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Was Darwin Wrong? Step into the world of writers and photographers as they tell you about the best, worst, and quirkiest places and adventures they encountered in the field.
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The work of the 19th-century English naturalist shocked society and revolutionized science. How well has it withstood the test of time?
Get a taste of what awaits you in print from this compelling excerpt.
Evolution by natural selection, the central concept of the life's work of Charles Darwin, is a theory. It's a theory about the origin of adaptation, complexity, and diversity among Earth's living creatures. If you are skeptical by nature, unfamiliar with the terminology of science, and unaware of the overwhelming evidence, you might even be tempted to say that it's "just" a theory. In the same sense, relativity as described by Albert Einstein is "just" a theory. The notion that Earth orbits around the sun rather than vice versa, offered by Copernicus in 1543, is a theory. Continental drift is a theory. The existence, structure, and dynamics of atoms? Atomic theory. Even electricity is a theoretical construct, involving electrons, which are tiny units of charged mass that no one has ever seen. Each of these theories is an explanation
Maneuver through the series of images that kept photographer Robert Clark organized in the field.
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that has been confirmed to such a degree, by observation and experiment, that knowledgeable experts accept it as fact. That's what scientists mean when they talk about a theory: not a dreamy and unreliable speculation, but an explanatory statement that fits the evidence. They embrace such an explanation confidently but provisionally—taking it as their best available view of reality, at least until some severely conflicting data or some better explanation might come along. The rest of us generally agree. We plug our televisions into little wall sockets, measure a year by the length of Earth's orbit, and in many other ways live our lives based on the trusted reality of those theories. Evolutionary theory, though, is a bit different. It's such a dangerously wonderful and far-reaching view of life that some people find it unacceptable, despite the vast body of supporting evidence. As applied to our own species, Homo sapiens, it can seem more threatening still. Many fundamentalist Christians and ultra-orthodox Jews take alarm at the thought that human descent from earlier primates contradicts a strict reading of the Book of Genesis. Their discomfort is paralleled by Islamic creationists such as Harun Yahya, author of a recent volume titled The Evolution Deceit, who points to the six-day creation story in the Koran as literal truth and calls the theory of evolution "nothing but a deception imposed on us by the dominators of the world system." The late Srila Prabhupada, of the Hare Krishna movement, explained that God created "the 8,400,000 species of life from the very beginning," in order to establish multiple tiers of reincarnation for rising souls. Although souls ascend, the species themselves don't change, he insisted, dismissing "Darwin's nonsensical theory." Other people too, not just scriptural literalists, remain unpersuaded about evolution. According to a Gallup poll drawn from more than a thousand telephone interviews conducted in February 2001, no less than 45 percent of responding U.S. adults agreed that "God created human beings pretty much in their present form at one time within the last 10,000 years or so." Evolution, by their lights, played no role in shaping us. Only 37 percent of the polled Americans were satisfied with allowing room for both God and Darwin—that is, divine initiative to get things started, evolution as the creative means. (This view, according to more than one papal pronouncement, is compatible with Roman Catholic dogma.) Still fewer Americans, only 12 percent, believed that humans evolved from other life-forms without any involvement of a god. The most startling thing about these poll numbers is not that so many Americans reject evolution, but that the statistical breakdown hasn't changed much in two decades. Gallup interviewers posed exactly the same choices in 1982, 1993, 1997, and 1999. The creationist conviction—that God alone, and not evolution, produced humans—has never drawn less than 44 percent. In other words, nearly half the American populace prefers to believe that Charles Darwin was wrong where it mattered most.
Get the whole story in the pages of National Geographic magazine.
Why is Darwin's theory of evolution so hard to accept for so many people? What do you believe?
to the early 1900s when a prospector in Alaska dug up these woolly mammoth tusks.
Was Darwin Wrong? @ National Geographic Magazine
In More to Explore the National Geographic magazine team shares some of its best sources and other information. Special thanks to
the Research Division.
Where do you bury someone like Darwin, a man who admittedly had lost his Christian faith and declared himself an agnostic? When he died on April 19, 1882, his family planned to bury him in the local churchyard beside the graves of his children. Some of Darwin's countrymen, however, had other ideas and quickly began lobbying leading scientists and members of government to come together and ask the dean of Britain's Westminster Abbey to allow Darwin to be buried there. The dean, Reverend George Granville Bradley, responded that his "assent would be cheerfully given," and so Darwin, the agnostic, was buried in Westminster Abbey on the afternoon of April 26. Darwin's old friend, botanist Joseph Hooker, was among the pallbearers, as were Alfred Russel Wallace, the young naturalist whose writings had pushed Darwin into publishing his own theory, and James Russell Lowell, the United States' ambassador to Britain. In a part of the Abbey known as Scientists' Corner, Darwin lies a few feet from the burial place of Sir Isaac Newton and next to that of the astronomer Sir John Herschel. It was Herschel that Darwin referred to in the introduction of The Origin of Species as the great philosopher who coined the phrase "mystery of mysteries" to describe the change of Earth's species through time. —Patricia Kellogg
Evolution www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution This interactive and entertaining website is a companion to the PBS series on evolution. Explore Darwin's life and the theory he proposed, find resources for teachers and students and a library of additional resources. The Writing of Charles Darwin on the Web pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin This site claims to be the most extensive collection of Darwin's writings ever published and includes The Origin of Species and other books, volumes of letters, and articles published in periodicals. Although the site appears to come from the British Library, it is produced by a historian affiliated with Cambridge University. Exploring Constitutional Conflicts: The Evolution Controversy www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/conlaw/evolution.htm A fascinating look at both sides of the issue from a University of Missouri law professor. Includes links to websites supporting evolutionist theory and creationism. AboutDarwin.com
www.aboutdarwin.com More about Darwin himself than about evolution, this entertaining site offers great detail about Darwin's life and science in the late 1800s. It includes a long list of links. Center for Science and Culture www.discovery.org/csc This website presents the non-Darwinist and non-creationist point of view known as intelligent design, which holds that the universe is the product of intelligent thinking. Answers in Genesis www.answersingenesis.org A very large young-Earth creationist website. Although most material is in English, it includes pages in ten Asian and European languages. The Talk.Origins Archive www.talkorigins.org This website is built around essays and articles addressing the evolution/creationism controversy from a mainstream science viewpoint. Lots of links to websites on both sides of the issue. National Center for Science Education www.ncseweb.org The NCSE is a nonprofit organization dedicated to defending the teaching of evolution in public schools.
Robert Clark www.robertclarkphoto.com Preview the diverse work of this award-winning photographer at this site, which includes photo galleries, a short biography, and more.
The National Academies www.nationalacademies.org This organization provides a committee of experts in all areas of scientific and technological endeavor and gives independent, objective advice on critical international and national issues.
Top
Browne, Janet. Charles Darwin: Voyaging. Vol. 1. Alfred A. Knopf, 1995. Browne, Janet. Charles Darwin: The Power of Place. Vol. 2. Alfred A. Knopf, 2002. Darwin, Charles. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life. John Murray, 1859. (Modern editions are available from many publishers.) Desmond, Adrian, and James Moore. Darwin. Michael Joseph, 1991. Eldredge, Niles. The Pattern of Evolution. W. H. Freeman and Company, 1999. Larson, Edward J. Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory. Modern Library, 2004.
Top
Chapman, Matthew. "Islands of the Fittest." National Geographic Traveler (April 2003), 46-57. Lange, Karen E. "Wolf to Woof." National Geographic (January 2002), 2-11.
