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 TOPIC: NATIONAL CULTURE AND

INDIAN SETTING

GROUP NAME: GALAXY 

CHRIST INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT

GROUP MEMBERS

• Abdul Taiyab Batlawala

• Fenil Limbasiya

• Krishna Talaviya

• Priyanka Karia

• Nikunj Padia

• Vishvesh Trivedi

• Sonali Vas

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NATIONAL CULTURE AND INDIAN SETTING

MEANING OF NATIONAL CULTURE:-

The term culture has various meanings, all derived from the latin meaning "which

is the cultivation of soil." In today's colloquial language, culture is often used in the senseof high culture," perhaps better expressed by the German "Kultur," when referring to

 painting or classical music. Culture in the anthropological sense, however, is not resricted

to these things, but comprises all products of human life. Further, culture does not only

refer to "civilized" societies. All human groups are said to possess culture, even if theyare considered "primitive".

Even if the anthropological understanding of the term culture is taken for the purposes of this research, literature provides more definitions. Though there is little

agreement on the appropriate definition of culture, most definitions of national culture

 place emphasis on shared values. When addressing the question of values, someanthropologists ask questions like "What should be?" Other approaches refer to modal

 practices of collectives instead of emphasizing the importance of values. Modal practices

are simply acts or the ways things are. As the relevant approaches to conceptualize

national culture in social sciences are all in the tradition of value-based approaches, thedevelopment of these definitions are outlined in the following section.

The first anthropological definition was set down by TYLOR in 1871. He definedculture as "that complex whole which included knowledge, belief, art, morals, laws,

customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired b man as a member of society."

More than half a century later, the anthropologist REDFIELD defined culture as "shared

understandings made manifest in act and artifact." For instance, KROEBER/PARSONSdefine national culture as "transmitted and created content and patterns of values, ideas,

and other symbolic- meaningful systems as factors in the shaping of human behavior andthe artifacts produced through behavior." This definition explicitly addresses the

importance of national culture for human behavior.

In the same tradition, but more parsimoniously, HOFSTEDE determined nationalculture to be "the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of 

one group or category of people from each other." Another important contribution has

 been made by researchers involved in the GLOBAL LEADERSHIP ANDORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR EFFECTIVENESS research program (GLOBE). The

authors designated culture simply as "shared motives, values, beliefs, identities, andinterpretations of meanings of significant events that result from common experiences of members of collectives and are transmitted across age generations."

This research builds on HOFSTEDE's understanding of culture, not only because

the empirical part relies on his conceptual work, but also because his definition has the"merit of simplicity, instantly conveing how it is that nations differ from each other."

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CULTURE OF INDIA:-

The term culture refers to a state of intellectual development or manners. The

social and political forces that influence the growth of a human being is defined as

culture.

Indian culture is rich and diverse and as a result unique in its very own way. Our manners, way of communicating with one another, etc are one of the important

components of our culture. Even though we have accepted modern means of 

living, improved our lifestyle, our values and beliefs still remain unchanged. A person can change his way of clothing, way of eating and living but the rich values

in a person always remains unchanged because they are deeply rooted within our 

hearts, mind, body and soul which we receive from our culture.

Indian culture treats guests as god and serves them and takes care of them as if 

they are a part and parcel of the family itself. Even though we don’t have anythingto eat, the guests are never left hungry and are always looked after by themembers of the family. Elders and the respect for elders is a major component in

Indian culture. Elders are the driving force for any family and hence the love and

respect for elders comes from within and is not artificial. An individual takes blessings from his elders by touching their feet. Elders drill and pass on the Indian

culture within us as we grow.

“Respect one another” is another lesson that is taught from the books of Indian

culture. All people are alike and respecting one another is ones duty. In foreign countries

the relation between the boss and the employee is like a master and slave and is purely

monetary whereas in Indian culture the relation between the boss and the employee ismore like homely relations unlike foreign countries.

Helpful nature is another striking feature in our Indian culture. Right from our early days of childhood we are taught to help one another in need of help and

distress. If not monetary then at least in kind or non-monetary ways. Indian

culture tells us to multiply and distribute joy and happiness and share sadness and  pain. It tells us that by all this we can develop co-operation and better living

amongst ourselves and subsequently make this world a better place to live in.

