Health Handbook, 1

environmental health, principles, 6, 293

energy supply, 217

stormwater risks, 119

telecommunication infrastructure, 257



wastewater, 143

water management, 83

Ffaecal coliforms, defined, 173

floodways, 127

fossil fuel energy systems, 218

Framework for the Management of Drinking Water Quality, 86–87

Ggap analysis, 70

garbage collection, 191–194

generators, 218, 239–241

glass disposal, 210

gravel formation airstrip runways, 318–319

gravel roads. see road design

grey water, 173. see also wastewater

grid power, 218, 236–238, 252

groundwater harvesting, 93–96

guidelines. see Australian standards and guidelines

guiding principles, 5–7

drinking water, 83

energy supply, 217

stormwater, 119


transport, 293

waste, 179

wastewater, 143

Hhard water, defined, 113

hardstand, defined, 322

hazard, defined, 113

hazardous waste, 208–211

hazardous water, 186

health and safety, principles, 6

drinking water, 83

energy supplies, 217

stormwater, 119

telecommunication services, 257


waste, 179

wastewater, 143

homelands, defined, 9

hybrid energy systems, 218, 247–250

IIndigenous communities.

see also community involvement

asset management challenges, 60

benefits from involvement in infrastructure development, 18

defined, 8

distribution and size, 7–11

homelands, 9, 11

major, 9, 11

infrastructure assets, 59–77. see also assets

infrastructure, defined, 2, 42

infrastructure project management. see project management

infrastructure requirements appraisal

of energy infrastructure, 225–233

of stormwater infrastructure, 121–126

of telecommunication infrastructure, 261–265


of transport infrastructure, 297–302

of waste management, 185–186

of wastewater infrastructure, 149–152

of water supplies, 88–91

inventory

of assets, 64

of needs, 63

Kkerbed and bitumen-sealed formation roads, 305–306

kerbing, 130

Llandfill

audit questions, 186

case study, 202–203

methods, 194–203

leach drain, defined, 173

life-cycle cost analysis, 70

case study, 72

for energy supply systems, 230–231

for telecommunications infrastructure, 264

life-cycle cost, defined, 42

livelihoods and infrastructure, principles, 7

energy consumption, 217

stormwater, 119


transport, 293


wastewater reuse, 143

water management, 83

load, defined, 252

local area network (LAN), 280, 281, 288

Mmains electrical cabling, defined, 288

maintenance

of aerodromes, 317–318, 319

of barge landings, 321

of centralised sewage systems, 166

of computer networks, 284

of constructed wetlands, 170

of garbage collection vehicles, 188

of generators, 241

of hybrid energy systems, 248

of kerbed and bitumen-sealed roads, 306

of landfill sites, 201

of mobile radios, 280

of renewable energy systems, 246

of septic systems, 160


of telecommunication infrastructure, 287

of type 2 flat-graded roads, 311

of type 3 gravel formation roads, 310

of waste bins, 188

of waste management infrastructure, 170

of water supplies, 95

of water supply infrastructure, 110–112

maintenance scheduling, 72–73

major communities, 9

energy supply infrastructure, 219

involvement in infrastructure, 22

sewerage systems, 151

technical services, 11


waste collection services, 191

water supplies, 84

management. see project management

memorandum of understanding, defined, 37

metal disposal, 210

microorganisms, defined, 173

minor communities

defined, 9

energy supply infrastructure, 219

sewerage systems, 151



waste collection services, 191

water supplies, 84

mobile phones, 275–276

mobile radio, 278–280, 288

NNational Indigenous Housing Guide, 1, 2, 91, 104

National Indigenous Reform Agreement, 4

National partnership agreements on remote indigenous housing and remote service delivery, 4


negotiation techniques, 32

network termination point, defined, 289

nitrification, defined, 174

Ooccupational health and safety.