Benchley, Peter. "Galápagos: Paradise in Peril." National Geographic (April 1999), 2-31. Plage, Dieter, and Mary Plage. "A Century After Darwin's Death, Galápagos Wildlife Under Pressure." National Geographic (January 1988), 122-45. Gore, Rick. "Seven Giants Who Led the Way." National Geographic (Sept. 1976), 400-7. Villiers, Alan. "In the Wake of Darwin's Beagle." National Geographic (October 1969), 449-95. Peterson, Roger Tory. "The Galápagos, Eerie Cradle of New Species." National Geographic (April 1967), 540-85. Johnson, Electa, and Irving Johnson. "Lost World of the Galápagos." National Geographic (May 1959), 680-703.
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Field Notes From
Was Darwin Wrong?
David Quammen
Robert Clark
In most cases these accounts are edited versions of a spoken interview. They have not been researched and may differ from the printed article.
Photographs by Michael Nichols (top) and Alex Di Suvero
Was Darwin Wrong?
Field Notes From Author David Quammen
At the American Museum of Natural History in New York, I met with paleontologists Niles Eldridge and Ian Tattersall. It was a privilege to meet with them and discuss their respective studies. Ian gave me a tour of the museum that included an explanation of how the discovery of Lucy, a famous hominid find, differs from other previously unearthed hominids.
I've spent 20 years doing field travel that helps me understand evolutionary ideas, and there have been some scary moments in all that time. But for this assignment I simply visited a few cities and spent time with very civilized, very smart evolutionary biologists in the comfort of their offices. Absolutely no suffering involved.
Often scientists will surprise you with an interest or talent that has nothing to do with the work that seems to consume most of their lives. Niles Eldridge is an evolutionary paleontologist, famous for developing an idea about the pacing of evolutionary change that he and his colleague Stephen Jay Gould called punctuated equilibria. But Niles is also fascinated by the cornet, a musical instrument similar to a trumpet. His collection includes dozens and dozens of them. He's written scholarly papers on the history of the instrument, and he's a musician of some talent. That was a charming and unexpected discovery.
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Survival of the Weirdest Photograph by Robert Clark
If bones could speak, this skeleton of a bulldog at the American Museum of Natural History would testify to unnatural selection brought on by the breeder's whim. "Artificial selection allows really weird characteristics, like this protruding lower jaw to be fixed in a breed," says the museum's mammalogist Richard Monk. He asserts that the body type of the bulldog would not develop naturally. One need only look to the wolf for the form nature prefers.
Camera: Sinar P2 4 x 5 Film Type: Fuji Provia 100F Lens: 180mm Speed and F-Stop: 1/125 @ f/11
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Beetles Fan Photograph by Robert Clark
Perfectly pinned and labeled, a batch of beetles resides at Down House, Darwin's country home near London, revealing his interest in species classification while he was still a student at Cambridge University. The largest beetle shown, Euchirus longimanus, remains a mystery. It may have come from Indonesia via naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace or from dealer E. W. Janson, who supplied Darwin with various horned specimens. "Darwin was fanatical about beetles," says British entomologist Kenneth Smith. In Darwin's day, "if you were a beetles man, it was considered manly. They're pretty tough insects."
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The Flower of an Idea Photograph by Robert Clark
A Disa uniflora orchid extends its petals like arms as if to proclaim, Look at me. For the legendary 19th-century scientist, orchids epitomized his theory of natural selection, the belief that plants and animals evolve with traits favoring survival and reproductive success. By this measure orchids are a sensational success, with 24,000 species and 60,000 registered hybrids, far more than any other flowering plant on Earth. Found on South Africa's Table Mountain, Disa uniflora can endure frost, snow, and high wind. Its fused male and female parts—the white column at center—entice bees for pollination rather than relying on breezes to carry pollen.
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Prickle Power Photograph by Robert Clark
A short-beaked echidna, or spiny anteater, calls for thick gloves for a handler at the San Diego Zoo. "Spines are a good defense for an animal that is close to the ground and can dig in so only the spines are exposed," says Australian echidna researcher Stewart Nicol. Along with the duck-billed platypus, the echidna is a monotreme—a mammal that has retained some features of reptiles and birds, such as laying eggs. The most widely distributed of Australian mammals, the echidna is arguably the most successful.
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Camera: Mamiya Rz 67 Film Type: Fuji Provia 100F Lens: 110mm Speed and F-Stop: 1/250 @ f/22
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November 2004
Now more than a century of adventures and photographic memories from the magazine's archives are just a click away.
WAS DARWIN WRONG? Digging It Finding mammoth tusks wasn't a mammoth task in Alaska in the early 1900s. Though extinct for some 10,000 years, woolly mammoths left a lot of themselves behind. Often ancient ivory was found poking from the snow, but this tusk hunter probably had to dig for his. In another unpublished shot from our archives, he stands between the tusks, gripping a shovel. Notes on the image say the bottom of the pit where the tusks were found was "covered with hair and small pieces of bones." Many tusk hunters in Alaska and elsewhere sold their finds. A September 1907 Geographic article reported that in Siberia "there has been a regular export of mammoth ivory. More than 100 pairs of mammoth tusks have come into the market yearly during the last 200 years." They're still coming. Trade in mammoth ivory remains legal to this day.
—Margaret G. Zackowitz
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Edited by Dr John van Wyhe
The most complete collection of Darwin's work ever published- with original page numbers, illustrations etc.
Darwin's writings
powered by FreeFind
A search tool for the entire site or individual works stored in multiple files is provided above. To search a single file, or any page you are viewing, push Ctrl f (control and f simultaneously) and a find box will appear. To search an individual work select it from the drop-down list above which currently reads 'Site'.
Most Darwin texts on the internet exclude essential bibliographical information such as edition, publisher, place of publication, etc. Page numbers are nowhere to be seen. These factors vastly reduce the usefulness of these texts as they cannot be easily cited. It is impossible to know if one is reading a first or sixth edition. An example are the many online 'first editions' of Darwin's Origin of Species. Often these cannot be correct as the text contains the phrase 'survival of the fittest'—famously coined by Herbert Spencer and first included in the 5th edition of 1869. Many other online copies of the Origin purport to be the first edition yet contain the 'Historical Sketch', first found in Britain in the 3rd edition of 1861. Most historical texts on the internet contain silent additions or omissions—footnotes are changed to endnotes or formatting altered without informing readers where this has been done. If scholars are to find digital texts more useful, it must be perfectly clear which historical text is represented and the text must be useable and citable in conventional ways. The texts provided here are an attempt to do so for the writings of Darwin. The site also provides many more Darwin texts than are available anywhere else—in fact almost the complete works. View the list of Darwin's works available: Darwin's writings. See also Related texts.
More about the texts
For obvious reasons the most reliable digital texts are facsimile reproductions. These, however, are very large files and hence slow to download, browse through etc. Digitized or transcripted texts are much smaller, faster, and possess the very great advantage of being searchable for key words or phrases and the text can be copied out and pasted into notes or other writings. Therefore this site provides textual transcriptions in a standard xhtml format. The transcriptions are meant to resemble the originals in every way relevant to most scholarly uses, however they are not strictly meant to imitate a facsimile image. Therefore the font and text size are not intended to exactly reproduce the original appearance. Instead the characters, formatting and page breaks are accurately represented.
Only line breaks (or hyphenation at the ends of lines), which would impede searching and which is irrelevant to quotations, are removed. Page breaks, even when hyphenation occurs, are scrupulously preserved because this is reflected in scholarly quotations. Italics, bold and capitalization, which are retained when quoting, are meticulously preserved here.
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The writings of Charles Darwin on the web
Most of the works provided here are divided into several files-usually one per chapter. Each file is headed with the name of this website followed by the title and edition of the text and a list of links to the entire work.