Even though India is a country of various religions and caste our culture tells us

 just one thing 'phir bhi dil hai Hindustani '.

The History of India's culture: Ancient civilization in India reveals marvelous facts

about our heritage. It is a eye opener as to how kingdoms ruled and how people wentabout life in a logical way. Though medieval, it is actually amazing to find how people

transacted and went about building dams and tended to the chief occupation which was

agriculture. Dance and rituals were always a part of Indian culture and this was the chief mode of entertainment. Indian culture is also about respecting elders, honoring heroes

and cherishing love. It is a land of aspirations, achievements and self reliance. Indian

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culture has a very high level of tolerance and hence the advent of so many external

cultures was not restricted. Adaptation to any culture or embracing a religion was always

the democratic culture. Indian history is about war heroes during Indus valley civilizationand the initial time when currency was coined. Indian history talks a lot about self 

reliance especially in terms of food and agricultural produce. This was the great effort put

in by the farmers and support received through irrigation. The modern agriculture alsoshows a lot of indigenous methods of preserving the produce. The Chola dynasty, the

great King Emperor Ashoka and the secular era of Emperor Akbar will always be green

in our memory. Several books are written on the rich Indian culture.

Namaste or Pranam --How we greet each other in India.  To greet a friend or 

another Indian, We join our hands (palms together), bow down in front of the other 

 person, and say Namaste, Namaskar, or Pranam.

The Lord dwells in the heart of every human being. This joining of hands

symbolizes the meeting of two souls, our real self actually meets Itself. This signifies

reverent Salutations and Unity of Souls. Bowing down & joining hands symbolizeshumility and also makes us humble. Thus when we joins our hands and say Namaskar,

we actually see the Lord in the other persons and believe, "I bow with deep respects tothe all-loving, all-powerful and omnipresent (present everywhere) Lord in you."

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FEATURES OF INDIAN CULTURE:-

1) RELIGION:

India is the birth place of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, collectively

known as Indian religions. Indian religions, also known as Dharmic religions are a major form of world religions along with Abrahamic ones. Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are

the world's third- and fourth-largest religions respectively, with over 2 billion followers

altogether, and possibly as many as 2.5 or 2.6 billion followers. India is also the birthplace for the Sikh, Jain, Lingayat, and Ahmadiyya faiths.

  India is one of the most religiously diverse nations in the world, with some of the

most deeply religious societies and cultures. Religion still plays a central and definitive

role in the life of most of its people.

The religion of 80% of the people is Hinduism. Islam is practiced by around 13%

of all Indians. Sikhism, Jainism and especially Buddhism are influential not only in India but across the world. Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Judaism and the Bahá'í Faith are also

influential but their numbers are smaller. Despite the strong role of religion in Indian life,atheism and agnostics also have visible influence along with a self-ascribed tolerance to

other people.

2) SOCIETY:

According to Eugene M. Makar, traditional Indian culture is defined by relatively

strict social hierarchy. He also mentions that from an early age, children are remindedof their roles and places in society. This is reinforced by the fact that many believe

gods and spirits have an integral and functional role in determining their life. Severaldifferences such as religion divide the culture. However, a far more powerful division

is the traditional Hindu bifurcation into non-polluting and polluting occupations.

Strict social taboos have governed these groups for thousands of years. In recent

years, particularly in cities, some of these lines have blurred and sometimes evendisappeared. Important family relations extend as far as gotra, the mainly patrilinear 

lineage or clan assigned to a Hindu at birth. In rural areas & sometimes in urban areas

as well, it is common that three or four generations of the family live under the sameroof. The patriarch often resolves family issues.

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3) FAMILY:

Family plays a significant role in the Indian culture. For generations, India has

had a prevailing tradition of the joint family system. It is a system under whichextended members of a family – parents, children, the children’s spouses and their 

offspring, etc. – live together. Usually, the eldest male member is the head in the jointIndian family system. He makes all important decisions and rules, and other family

members abide by them.

4) MARRIAGE:

For centuries, arranged marriages have been the tradition in Indian society. Even

today, the vast majority of Indians have their marriages planned by their parents and

other respected family-members, with the consent of the bride and groom. Arrangedmatches are made after taking into account factors such as age, height, personal values

and tastes, the backgrounds of their families (wealth, social standing), their castes and the

astrological compatibility of the couples' horoscopes.