see also health and safety, principles

asset management, 62–63

energy infrastructure, 224

oil disposal, 209–210

ongoing participation techniques, 33

open drains, 128

operational life (of assets), 67–69, 71, 76

organic waste, defined, 212

outstations

defined, 9, 42

involvement in infrastructure, 22


Ppaint and solvent disposal, 210

pathogens, defined, 174

payphones, 266–272, 289

phones. see telephones

pipes

drinking water, 100–101, 133–134

effluent disposal, 166–169

pit toilets, 155

pond, holding, 131, 139

pontoons, floating, 321

potable water, defined, 114

power stations, 235–236, 236–238. see also energy supply infrastructure

prescribed waste, defined, 212

project management, 47–56

documentation, 51

planning, 49–50, 51, 53–54

stages, 47–50

project plan, 49–50

public phones, 266–277, 289

pumps


effluent disposal, 167–169

putrescible waste, defined, 212

Rradio base station, defined, 289

radio broadcasting services, 285–287

radio, mobile, 278–280, 288

rainwater harvesting, 91–93

recycled water irrigation, 171

recycling, 186, 205–208

redundancy power, defined, 253

Remote Area Broadcast Services, 285

remoteness areas, 7–8

renewable energy, defined, 252

renewable energy systems, 218, 242–246, 253

replacement of assets, 66–72, 74

requirements. see infrastructure requirements appraisal

risk assessment

of groundwater, 93

of infrastructure assets, 71–72

of storage tanks, 97

of surface water, 91–92

risk, defined, 76

risk management, 23–25, 50

defined, 42

risk mitigation, 55

road design, 294, 304–315


bitumen-sealed formation roads, 306–307, 319–320

case study, 315

community involvement, 296

kerbed and bitumen-sealed formation roads, 305–306

roadside furniture, 304–305

stormwater drains, 308–309

stormwater infrastructure, 131–134

type 1 flat-graded formation roads, 311–315

type 2 formed formation roads, 310–311

type 3 gravel formation roads, 307–311

roadside furniture, 304–305

rubbish collection, 191–194

rubbish collection services


recycling, 205–208

service delivery in remote communities, 185

rubbish tips, 194–203

runways, aerodromes, 318–320


Ssafety. see occupational health and safety

safety codes of practice, 75

sanitation systems. see wastewater treatment

satellite phones, 276–277

scale, defined, 114

septic systems, 157–163

service delivery in remote communities

of electricity supply, 219–222

of stormwater infrastructure, 120


of transport infrastructure, 294, 294–295

of waste management infrastructure, 182–183



service requirements. see infrastructure requirements appraisal

sewage. see wastewater

sewerage systems. see wastewater infrastructure

sheeting, defined, 139

shredders, 206

skills development, 34

solar photovoltaic systems, 242, 253

solar pump, 96

solid inert waste, defined, 212

solution design and choice, 39

of energy supplies, 233–250



of transport infrastructure, 302–322

of waste management infrastructure, 186–211



spear, defined, 114

stakeholders

engagement of, 48–49

identification of, 35–36

stand-alone power systems, 253

generators, 218, 239–241

hybrid energy systems, 218, 247–250

renewable energy systems, 218, 242–250

standards. see Australian standards and guidelines



community requirements appraisal, 121–126

culverts, 127

drains, 128–131

floodways, 127


maintenance, 135–138



stormwater management

case studies, 125–126, 136–138

climatic factors, 122–124

stormwater requirements appraisal, 121–126

surface water harvesting, 91–93

sustainability

of projects, 52

of water supplies, 90

sustainability of infrastructure, principles, 5–7

drinking water, 83

energy supply, 217

stormwater, 119


transport, 293


wastewater, 143

Ttable drains, 128, 139

tanks, water, 96–99

telecommunication infrastructure, 257–290


broadcasting services, 285–287


computer networks, 280–284


legislation, 258, 259–260

maintenance, 287

mobile radio, 278–280, 288


telephones, 266–287

telecommunication requirements appraisal, 261–265

telephone cabling, 272–273

telephones, 266–287

cabling, 272–273

call accounting, 274

case study, 274

community phones, 274, 288


mobile, 275–276

public, 266–272, 289

satellite, 276–277

television broadcasting services, 285–287

three-phase electricity, defined, 253

tie circuits, defined, 289

toilets, 155–157

total dissolved solids, defined, 114

trade waste disposal, 210–211, 212

transfer stations, 203–205, 213

transport infrastructure, 293–322

aerodromes, 294, 295, 296



roads, 294, 295, 296, 304–315


transport requirements appraisal, 297–302

trench landfill, 196–199

turbidity, defined, 114

type 1 flat-graded formation roads, 311–315

type 2 formed formation roads, 310–311

type 3 gravel formation roads, 307–311

UUniversal Service Obligation, 259, 274, 289

VV-drains, 128, 130

Wwaste collection services, 191–194


recycling, 205–208


waste disposal. see waste management infrastructure

waste landfill cages, 201–203

waste management infrastructure, 179–214



for hazardous materials, 208–211

service delivery in remote communities, 182–183


waste matrix, defined, 212

waste requirements appraisal, 185–186

waste separation, 205–208

wastewater, 143–175

defined, 174

reuse of, 147–148

wastewater infrastructure

Australian standards and guidelines, 147–148, 151

case study, 168–169


maintenance, 172



wastewater requirements appraisal, 149–152

wastewater treatment methods

aerated, 160–163

case study, 171

centralised, 164–166

constructed wetlands, 169–170

overview, 144–145

water


stormwater, 119–139

wastewater, 143–175

water cross-connection, defined, 113

water fittings, 102

water landings, 295, 297

water pipes, 100–101, 133–134

water pumps, 102–104

water requirements appraisal, 88–91

water reticulation, 100–102

water sources

bore water, 93–96

groundwater, 93–96

rainwater, 91–93

risks, 92, 93, 97

stormwater, 119–139

surface water, 91–93

water treatment, 104–109

water storage, 96–99

water supplies

case study, 90


management of, 110–112




state and territory organisations, 85–86


water supply system, defined, 84

water system management

Australian standards and guidelines, 86–87

state and territory organisations, 85–86

water tanks, 96–99

water testing, 104–109

water treatment, 104–109

waterway landings, 294


community involvement, 297

design, 320–321

waterway transport, 294

wetlands

constructed, 169–170

wastewater gardens, 168–169

wide area network (WAN), 280–282

windrow, defined, 322

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