Page breaks are indicated thus:
[page] 5
In other instances, when no page number exists-as with end pages or with inserted plates-page breaks are indicated thus:
[-page break-]
Some selected works, such as the first edition of The Origin of Species, include the original running headers rather than bracketed page break indicators. These page breaks appear, as in the original volume, thus:
8 VARIATION CHAP. I.
where '8' is the page number and 'VARIATION CHAP. I.' is the running title. This is exactly the string of characters used in the original text.
All transcriptions are enclosed at the beginning and end of each file within grey bars:
How were the editions of Darwin's work selected for transcription? Many people have asked why nonstandard American editions, like those from Appleton, or very late editions have been transcripted here. This is because of expediency. Some editions were unavailable for scanning. First editions are forthcoming with the eventual expansion of this site.
Editorial remarks have been kept to a strict minimum and are always clearly marked by the use of [red italic] script enclosed in square brackets.
In some of the works provided here some of the text has been rendered into a hyperlink to facilitate quickly jumping to another passage or image. Obviously the colour and underlining which indicate the hyperlink were not in the original text.
This site is best viewed with Internet Explorer 5.x
Future developments: This site will shortly undergo a major metamorphosis when it is absorbed into the new research project at Cambridge University organized by John van Wyhe and Janet Browne: The complete work of Charles Darwin. The new project will provide not only all of the texts and images provided here- but many many more. Ultimately The complete work of Charles Darwin will provide transcriptions and page images of every edition of Darwin's works during his lifetime, and all of his extant manuscripts (excluding only correspondence which is already being done by the Darwin Correspondence Project).
Acknowledgements
A very great debt is owed to Sue Asscher for her indefatigable and painstaking work in digitizing and proof reading many of the writings of Darwin-some of them more than once. Many thanks are also due to David Price and Derek Thompson. I am also grateful to the National University of Singapore for funding part of this project during 2001-2. Many thanks also to Jim Moore, Chris Haley, Aileen Fyfe, David Clifford, Mike Hopkins, Pete Goldie, the staff of the Darwin Correspondence Project, Greig Russell, Ulrich Heinen, Jaromir Kopecek, Randal Keynes, Andrew Sclater, and Matt McGill.
Note: the British Library is not connected with the content or funding of this project.
Every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of these texts. If you discover an error, please contact John van Wyhe.
Citation suggestion: John van Wyhe ed., The writings of Charles Darwin on the web (http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin/) [date accessed].
The materials provided on this website may be freely cited and distributed to classes but reposting on other websites, publishing, or other reproductions, whole or in part, are subject to the written permission of John van Wyhe. Images may be reproduced provided the source is properly acknowledged.
Site copyright © John van Wyhe 2002-2004.
Last modified 26 September, 2004
by John van Wyhe
-Books
Books
-Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. 'Beagle.' Edited and superintended by Charles Darwin. -Part I. Fossil Mammalia, by Richard Owen. With a Geological Introduction, by Charles Darwin. London, 1840. -Part II. Mammalia, by George R. Waterhouse. With a notice of their habits and ranges, by Charles Darwin. London, 1839.
Darwin, Charles, The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. Being the First Part of the Geology of the Voyage of the 'Beagle.' London, Smith, Elder & Co., 1842.
Darwin, Charles, Geological observations on Coral Reefs, Volcanic Islands, and on South America: being the Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle, under the Command of Capt. FitzRoy, during the Years 1832-36. London, Melbourne &
http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin2/texts.html (1 of 21)11/9/2004 4:04:03 AM
Darwin's writings available at this website
Toronto, Ward Lock & Co., 1910. [first published London, Smith, Elder & Co., 1842-6]. [-Coral Reefs - Volcanic Islands - Geological Observations on South America-]
Darwin, Charles, Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of the countries visited during the Voyage of H.M.S. 'Beagle' round the world, under the command of Captain Fitz-Roy, R.N. 2nd edition, corrected, with additions. London, 1845. 11th edn London, John Murray, 1913.
Darwin, Charles, A Monograph of the Fossil Lepadidae; or, Pedunculated Cirripedes of Great Britain. London, Palaeontographical Society, 1851.
Darwin, Charles, A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with Figures of all the Species. The Lepadidae; or, Pedunculated Cirripedes. London, Ray Society, 1851.
Darwin, Charles, A Monograph on the Fossil Balanidæ and Verrucidæ of Great Britain. London, Palaeontographical Society, 1854.
Darwin, Charles, A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with Figures of all the Species. The Balanidae (or Sessile Cirripedes); the Verrucidae, etc. London, Ray Society, 1854.
Darwin, Charles, On the origin of species by means of natural selection. London, John Murray, 1859. [1st edn].
Darwin, Charles, On the various contrivances by which British and foreign orchids are fertilised by insects. London, John Murray, 1862.
Darwin, Charles, The variation of animals and plants under domestication. 2 vols, 2nd edn New York, D. Appleton & Co. 1883. [first published London, John Murray, 1868].
Darwin, Charles, The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. 2nd edn revised and augmented, London, John Murray, 1882. [first published London, John
Murray, 1871].
Darwin, Charles, The origin of species by means of natural selection. 6th edn London, John Murray, 1872.
Darwin, Charles, The expression of the emotions in man and animals. London, John Murray, 1872.
Darwin, Charles, The movements and habits of climbing plants. 2nd edn London, John Murray, 1875.
Darwin, Charles, Insectivorous plants. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1875. [first published London, John Murray, 1875].
Darwin, Charles, The effects of cross and self-fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1892. [first published London, John Murray, 1876].
Darwin, Charles, The different forms of flowers on plants of the same species. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1896. [first published London, John Murray, 1877].
Darwin, Charles, The power of movement in plants. London, John Murray, 1880.
Darwin, Charles, The formation of vegetable mould, through the action of worms. Eighth thousand (corrected) London, John Murray, 1883. [first published London, John Murray, 1881].
Darwin, Charles, The foundations of the Origin of Species: Two essays written in 1842 and 1844 by Charles Darwin, Francis Darwin ed., Cambridge, 1909.
Contributions to books
Darwin, Charles, 'Geology', in John F.W. Herschel ed., A Manual of scientific enquiry; prepared for the use of Her Majesty's Navy: and adapted for travellers in general. London, 1849.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the Use of the Microscope on Board Ship', in Richard Owen, 'Zoology' in John F.W. Herschel ed., A Manual of scientific enquiry; prepared for the use of Her Majesty's Navy: and adapted for travellers in general. London, 1849. pp. 389-395.
Darwin, Charles, 'Recollections by Charles Darwin', in Leonard Jenyns, Memoir of the Rev. John Stevens Henslow. London, 1862, pp. 51-55.
Darwin, Charles, 'Prefatory notice', to A. Kerner, Flowers and their unbidden guests. Translated, revised and edited by W. Ogle. London, 1878.
Darwin, Charles, Preface and 'a preliminary notice' to Ernst Krause, Erasmus Darwin. Translated from the German by W.S. Dallas. London, John Murray, 1879.
Darwin, Charles, 'Prefatory notice' to Aug Weismann, Studies in the Theory of Descent. Translated and edited by Raphael Meldola. London, 1880.
Darwin, Charles, 'A letter (1876) on the 'Drift' near Southampton', in James Geikie, Prehistoric Europe: a geological sketch. London, 1881.
Darwin, Charles, 'A posthumous essay on instinct' in George John Romanes, Mental evolution in animals: with a posthumous essay on instinct by Charles Darwin. London, Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., 1883.
Darwin, Charles, 'Prefatory notice', to Hermann Müller, The Fertilisation of Flowers. Translated and edited by D'Arcy W. Thompson. London, 1883.
Darwin, Charles, 'Über die Wege der Hummelmännchen', trans. by Ernst Krause in
his, Gesammelte kleinere Schriften von Charles Darwin. Leipzig, 1886.
Correspondence
[note: letters in periodicals are not listed separately here.]