In India, the marriage is thought to be for life, and the divorce rate is extremelylow — 1.1% compared with about 50% in the United States. The arranged marriages

generally have a much lower divorce rate. The divorce rates have risen significantly in

recent years.

5) ANIMALS:

The varied and rich wildlife of India has had a profound impact on the region's

 popular culture. Common name for wilderness in India is Jungle which was adopted by

the British colonialists to the English language. The word has been also made famous inThe Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling. India's wildlife has been the subject of numerousother tales and fables such as the Panchatantra and the Jataka tales.

In Hinduism, the cow is regarded as a symbol of ahimsa (non-violence), mother  

goddess and bringer of good fortune and wealth. For this reason, cows are revered in

Hindu culture and feeding a cow is seen as an act of worship.

6) NAMASTE:

 Namaste, Namaskar or  Namaskara or  Namaskaram, Vanakkam or  Sat Shri Akal is

a common spoken greeting or salutation in the Indian subcontinent. Namaskar isconsidered a slightly more formal version than namaste but both express deep respect.It is commonly used in India and Nepal by Hindus, Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs, and

many continue to use this outside the Indian subcontinent. In Indian and Nepali

culture, the word is spoken at the beginning of written or verbal communication.However, the same hands folded gesture is made usually wordlessly upon departure.

Taken literally, it means "I bow to you". The word is derived from Sanskrit (namah):

to bow, obeisance, reverential salutation, and respect, and (te): "to you". As explained

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 by an Indian scholar, in literal terms Namaste refers to 'That which is of God in me

 bows to that which is of God in you'.

7) FESTIVALS:

India, being a multi-cultural and multi-religious society, celebrates holidays andfestivals of various religions. The three national holidays in India, the Independence Day,

the Republic Day and the Gandhi Jayanti, are celebrated with zeal and enthusiasm across

India. In addition, many states and regions have local festivals depending on prevalentreligious and linguistic demographics. Popular religious festivals include the Hindu

festivals of  Navratri  Diwali,  Ganesh Chaturthi,  Durga puja,  Holi,  Rakshabandhan  and Dussehra. Several harvest festivals, such as Sankranthi, Pongal and Onam," Nuakhai" are

also fairly popular.

Certain festivals in India are celebrated by multiple religions. Notable examples

include Diwali, which is celebrated by Hindus, Sikhs and Jains, and  Buddh Purnima,

celebrated by Buddhists and Hindus. Islamic festivals, such  Eid ul-Fitr , Eid al-Adha and Ramadan, are celebrated by Muslims across India. Sikh Festivals , such as Guru Nanak  

 Jayanti,  Baiskhi are celebrated with full fanfare by Sikhs and Hindu. Adding colors to the

culture of India, the Dree Festival is one of the tribal festivals of India celebrated by the

Apatanis of the Zirs of death hai.

8) CUISINE:

The multiple varieties of Indian cuisine are characterized by their sophisticated

and subtle use of many spices and herbs. Each family of this cuisine is characterized by awide assortment of dishes and cooking techniques. Though a significant portion of Indianfood is vegetarian, many traditional Indian dishes also include chicken, goat, lamb, fish,

and other meats.

Food is an important part of Indian culture, playing a role in everyday life as well

as in festivals. Indian cuisine varies from region to region, reflecting the varied demographics of the country. Generally, Indian cuisine can be split into five categories

 — northern, southern, eastern, western and north-eastern. India is known for its love for 

food and spices. India has some of the best restaurants and cafes which can be easilyexplored at Foodiebay.com.

Despite this diversity, some unifying threads emerge. Varied uses of spices are an

integral part of food preparation, and are used to enhance the flavor of a dish and create

unique flavors and aromas. Cuisine across India has also been influenced by variouscultural groups that entered India throughout history, such as the Persians, Mughals, and

European colonists. Though the tandoor   originated in Central Asia, Indian tandoori

dishes, such as chicken tikka made with Indian ingredients, enjoy widespread popularity.

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Indian cuisine is one of the most popular cuisines across the globe. Historically,

Indian spices and herbs were one of the most sought after trade commodities. The spice 

trade between India and Europe led to the rise and dominance of Arab traders to such anextent that European explorers, such as Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus, set

out to find new trade routes with India leading to the  Age of Discovery. The popularity of 

curry, which originated in India, across Asia has often led to the dish being labeled as the"pan-Asian" dish.