Darwin, Francis ed., The life and letters of Charles Darwin. 2 vols. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1905. [first published London, John Murray, 1887].
Darwin, Francis & A.C. Seward eds., More letters of Charles Darwin. 2 vols. London, John Murray, 1903.
Darwin, Charles, Letters to Professor Henslow, read by him at the meeting of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, held Nov 16, 1835. [Cambridge, Privately printed, 1835].
Darwin, Charles, 'A letter (1876) on the 'Drift' near Southampton', in James Geikie, Prehistoric Europe: a geological sketch. London, 1881.
Contributions to periodicals
FitzRoy, Robert, and Darwin, Charles, 'A Letter, Containing Remarks on the moral State of Tahiti, New Zealand, &c.', South African Christian Recorder, 2, 1836, pp. 221-238.
Darwin, Charles, 'Notes upon the Rhea Americana', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, (5) 1837, pp. 35-36.
Darwin, Charles, 'Remarks upon the habits of the genera Geospiza, Camarhynchus, Cactornis, and Certhidea of Gould', Proceedings of the Zoological
Society of London, (5) 10 May 1837, p. 49.
Darwin, Charles, 'Observations of proofs of recent elevation on the coast of Chili, made during the survey of His Majesty's ship Beagle, commanded by Capt. Fitzroy', Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, 2(48) 1837, pp. 446- 449.
Darwin, Charles, 'A sketch of the Deposits containing extinct Mammalia in the neighbourhood of the Plata', Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, 2 (51) 1837, pp. 542-544.
Darwin, Charles, 'On certain areas of elevation and subsidence in the Pacific and Indian oceans, as deduced from the study of Coral Formations', Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, 2(51) 1837, pp. 552-554.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the Formation of Mould', Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, 2(52) 1838, pp. 574-576.
Darwin, Charles, 'Geological Notes made during a survey of the East and West Coasts of South America in the years 1832, 1833, 1834, and 1835; with an account of a transverse section of the Cordilleras of the Andes between Valparaiso and Mendoza' Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, 2, 1838, pp. 210-212.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the connexion of certain volcanic phænomena, and on the formation of mountain-chains and volcanos, as the effects of continental elevations', Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, 2(56) 1838, pp. 654- 660.
Darwin, Charles, 'Note on a Rock seen on an Iceberg in 61° South Latitude', The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, 9, 1839, pp. 528-529.
Darwin, Charles, 'Observations on the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy, and of other parts of Lochaber in Scotland, with an attempt to prove that they are of marine
origin', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1839, pp. 39- 81.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the Connexion of certain Volcanic Phenomena in South America; and on the Formation of Mountain Chains and Volcanos, as the Effect of the same Power by which Continents are elevated.', Transactions of the Geological Society of London,(2)53, 1840, pp. 601-631.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the formation of mould', Transactions of the Geological Society of London, 5(3), 1840, pp. 505-509.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the distribution of the erratic boulders and on the contemporaneous unstratified deposits of South America', Transactions of the Geological Society of London, (2)6(2) 1841, pp. 415-431.
Darwin, Charles, 'On a Remarkable Bar of Sandstone off Pernambuco, on the Coast of Brazil', London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 19, 1841, pp. 257-60.
Darwin, Charles, 'Humble-Bees', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 34, 21 Aug 1841, p. 550.
Darwin, Charles, 'Notes on the Effects Produced by the Ancient Glaciers of Caernarvonshire, and on the Boulders Transported by Floating Ice', London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science 21, 1842, pp. 180-88.
Darwin, Charles, 'Double flowers—their origin', Gardeners' Chronicle, 9 Sept 1843, p. 628.
Darwin, Charles, et al, 'Report of a committee appointed "to consider of the rules by which the nomenclature of zoology may be established on a uniform and permanent basis"', Report of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science for 1842, 1843, pp. 105-121.
Darwin, Charles, 'Remarks on the preceding paper, in a Letter from Charles Darwin, Esq., to Mr. Maclaren', Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal xxxiv. 1843, pp. 47-50. [The "preceding" paper is: 'On Coral Islands and Reefs as described by Mr. Darwin. By Charles Maclaren'].
Darwin, Charles, 'On the origin of mould', Gardeners' Chronicle, 6 Apr 1844, p. 218.
Darwin, Charles, 'Manures, and Steeping Seeds', Gardeners' Chronicle, 8 June 1844, p. 380.
Darwin, Charles, 'Variegated Leaves', Gardeners' Chronicle, 14 Sept 1844, p. 621.
Darwin, Charles, 'What is the Action of Common Salt on Carbonate of Lime?', Gardeners' Chronicle, 14 Sept 1844, pp. 628-29.
Darwin, Charles, 'Mr. Darwin's Memorandum' in Henslow, 'Rust in wheat', Gardeners' Chronicle, 28 Sept 1844, p. 659.
Darwin, Charles, 'Observations on the Structure and Propagation of the genus Sagitta', Annals and Magazine of Natural History, xiii. 1844, pp. 1-6.
Darwin, Charles, 'Brief descriptions of several Terrestrial Planariae, and of some remarkable Marine Species, with an Account of their Habits', Annals and Magazine of Natural History, xiv. 1844, pp. 241-251.
Darwin, Charles, 'An Account of the Fine Dust which Often Falls on Vessels in the Atlantic Ocean', Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, pt. 1, 2, 1846, pp. 26-30.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the Geology of the Falkland Islands', Quarterly Journal of
the Geological Society of London, pt. 1, 2, 1846, pp. 267-74.
Darwin, Charles, 'Origin of Saliferous Deposits: Salt-Lakes of Patagonia and La Plata', Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, pt. 2, 2, 1846, pp. 127-28.
Darwin, Charles, [review of] 'Waterhouse's 'Natural History of the Mammalia', Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 1847, xix. pp. 53-6.
Darwin, Charles, 'Salt', Gardeners' Chronicle, 6 Mar 1847, pp. 157-58.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the Transportal of Erratic Boulders from a Lower to a Higher Level', Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, 4, 1848, pp. 315-23.
Darwin, Charles, 'On British Fossil Lepadidæ', The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, 6, 1850, pp. 439-440.
Darwin, Charles, 'Extracts from Letters to the General Secretary, on the Analogy of the Structure of Some Volcanic Rocks with That of Glaciers', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 2, 1851, pp. 17-18.
Darwin, Charles, 'Bucket Ropes for Wells', Gardeners' Chronicle, 10 Jan 1852, p. 22.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the power of Icebergs to make rectilinear, uniformly-directed Grooves across a Submarine Undulatory Surface', London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, x, 1855, pp. 96-98.
Darwin, Charles, 'Does Sea-Water Kill Seeds?', Gardeners' Chronicle, 14 Apr 1855, p. 242.
Darwin, Charles, 'Does Sea-Water Kill Seeds?', Gardeners' Chronicle, 26 May 1855, pp. 356-57.
Darwin, Charles, 'Nectar-Secreting Organs of Plants', Gardeners' Chronicle, 21 July 1855, p. 487.
Darwin, Charles, 'Shell Rain in the Isle of Wight', Gardeners' Chronicle, 3 Nov 1855, pp. 726-27.
Darwin, Charles, 'Vitality of Seeds'. Gardeners' Chronicle, 17 Nov 1855, p. 758.
Darwin, Charles, 'Effect of Salt-Water on the Germination of Seeds', Gardeners' Chronicle, 1 Dec 1855, p. 789.
Darwin, Charles, 'Longevity of Seeds', Gardeners' Chronicle, 29 Dec 1855, p. 854.
Darwin, Charles, 'Seedling Fruit Trees', Gardeners' Chronicle, 29 Dec 1855 p. 854.
Darwin, Charles, 'Effect of Salt-Water on the Germination of Seeds', Gardeners' Chronicle, 24 Nov 1855, p. 773.
Darwin, Charles, 'Cross Breeding', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 49, 6 Dec 1856, p. 806.
Darwin, Charles, 'Hybrid Dianths', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 10, 7 Mar 1857, p. 155.
Darwin, Charles, 'Mouse-coloured Breed of Ponies', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 24, 13 June 1857 p. 427.
Darwin, Charles, 'The Subject of Deep Wells', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 30, 25 July 1857, p. 518.
Darwin, Charles, 'Bees and Fertilisation of Kidney Beans'. Gardeners' Chronicle, 24 Oct 1857, p. 725.
Darwin, Charles, 'Productiveness of Foreign Seed', Gardeners'Chronicle, no. 46, 14 Nov 1857, p. 779.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the Action of Sea-Water on the Germination of Seeds', Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society, Botany, l, 1857, pp. 130-40.
Darwin, Charles, & Alfred Russel Wallace, 'On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection', Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society, Zoology, 20 Aug. 1858, 3, pp. 45-62.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the Agency of Bees in the Fertilisation of Papilionaceous Flowers, and on the Crossing of Kidney Beans', Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 3rd series ii. 1858, pp. 459-465.
Darwin, Charles, 'Public Natural History Collections', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 48, 27 Nov 1858 p. 861.
Darwin, Charles, 'Cross-bred Plants', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 3, 21 Jan 1860 p. 49.
Darwin, Charles, 'Do the Tineina or other Small Moths Suck Flowers, and if so what Flowers?', Entomologist's Weekly Intelligencer 8, 1860, p. 103.
Darwin, Charles, 'Natural Selection', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 16, 21 Apr 1860, pp. 362-63.
Darwin, Charles, 'Fertilisation of British Orchids by Insect Agency', Gardeners'Chronicle, no. 23, 9 June 1860, p. 528.
Darwin, Charles, 'Note on the achenia of Pumilio Argyrolepis', Gardeners' Chronicle, 5 Jan 1861, p. 4.
Darwin, Charles, 'Fertilisation of British Orchids by Insect Agency', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 6, 9 Feb 1861, p. 122.
Darwin, Charles, 'Phenomena in the Cross-breeding of Plants', Journal of Horticulture and Cottage Gardener, 14 May 1861, 1, pp. 112.
Darwin, Charles, 'Cross-breeding in Plants: Fertilisation of Leschenaultia formosa', Journal of Horticulture and Cottage Gardener, 28 May 1861, 1, p. 151.
Darwin, Charles, 'Fertilisation of Vincas', Gardeners' Chronicle, 15 June 1861, pp. 552, 831, 832.
Darwin, Charles, 'Cause of the Variation of Flowers', Journal of Horticulture and Cottage Gardener, 18 June 1861, 1, p. 211.
Darwin, Charles, 'Effects of different kinds of pollen', Journal of Horticulture and Cottage Gardener, 8 Jul 1861, pp. 280-1.
Darwin, Charles, 'Parents of some gladioli', Journal of Horticulture and Cottage Gardener, 9 Sep 1861, p. 453.
Darwin, Charles, 'Fertilization of Orchids', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 37, 14 Sept 1861, p. 831.
Darwin, Charles, 'Is the female bombus fertilised in the air?', Journal of Horticulture and Cottage Gardener, 22 Oct 1861, p. 76.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the Two Forms, or Dimorphic Condition, in the Species of Primula, and on their remarkable Sexual Relations', Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society, Botany, 6, 1862, pp. 77-96.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the Three remarkable Sexual Forms of Catasetum tridentatum, an Orchid in the Possession of the Linnean Society', Journal of the
Proceedings of the Linnean Society, Botany, 6, 1862, pp. 151-57.
Darwin, Charles, 'Do bees vary in different parts of Great Britain', Journal of Horticulture and Cottage Gardener, 9 June 1862, p. 207.
Darwin, Charles, 'Bees in Jamaica increase the size and substance of their cells.', Journal of Horticulture and Cottage Gardener, 14 Jul 1862, p. 305.
Darwin, Charles, 'Bee-cells in Jamaica not larger than in England', Journal of Horticulture and Cottage Gardener, 21 Jul 1862, p. 323.
Darwin, Charles, 'Peas', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 45, 8 Nov 1862 p. 1052.
Darwin, Charles, 'Cross-breeds of Strawberries', Journal of Horticulture and Cottage Gardener, 25 Nov 1862, 3, p. 672.
Darwin, Charles, 'Variations Effected by Cultivation', Journal of Horticulture and Cottage Gardener, 2 Dec 1862, 3, p. 696.
Darwin, Charles, 'Penguin ducks', Journal of Horticulture and Cottage Gardener, 26 Dec 1862, p. 797.
Darwin, Charles, 'Influence of pollen on the appeaeance of seed', Journal of Horticulture and Cottage Gardener, 26 Jan 1863, p. 70.
Darwin, Charles, 'Vindication of Gärtner, effect of crossing-peas', Journal of Horticulture and Cottage Gardener, 2 Feb 1863, p. 93.
Darwin, Charles, 'Fertilisation of Orchids', Journal of Horticulture and Cottage Gardener, 31 Mar 1863, 4, p. 237.
Darwin, Charles, 'The Doctrine of Heterogeny and Modification of Species', Athenaeum. Journal of Literature, Science, and the Fine Arts, no. 1852, 25 Apr 1863, pp. 554-55.
Darwin, Charles, 'Origin of Species', Athenaeum. Journal of Literature, Science, and the Fine Arts, no. 1854, 9 May 1863, p. 617.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the Thickness of the Pampean Formation, Near Buenos Ayres', Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, 19, 1863, pp. 68- 71.
M.J.B, [Yellow Rain], Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 29, 18 July 1863, p. 675 [With a quotation by Darwin].
Darwin, Charles, 'Appearance of a Plant in a Singular Place', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 33, 15 Aug 1863, p. 773.
Darwin, Charles, 'Vermin and Traps', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 35, 29 Aug 1863, pp. 821-22.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the so-called "Auditory-sac" of Cirripedes', Natural History Review, 1863, pp. 115-116.
Darwin, Charles, 'A review of Mr. Bates' paper on 'Mimetic Butterflies.'', Natural History Review, 1863, pp. 219-224.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the Existence of Two Forms, and on Their Reciprocal Sexual Relation, in Several Species of the Genus Linum', Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society (Botany) 7, 1864, pp. 69-83.
Darwin, Charles, 'Ancient Gardening', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 41, 8 Oct 1864, p. 965.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the Sexual Relations of the Three Forms of Lythrum salicaria', Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society, Botany, 8, 1865, pp. 169-96.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the Movement and Habits of Climbing Plants', Journal of the Linnaean Society of London (Botany), 9, 1865, pp. 1-118. [Digitization forthcoming].
Darwin, Charles, 'Partial Change of Sex in Unisexual Flowers', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 6, 10 Feb 1866, p. 127.
Darwin, Charles, 'Oxalis Bowei', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 32, 11 Aug 1866 p. 756.
Darwin, Charles, 'Cross-fertilising Papilionaceous Flowers', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 32, 11 Aug 1866, p. 756.
Darwin, Charles, 'Fertilisation of Cypripediums', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 14, 6 Apr 1867, p. 350.
Darwin, Charles, 'Note on the Common Broom', in George Henslow, 'Note on the Structure of Indigofera, as Apparently Offering Facilities for the Intercrossing of Distinct Flowers,' Journal of the Linnean Society, Botany, 9, 1867, p. 358.
Darwin, Charles, 'Hedgehogs', Hardwicke's Science-Gossip: An Illustrated Medium of Interchange and Gossip for Students and Lovers of Nature, 1 Dec. 1867. p. 280.