9) CLOTHING:

Traditional clothing in India greatly varies across different parts of the country

and is influenced immensely by local culture, geography and climate. Popular styles of 

dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or  lungi for men; inaddition, stitched clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurta- pyjama and

European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular.

In India, a person's social status is perceived to be symbolized by his or her attire.Indian dress etiquette discourages exposure of skin and wearing transparent or tight

clothes. Most Indian clothes are made from cotton which is ideal for the region's hot

weather. Since India's weather is mostly hot and rainy, majority of Indians wear sandals.

Worn by women on their forehead, the bindi is considered to be a highlyauspicious mark in Hindu religion. Traditionally, the red bindi (or  sindoor ) was worn

only by the married Hindu women, but now it has become a part of women's fashion.

Some Indian traditions consider the bindi to be representative of the third eye. 

India's clothing styles have continuously evolved over the course of the country's

history. Ancient Vedic texts mention clothes made from barks and leaves (known as phataka). The 11th century BC  Rig-veda mentions dyed and embroidered garments

(known as  paridhan and  pesas respectively) and thus highlights the development of sophisticated garment manufacturing techniques during the Vedic age. In 5th century BC,

Greek historian Herodotus describes the richness of the quality of Indian cotton clothes.

By 2nd century AD, muslims manufactured in southern India were imported by the

Roman Empire and silk cloth was one of the major exports of ancient India along withIndian spices. Stitched clothing in India was developed before 10th century AD and was

further popularized in 15th century by Muslim empires in India. Draped clothing styles

remained popular with India's Hindu population while the Muslims increasingly adoptedtailored garments.

During the British Raj, India's large clothing and handicrafts industry was left

  paralyzed so as to make place for British industrial cloth. Consequently, Indian

independence movement leader Mahatma Gandhi successfully advocated for what hetermed as khadi clothing  — light colored hand-woven clothes — so as to decrease

reliance of the Indian people on British industrial goods. The 1980s was marked by a

widespread modification to Indian clothing fashions which was characterized by a large-scale growth of fashion schools in India, increasing involvement of women in the fashion

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industry and changing Indian attitudes towards multiculturalism. These developments

 played a pivotal role in the fusion of Indian and Western clothing styles.

10) LANGUAGES & LITERATURE:

With its oldest core dating back to as early as 1500 BC, the Rigvedic Sanskrit isone of the oldest attestations of any Indo-Iranian language, and one of the earliest attested

members of the Indo-European language family, the family which includes English and

most European languages. Sanskrit has had a profound impact on the languages andliterature of India. Hindi, India's most spoken language, is a "Sanskritized register" of the

Khariboli dialect. In addition, all modern Indo-Aryan languages, Munda languages and

Dravidian languages, have borrowed many words either directly from Sanskrit (tatsama 

words), or indirectly via middle Indo-Aryan languages (tadbhava words). Wordsoriginating in Sanskrit are estimated to constitute roughly fifty percent of the vocabulary

of modern Indo-Aryan languages, and the literary forms of (Dravidian) Telugu,

Malayalam and Kannada. Part of the Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, the Bengali 

language arose from the eastern Middle Indic languages and its roots are traced to the 5thcentury BC Ardhamagadhi language.

Tamil, one of India's major classical languages, descends from Proto-Dravidian 

languages which was spoken around the third millennium BC in peninsular India. Tamil literature has existed for over two thousand yearsand the earliest epigraphic records found

date from around the third century BC. Another major Dravidian language, Kannada is

attested epigraphically from the mid-1st millennium AD, and literary Old Kannada flourished in the 9th to 10th century Rashtrakuta Dynasty. Pre-old Kannada (or  Purava

 HaleGannada) was the language of Banavasi in the early Common Era, the Satavahana 

and Kadamba periods and hence has a history of over 2000 years. The Ashoka rock edict 

found at Brahmagiri (dated to 230 BC) has been suggested to contain a word inidentifiable Kannada.

According to 2001 India census, Hindi is the most spoken language in India,

followed by Bengali, Telugu, Marathi and Tamil. In contemporary Indian literature, thereare two major literary awards; these are the Sahitya Akademi Fellowship and the Jnanpith 

Award. Seven Jnanpith awards each have been awarded in Tamil, Kannada, six in Hindi,

five in Bengali, four in Malayalam, three each in Marathi, Gujarati, Urdu and Oriya.