Darwin, Charles, '[Inquiry about Proportional Number of Males and Females Born to Domestic Animals]', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 7, 15 Feb 1868, p. 160.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the Character and Hybrid-like Nature of the Offspring from the Illegitimate Unions of Dimorphic and Trimorphic Plants', Journal of the Linnean Society, Botany, 10, 1868, pp. 393-437.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the Specific Difference between Primula veris, Brit. F. (var. officinalis of Linn.), P. vulgaris, Brit. Fl. (var. acaulis, Linn.), and P. elatior,
Jacq.; and on the Hybrid Nature of the common Oxlip. With Supplementary Remarks on naturally-produced Hybrids in the genus Verbascum', Journal of the Linnean Society, Botany, 10, 1868, pp. 437-454.
Darwin, Charles, 'Queries about Expression for Anthropological Inquiry', Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution . . . for the Year 1867. Senate Mis. doc. no. 86, 1868, p. 324.
Darwin, Charles, 'The Formation of Mould by Worms', Gardeners' Chronicle, no. 20, 15 May 1869 p. 530.
Darwin, Charles, 'Pangenesis: Mr. Darwin's Reply to Professor Delpino', Scientific Opinion: A Weekly Record of Scientific Progress at Home & Abroad, 2, 1869, p. 426.
Darwin, Charles, 'Origin of Species', Athenaeum. Journal of Literature, Science, and the Fine Arts, no. 2174, 26 June 1869, p. 861.
Darwin, Charles, 'Origin of Species', Athenaeum. Journal of Literature, Science, and the Fine Arts, no. 2177, 17 July 1869, p. 82.
Darwin, Charles, 'Notes on the Fertilization of Orchids', Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 4th series, iv. 1869, pp. 141-159.
Darwin, Charles, 'The Fertilisation of Winter-flowering Plants', Nature, 18 Nov 1869, vol. i. p. 85.
Darwin, Charles, 'Note on the Habits of the Pampas Woodpecker', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1870, pp. 705-706.
Darwin, Charles, 'Pangenesis', Nature, 27 Apr 1871, vol. iii. p. 502-3.
Darwin, Charles, 'A new view of Darwinism', Nature, 6 July 1871, vol. iv. p. 180.
Darwin, Charles, 'Fertilisation of Leschenaultia', Gardeners' Chronicle, 9 Sept 1871, p. 1166.
Darwin, Charles, 'A Letter from Mr. Darwin', Index, vol. 2, 23 Dec 1871, p. 404.
Darwin, Charles, 'Bree on Darwinism', Nature, 8 Aug 1872, vol. vi. p. 279.
Darwin, Charles, 'Inherited Instinct', Nature, 13 Feb 1873, vol. vii. p. 281.
Darwin, Charles, 'Perception in the Lower Animals', Nature, 13 Mar 1873, vol. vii. p. 360.
Darwin, Charles, 'Origin of certain instincts', Nature, 3 Apr 1873, vol. vii. p. 417.
Darwin, Charles, 'Habits of Ants', Nature, 24 July 1873, vol. viii. p. 244.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the Males and Complemental Males of Certain Cirripedes, and on Rudimentary Structures', Nature, 25 Sept 1873, vol. viii. pp. 431-2.
Darwin, Charles, 'Recent researches on Termites and Honey-bees', Nature, 19 Feb 1874, vol. ix. p. 308.
Darwin, Charles, 'Fertilisation of the Fumariaceae', Nature, 16 Apr 1874, vol. ix. p. 460.
Darwin, Charles, 'Flowers of the Primrose destroyed by Birds', Nature, 23 Apr 1874, vol. ix. p. 482.
Darwin, Charles, 'Flowers of the Primrose destroyed by Birds', Nature, 14 May 1874, vol. x. pp. 24-5.
Darwin, Charles, '[A Communication on Irritability of Pinguicula]', Gardeners' Chronicle, vol. 2, 4 July 1874, p. 15.
Darwin, Charles, 'Cherry Blossoms', Nature, 11 May 1876, vol. xiv. p. 28.
Darwin, Charles, 'Sexual Selection in relation to Monkeys', Nature, 2 Nov 1876, vol. xv. p. 18. Reprinted as a supplement to the Descent of Man, 1871.
Darwin, Charles, 'Fritz Müller on Flowers and Insects', Nature, Nov 29, 1876, vol. xvii. p. 78.
Darwin, Charles, 'Holly Berries', Gardeners' Chronicle, vol. 7, 6 Jan 1877, p. 19.
Darwin, Charles, 'The Scarcity of Holly Berries and Bees', Gardeners' Chronicle, 20 Jan 1877, p. 83.
Darwin, Charles, 'Note on Fertilisation of Plants', Gardeners' Chronicle, 24 Feb 1877, p. 246.
Darwin, Charles, 'Testimonial to Mr. Darwin-Evolution in the Netherlands-with a letter by Darwin', Nature, 8 Mar 1877, vol. 15, pp. 410-12.
Darwin, Charles, 'A biographical sketch of an infant', Mind, July 1877, pp. 285- 294.
Darwin, Charles, 'The Contractile Filaments of the Teasel', Nature, 23 Aug 1877, vol. 16. p. 339.
Darwin, Charles, 'Growth under Difficulties, Gardeners' Chronicle, vol. 8, 29 Dec 1877, p. 805.
Darwin, Charles, 'Transplantation of Shells', Nature, 30 May 1878, pp. 120-1.
Darwin, Charles, 'Fritz Müller on a Frog having Eggs on its back-on the abortion of the hairs on the legs of certain Caddis-Flies, etc.', Nature, 20 Mar 1879, vol. xix. pp. 462-3.
Darwin, Charles, 'Rats and Water-Casks', Nature, 27 Mar vollume xix. p. 481.
Darwin, Charles, 'Fertility of Hybrids from the common and Chinese Goose', Nature, 1 Jan vol. xxi. p. 207.
Darwin, Charles, 'The Sexual Colours of certain Butterflies', Nature, 8 Jan 1880, vol xxi. p. 237.
Darwin, Charles, 'The Omori Shell Mounds', Nature, 15 Apr 1880, vol. xxi p. 561.
Darwin, Charles, 'Sir Wyville Thomson and Natural Selection', Nature, 11 Nov 1880, vol. xxiii. p. 32.
Darwin, Charles, 'Black Sheep', Nature, 30 Dec 1880 vol. xxiii. p. 193.
Darwin, Charles, 'Movements of Plants', Nature, 3 Mar 1881 vol. xxiii. p. 409.
Darwin, Charles, 'Mr. Darwin on Vivisection', British Medical Journal, 1, 1881, p. 660.
Darwin, Charles, 'Mr. Darwin on Vivisection', Times, 22 Apr 1881.
Darwin, Charles, 'The Movements of Leaves', Nature, 28 Apr 1881, vol. xxiii pp. 603-4.
Darwin, Charles, 'Inheritance', Nature, 21 July 1881 vol. xxiv. p. 257.
Darwin, Charles, 'Leaves injured at Night by Free Radiation', Nature, 15 Sept 1881, vol. xxiv. p. 459.
Darwin, Charles, 'A Letter to Mrs. Emily Talbot on the Mental and Bodily Development of Infants', Nature, 13 Oct 1881, vol. xxiv p. 565.
Darwin, Charles, 'The Parasitic Habits of Molothrus', Nature, 17 Nov 1881, vol. xxv. pp. 51-2.
Darwin, Charles, 'Preliminary notice' in W. van Dyck, 'On the Modification of a Race of Syrian Street-Dogs by Means of Sexual Selection: With a Preliminary Notice by Charles Darwin', Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, no. 25, 1882, pp. 367-70.
Darwin, Charles, 'On the Dispersal of Freshwater Bivalves', Nature, 6 Apr 1882, vol. xxv. pp. 529-530.