11) EPICS:

The Rāmāyaṇ

a and the Mahābhārata are the oldest preserved and well-knownepics of India. Versions have been adopted as the epics of Southeast Asian countries

like Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. The Ramayana consists of 24,000 verses in

seven books (kāṇḍ as) and 500 cantos ( sargas), and tells the story of Rama (an

incarnation of the Hindu preserver-god Vishnu), whose wife Sita is abducted by the

demon king of Lanka, Ravana. This epic played a pivotal role in establishing the roleof dhárma as a principal ideal guiding force for Hindu way of life. The earliest parts

of the Mahabharata text date to 400 BC  and is estimated to have reached its final form

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 by the early Gupta period (ca. 4th c. AD). Other regional variations of these, as well

as unrelated epics include the Tamil Ramavataram, Kannada  Pampa Bharata, Hindi Ramacharitamanasa, and Malayalam  Adhyathmaramayanam. In addition to thesetwo great Indian epics, there are five major epics in the classical Tamil language — 

Silappatikaram, Manimekalai, Civaka-cintamani, Valayapathi and  Kundalakesi.

12) DANCE:

Indian dance too has diverse  folk  and classical  forms. Among the well-knownfolk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of  Jharkhand 

and Orissa, the ghoomar of Rajasthan, the dandiya and garba of Gujarat, the Yakshagana 

of Karnataka and lavani of Maharashtra and  Dekhnni of Goa. Eight dance forms, many

with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's   National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are:bharatanatyam of the state of  Tamil Nadu, kathak   of  Uttar Pradesh, kathakali  andmohiniattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur , odissi of the

state of Odisha and the sattriya of Assam. 

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STRENGTHS OF INDIAN CULTURE:

The strengths of indian culture can be grouped under three cognitive values-universalism, ambiguity tolerance and self- restraint.

1) Universalism: The first cluster included four strenghts:• Universalism (Love and respect for all forms of life and for ecology).

• Extension motivation (involvement in large goals).

• Respect for learning and intellectual pursuits, and

• Openness to learning from others.

2) Ambiguity Tolerance: The second cluster has three strenghts:

• Context sensitivity (High ambiguity tolerance).

• Diversity (Leading to synergic pluralism) and

• Androgyny (equal emphasis on and integration of cognitive and emotionalaspects).

3) Self- Restraint: The third cluster includes three strenghts:

• Self- restraint (willingness to postpone gratification of immediate needs for 

long- term goals)

•

Role- boundness (giving more importance to the role than to the self) and• Equanimity (steering between two extremes and not being swayed by extreme

emotions of joy sorrow).

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WEAKNESSES OF INDIAN CULTURE:

The weaknesses of indian culture can be grouped into three clusters- narcissism, power concentration and attributional thinking.

1) Narcissism: Narcissism is reflected both in self- seeking behavior as well as in aninward- looking tendency in this cluster are included five weaknesses:

• In-group infatuation (concern for the self, i.e. self- seeking or confinement of interest to the family or kin),

• Unreality orientation (orientation towards fantasy or substitutes of reality),

•   Non- involvement (attitude of indifference and reluctance to engage inconfrontation).

• Lack of detailed planning, and

• An oral culture (resulting in low reading and writing skills).

2) Power Concentration: The second cluster, what Hofstede calls power distance, has

four characteristics:

• Hierarchical Orientation,

• Critical orientation (excessive use of sacntions and donts, rather than the useof reinforcement and encouragement),

•  Non- confrontation, and

• A non- work culture.

3) Attributional Thinking: The third cluster of attributional thinking has two

characteristics:

• Fatalism (resulting in deadening efficiency in maintaining the status quo) and

• Pessimism- rumination (expecting failures and misfortunes, and indulging inrecollecting and mulling over bad experiences).

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IMPACT OF NATIONAL CULTURE ON BEHAVIOR WITHIN

ORGANIZATION:

Culture and organizational behavior were not always two topics that were

considered side by side of one another. In fact, this concept which may seem common

 place, and even common sense now, first gathered steam only a little over twenty years

ago. In the 1980s, there was a large push in the area of theory to pay attention to

organizational culture as an important factor in individual organizational success.

Many experts started arguing that developing a strong organizational culture was

essential for maximum success. Most people agree that a solid connection is there,

although there remains some degree of argument as to how influential it really is.

The behavior found within a successful organization will in part be due to, and

continually nourished by, a healthy organizational culture. It's extremely important to

know what type of behavior culture has the greatest impact and how culture works to

control the behavior of members of that particular organization. The culture will affect

the organization, just as the opposite is true. Behavior is a learned habit, and the process

of socialization that teaches new employees the habits of those workers already there is

one of the major parts of organizational culture.

The behavior of individuals within a culture will depend greatly on the behavior 

that is encouraged by the higher ups, and by the general organizational culture that any

corporate entity has.

There are always decisions that have to be made about a business that leans the

culture, and therefore the behavior of the employees there, one direction of the other 

(though most fall somewhere in the middle). The following are some examples of the

different conflicting emphasis that can clash with each other in determining the behavior 

of the employees.

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• Social Focus vs. Task Focus.:

The emphasis here determines whether decisions are made on the condition of 

improving relationships as the bottom line, or if having the assigned tasks finished is

most important.

• Individual vs. Team:

This is pretty self explanatory. Do you encourage team players, or do you only need

individual cogs to do their part?

These are only a few of the factors of organizational culture that affect

organizational behavior and vice versa. The two influence each other, and often times theculture will help to dictate the behavior, and the behavior will come back around to

reinforce the organizational culture. The relationship between culture and organizational

 behavior is undeniable. To the benefit of some, but to the detriment of others.

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IMPACT OF CULTURE ON INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL

BEHAVIOR:

  The international context of organizational behavior is becoming increasingly

significant as organizations expand beyond their national boundaries. Managers of multinational firms have to manage a variety of social, political and economic

environments as well as unique individual differences. The differences at the level of the

individual include individualism/collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and

masculinity/femininity, which are different in different countries.

Managers need to be sensitive to cultural differences across different countries to

achieve their goals in the global economy. The various aspects that differentiate cultures

are people's perceptions, their relationship with their environment, the time dimension,

and the importance attached to public and private space. Differences between countries in

these cultural aspects affect the way business can be conducted across the globe.

Employees who travel to a foreign country for work find it difficult to adapt to the new

culture because of factors like parochialism, ethnocentrism and culture shock. Although

culture shock acts as a potential barrier to globalization, it can be overcome through

careful selection, training and assistance for employees on foreign assignments.

Managerial leadership is the process of influencing others to direct their efforts

towards the achievement of specific goals. There are many factors that influence the way

in which managers lead their employees. Some of these factors include personal values,

interpersonal skills, background and the decision-making skills of the manager. In some

countries, the emphasis on production rather than productivity becomes a barrier to the

improvement of the performance of the organization. It is not possible to transfer 

 business practices directly from one country to the other. It is also not possible to use

either the home country practices or the traditional practices of the host country. In such a

situation, the best approach for expatriate managers would be to operate within the scope

of home office policies, after adapting them to fit the culture of the host nation. Theory Z

is an example of an organizational approach that integrates American and Japanese

management.

The traditional and conservative approach to leadership cannot be used for 

organizations with a global presence. Globally competent managers have a good

understanding of the worldwide business environment from a global perspective and try

to learn about various cultures in order to carry out business operations in different

countries successfully

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DIMENSION OF NATIONAL CULTURE:1) Hofstede’s Power distance Index:

Measures the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and

institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. This

represents inequality (more versus less), but defined from below, not from above. Itsuggests that a society’s level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by

the leaders. 

For example, Germany has a 35 on the cultural scale of Hofstede’s analysis.

Compared to Arab countries where the power distance is very high (80) and Austriawhere it very low (11), Germany is somewhat in the middle. Germany does not have a

large gap between the wealthy and the poor, but have a strong belief in equality for each

citizen. Germans have the opportunity to rise in society.On the other hand, the power distance in the United States scores a 40 on the cultural

scale. The United States exhibits a more unequal distribution of wealth compared to

German society. As the years go by it seems that the distance between the ‘have’ and‘have-nots’ grows larger and larger.

2) Individualism/ Collective Index:

Individualism is the one side versus its opposite, collectivism,

that is the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups. On the individualistside we find societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is

expected to look after him/herself and his/her immediate family. On the collectivist side,

we find societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive

in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) which continue

 protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. 