Darwin, Charles, 'The Action of Carbonate of Ammonia on the Roots of Certain Plants', Journal of the Linnean Society (Botany) 19, 1882, pp. 239-61.
Darwin, Charles, 'The Action of Carbonate of Ammonia on Chlorophyll-Bodies', Journal of the Linnean Society (Botany) 19, 1882, pp. 262-84.
See Also: Related texts
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by John van Wyhe
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) gentleman naturalist
Few Victorians are as well-remembered today as Charles Robert Darwin. Born into a wealthy Shropshire gentry family, Darwin grew up amidst wealth, comfort and country sports. An unimpressive student, Darwin vacillated between the prospect of becoming a country physician, like his father, or a clergyman. The advantage to becoming a country parson, as Darwin saw it, would be the freedom to pursue his growing interest in natural history. However, an unforeseen opportunity precluded these early plans. After his student days in Edinburgh and Christ's College Cambridge, Darwin's connections in 1831 offered him the opportunity of travelling on a survey ship, H.M.S. Beagle, as naturalist and the captain's gentleman dining companion. The
round-the-world journey lasted almost five years. Darwin spent most of these years investigating the geology and life of the lands he visited, especially South America, the Galapagos islands, and pacific coral islands.
Darwin also read the works of men of science like Alexander von Humboldt and the geologist Charles Lyell. Lyell's new book, Principles of Geology, was particularly influential for Darwin. Lyell argued that the world had been shaped not by great catastrophes like floods but by the gradual processes we see active around us: wind, erosion, volcanoes, earthquakes etc. Lyell offered not just a new geology but a new way of explaining the world. Slow gradual cumulative change over a long period of time could produce great effects. Visible non-miraculous causes should be preferred when seeking explanations. Darwin had the opportunity to witness all of these forces himself during the Beagle voyage and he became convinced that something like Lyell's method was correct. Darwin also collected organisms of all sorts, as well as unearthing many fossils. Darwin wondered why the fossils he unearthed in South America resembled the present inhabitants of that continent more than any other life form known. Where had the
http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/darwin_bio.htm (1 of 10)11/9/2004 4:04:17 AM
A brief biography of Darwin
new species come from? In fact, why was the world covered with so many different kinds of living things? Why were some very similar to one another and others vastly different? Why did some desert species live in desserts in Africa, but quite different species in the Americas? If species suited their environments, why were not all jungle species the same in Asia, Africa and South America? Instead each region had its own fauna and flora.
Darwin did not hit on a solution during the Beagle voyage, but rather a few years later in London, while writing books on his travels and studying the specimens he had collected. Experts in London were able to tell him how many of the species of plants and animals he had collected in the Galapagos Islands were unique species, found nowhere else. Clearly they resembled species from South America 500 miles away. It seemed as if migrants from South America had come to the Galapagos and then changed.
Darwin began to speculate on how species could arise by means still active around us. His idiosyncratic eclecticism led him to investigate some unconventional bodies of evidence. He made countless inquiries of animal breeders, both farmers and hobbyists like pigeon fanciers, trying to understand how they made distinct breeds of animals. Gradually Darwin decided that organisms were infinitely variable, and that the supposed limits or barriers to species were a myth. In modern terms we would say that Darwin came to accept that life evolves. In other words that the kinds of organisms in the world are not fixed kinds. The conventional view of the time was that species had been created where they are now found- in accordance with the environment.
Darwin then sought to explain how evolution works. Darwin was familiar with the evolutionary theories earlier proposed by his grandfather Erasmus Darwin and by the great French zoologist J.B. Lamarck. In 1838 Darwin read the Rev. Thomas Malthus's Essay on the Principle of Population (1798). Malthus had argued for a law-like relationship between population growth and food production in order to warn against what he feared was an immanent danger of human overpopulation. Malthus was widely believed
to have conclusively demonstrated that population growth would necessarily outstrip food production unless population growth were somehow checked. The focus of this argument inspired Darwin who saw that in all of nature such checks are continuously present. Clearly any species could breed enough to fill the earth in a few generations—yet they did not. Many offspring did not survive long enough to reproduce. Darwin, already concentrating on how new varieties of life might be formed, now thought in terms of the differences between those individuals who, for whatever reasons, left offspring and those who did not.
As Darwin wrote in his autobiography in 1876: 'In October 1838, that is, fifteen months after I had begun my systematic inquiry, I happened to read for amusement Malthus on Population, and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence which everywhere goes on from long-continued observation of the habits of animals and plants, it at once struck me that under these circumstances favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed. The results of this would be the formation of a new species. Here, then I had at last got a theory by which to work'. Below is the famous passage from Darwin's personal notebook where these ideas were first recorded:
[Sept] 28th.[1838] Even the energetic language of Decandolle does not convey the warring of the species as inference from Malthus-increase of brutes must be prevented solely by positive checks, excepting that famine may stop desire. —in nature production does not increase, whilst no check prevail, but the positive check of famine and consequently death. . .
...—The final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, and adapt it to change.—to do that for form, which Malthus shows is the final effect by means however of volition of this populousness on the energy of man. One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying [to] force every kind of adapted structure into the gaps in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones.
Or, as Darwin later put it in the Origin of Species:
As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form.
Therefore if individuals did not live to reproduce and others did, the survivors would pass on their own form and abilities. Their characteristics would persist multiply whilst those that did not live long enough to reproduce would decrease. Darwin did not know precisely how inheritance worked—genes and DNA were totally unknown. Nevertheless he realized the crucial point that inheritance occurs. Offspring resemble their parents. Darwin thought in terms of populations of diverse heritable things with no
essence—not representatives of ideal types as many earlier thinkers had done. From his observations and experiments with domesticated and wild plants and animals he could find no limits to the extent organic forms could vary and change through generations. Thus the existing species in the world were related not along a chain of being or in statically separate species categories but were all related on a genealogical family tree through 'descent with modification'. Darwin called his primary mechanism natural selection as it was the same principle by which breeders modified their stock by selecting desirable forms in domesticated plants and animals. Darwin also identified another means by which some individuals would have descendants and others would not. He later called this sexual selection. This theory explained why the male sex in many species produce colourful displays or specialized body parts to attract females or to compete against other males. Those males who beat other males, or were selected for breeding by females left more offspring and so subsequent generations would resemble them more than those who succeeded less often to reproduce. As Darwin pointed out, "A hornless stag or spurless cock would have a poor chance of leaving offspring."
Darwin, deeply studied in the sciences of his time, yet living somewhat removed from his colleagues as a closet theorist, was able to think in new ways and to conceive of worlds quite unimaginable to his orthodox friends. However, the legend of Darwin as a lone genius discovering evolution by natural selection on the Galapagos Islands is a legend whose fabrication we can reconstruct. Nevertheless, it seems to be so widespread today that nothing scholars say to the contrary can dislodge it. Perhaps the best antidotes are the excellent biographies of Darwin by Janet Browne (1995, 2002) and Desmond and Moore (1991).
Many have argued that Darwin borrowed an idea of individual struggle from laissez-faire social theory and applied it to the natural world. Karl Marx was perhaps the first to observe that Darwin's theories of individual struggle resembled contemporary
British theories of political economy. The logic of these social theories is powerful. Nevertheless, the specific causal connections between these social factors and Darwin's thought remain unclear. Although Darwin's theories were not isolated from the social environments in which he lived, we should remain open- minded when explaining Darwin's thought. Darwin spent most of his time thinking about the properties of organisms, how they all varied to some degree, how apparent lineages resembled one another, and how the rigours of nature meant that a vast quantity of life was constantly being snuffed out in a natural winnowing of forms. The important point for Darwin was not the survival of an individual, or as Herbert Spencer called it, the 'survival of the fittest', but success in creating offspring—in the perpetuation of a stock. After all, Darwin named his theory 'natural selection' not 'individual competition' or 'survival of the ruthless'. Had he used an alternative, he later wrote, it would have been "natural preservation".
Darwin did not, at first, tell anyone about his secret speculations. Perhaps the first colleague to be told was his correspondent, the botanist J.D. Hooker on 14 January 1844: 'I am almost convinced, (quite contrary to opinion I started with) that species are not (it is like confessing a murder) immutable'. The unorthodoxy and anathema attached to the idea that species might not be fixed was a powerful force. Darwin told only a handful of other friends of his ideas during the succeeding years. Meanwhile Darwin married his cousin Emma Wedgwood in 1839 and continued to study and publish on a variety of scientific subjects achieving a great reputation as a naturalist and traveller. His eight years grueling work on barnacles, published 1851-4 established Darwin's reputation as an authority on taxonomy as well as geology and the distribution of flora and fauna as in his earlier works.
Darwin conducted breeding experiments with animals and plants and corresponded and read widely for many years to refine and substantiate his theories of evolution. In 1842 he prepared an essay outlining his evolutionary theory but did not publish it. After completing his work on barnacles Darwin turned to his theory to explain species. He was interrupted in 1858 when a letter from an English naturalist and collector, Alfred Russel Wallace, in the Malay Archipelago arrived. In an essay enclosed with this now famous letter Wallace described his ideas 'On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely From the Original Type'. The similarity to Darwin's theory of evolution was striking for Darwin. He sent the letter on to Lyell and it was decided, to avoid competition for priority, to publicize abstracts by both men as soon as possible. The papers were read in the absence of Darwin and Wallace at a meeting of the Linnean Society of London in 1858. Darwin worked on creating an 'abstract' of his work in progress on natural selection. This abstract became one of the most famous books of modern times On the Origin of Species (1859).
Although Darwin's exposition was the most accurate and well-supported explanation of the diversity of life, he was not the first to propose that life evolves. Why is it that we consider Darwin as the discoverer of evolution when so many others proposed similar ideas before him? Why do many still believe that a Darwinian revolution broke across the world like a thunderclap in 1859 when Darwin published the Origin of Species? A glance at Darwin's 'An historical sketch of the progress of opinion on the origin of species' shows that Darwin made no pretence to have originated or discovered evolution by descent with modification. We know that a wide popular literature such as George Combe's Constitution of Man (1828) and the anonymous Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (1844) had already shocked and converted vast popular audiences to belief in the power of natural laws to control the development of nature and society. Historians of science now believe that Darwin's effect was, as James Secord put it, a 'palace coup' amongst elite men of science rather than a revolution. Darwin, as an unquestionably respectable authority in elite science, publicly threw his weight on the side of evolution, and soon young allies like Hooker, T.H. Huxley, and John Tyndall publicly threw their own weight towards the same position. Darwin's name is so linked with evolution because he was the high-status insider who made evolution acceptable, even respectable. Most of his contemporaries did not particularly like Darwin's primary mechanism of natural selection. Very often in subsequent years evolution was accepted but natural selection was not. In fact, a generation of biologists regarded Darwin as correct in uncovering the evolution of life but mistaken in stressing natural selection. Natural selection's canonization had to wait until the modern synthesis of Darwinism with Mendelian genetics in the 1930s.
Like Combe, Babbage, Chambers, Spencer and countless other authors before him, Darwin represented his doctrine as furthering the domain of natural laws. We see this in the following epigraph chosen by Darwin for the Origin of Species:
" But with regard to the material world, we can at least go so far as this-we can perceive that events are brought about not by insulated interpositions of Divine power, exerted in each particular
case, but by the establishment of general laws."
W. WHEWELL : Bridgewater Treatise.
Darwin even saw the power of his law of natural selection extending beyond life to what we would call psychology, linguistics, and to society and history (see for example Descent of Man chapter 3, 1871).
The Origin of Species
In the Origin of Species Darwin first tried to convince his readers that organisms are utterly malleable and not fixed natural kinds. He showed that domestic plants and animals were known to be highly malleable and to have changed so much under domestication as to be classified as different species by taxonomists. He then showed that the existence and abundance of organisms was dependent on many factors, many of which tended to hold their numbers in check such as climate, food, predation, available space etc. Only then did Darwin set about showing the effects of differential death and survival on reproduction and the persistence and diversification of forms—natural selection. In other words Darwin's theory of evolution has three main elements or requirements: variation, selection and descent or heredity. If all individual life forms are unique, which no one denied, and these differences could make a difference to which organisms lived to reproduce and which did not, then, if these differences could be inherited by offspring, subsequent generations would be descended more or solely from those which were lucky enough to survive.
An illustrative example is seen in the recent work of biologists in the Galapagos Islands. During a drought season when no new seeds were produced for an island's finches to eat, the finches were forced to hunt for remaining seeds on the ground. Soon all the visible seeds had been devoured. It so happened that those with slightly thicker bills than average could turn over stones a little bit better than the rest to find the remaining seeds and so they managed to survive the famine. The others perished. When the drought ended and the birds again had young, this new generation had slightly thicker bills. This is an example of Darwinian evolution observed and measured in the field. (See Jonathan Weiner, The Beak of the Finch. 1994.)
Darwin's theory of genealogical evolution (as opposed to earlier theories by Lamarck or Chambers which entailed independent lineages unfolding sequentially because of an innate tendency towards progress) made sense of a host of diverse bodies of evidence such as the succession of fossil forms in the geological record, geographical distribution of life (biogeography), recapitulative appearances in embryology, homologies, vestigial organs, the taxonomic relationships observed throughout the world and so forth.
The famous last paragraph of the Origin of Species is a concise and eloquent précis of Darwin's vision:
It is interesting to contemplate an entangled bank, clothed with many plants of many kinds, with birds singing on the bushes, with various insects flitting about, and with
worms crawling through the damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent on each other in so complex a manner, have all been produced by laws acting around us. These laws, taken in the largest sense, being Growth with Reproduction; Inheritance which is almost implied by reproduction; Variability from the indirect and direct action of the external conditions of life, and from use and disuse; a Ratio of Increase so high as to lead to a Struggle for Life, and as a consequence to Natural Selection, entailing Divergence of Character and the Extinction of less-improved forms. Thus, from the war of nature, from famine and death, the most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving, namely, the production of the higher animals, directly follows. There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.
Modern commentators often misunderstand the meaning of the title of Darwin's book. They take the origin of species to mean the origin of life. Then it is pointed out that Darwin 'failed' to throw light on the origin of life. But this was not Darwin's project. Darwin argued that species—that is the different kinds of organisms we observe—come not from multiple unique creation events on each island or particular place—but instead that species are the modified descendants of earlier forms. Darwin demonstrated that the origination of species could be entirely explained by descent with modification and not spontaneous creations according to environmental circumstances or divine interventions.
The reactions to Darwin's evolutionary theories were varied and pronounced. In zoology, taxonomy, botany, palaeontology, philosophy, anthropology, psychology, literature and religion Darwin's work engendered profound reactions—many of which are still ongoing. Most disturbing of all, however, were the implications for the cherished uniqueness of Man. Although Darwin cautiously refrained from mentioning Man in the Origin except for his famous cryptic sentence: 'Much light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history' most people who read the book could think only about what this genealogical view of life meant for Man. This is a subject Darwin later took up in The Descent of Man (1871) and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). In these brilliantly original and seminal works Darwin showed that there is no difference of kind between Man and other animals, but only of degree. Rather than an unbridgeable gulf, Darwin showed there is a gradation of change not only between Man and other animals, but between all organic forms which is a consequence of the gradual change continuously and cumulatively o

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