For example, Germany can be considered as individualistic with a relatively highscore (67) on the scale of Hofstede compared to a country like Guatemala where they

have strong collectivism (6 on the scale).

In Germany people stress on personal achievements and individual rights.

Germans expect from each other to fulfil their own needs. Group work is important, but

everybody has the right of his own opinion an is expected to reflect those. In an

individual country like Germany people tend to have more loose relationships thancountries where there is a collectivism where people have large extended families.

3) Masculinity/ Femininity Index:

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Masculinity versus its opposite, femininity refers to the distribution of roles

 between the genders which is another fundamental issue for any society to which a rangeof solutions are found. The IBM studies revealed that (a) women’s values differ less

among societies than men’s values; (b) men’s values from one country to another contain

a dimension from very assertive and competitive and maximally different from women’svalues on the one side, to modest and caring and similar to women’s values on the other.

The assertive pole has been called ‘masculine’ and the modest, caring pole ‘feminine’.

For example, Germany has a masculine culture with a 66 on the scale of Hofstede(Netherlands 14). Masculine traits include assertiveness, materialism/material success,

self-centeredness, power, strength, and individual achievements. The United States

scored a 62 on Hofstede’s scale. So these two cultures share, in terms of masculinity,

similar values.

4) Uncertainty Avoidance Index:

Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man’s search for Truth. It indicates to

what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable

in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and

different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of suchsituations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical

and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; ‘there can only be one Truth and we

have it’.For example, in Germany there is a reasonable high uncertainty avoidance (65) compared

to countries as Singapore (8) and neighbouring country Denmark (23). Germans are not

to keen on uncertainty, by planning everything carefully they try to avoid the uncertainty.In Germany there is a society that relies on rules, laws and regulations. Germany wants to

reduce its risks to the minimum and proceed with changes step by step.

The United States scores a 46 compared to the 65 of the German culture. Uncertainty

avoidance in the US is relatively low, which can clearly be viewed through the nationalcultures.

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CULTURAL DIFFERENCES ACROSS NATION:

1) Small vs. large power distance:

How much the less powerful members of institutions and organizationsexpect and accept that power is distributed unequally. In cultures with small

 power distance (e.g. Australia, Austria, Denmark , Ireland, Israel, New Zealand),  people expect and accept power relations that are more consultative or 

democratic. People relate to one another more as equals regardless of formal

  positions. Subordinates are more comfortable with and demand the right tocontribute to and critique the decisions of those in power. In cultures with large

 power distance (e.g. Malaysia), the less powerful accept power relations that are

autocratic or paternalistic. Subordinates acknowledge the power of others basedon their formal, hierarchical positions. Thus, Small vs. Large Power Distance

does not measure or attempt to measure a culture's objective, "real" power 

distribution, but rather the way people perceive power differences.

2) Individualism vs. collectivism :

How much members of the culture define themselves apart from their group memberships. In individualist cultures, people are expected to develop and

display their individual personalities and to choose their own affiliations. In

collectivist cultures, people are defined and act mostly as a member of a long-term group, such as the family, a religious group, an age cohort, a town, or a

  profession, among others. This dimension was found to move towards the

individualist end of the spectrum with increasing national wealth.

3) Masculinity vs. femininity :

The value placed on traditionally male or female values (as understood in

most Western cultures). In so-called 'masculine' cultures, people (whether male or 

female) value competitiveness, assertiveness, ambition, and the accumulation of 

wealth and material possessions. In so-called 'feminine' cultures, people (againwhether male or female) value relationships and quality of life. This dimension

is often renamed by users of Hofstede's work, e.g. to Quantity of Life vs. Quality

of Life. Another reading of the same dimension holds that in 'M' cultures, thedifferences between gender roles are more dramatic and less fluid than in 'F'

cultures; but this strongly depends on other dimensions as well.

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Criticism of the Framework :

Hofstede's conceptualization of culture as static and essential has attracted some

criticism. In a recent article in the Academy of Management's flagship journal, TheAcademy of Management Review, Galit Ailon deconstructs Hofstede's book Culture's

Consequences by mirroring it against its own assumptions and logic[3]

. Ailon findsseveral inconsistencies at the level of both theory and methodology and cautions against

an uncritical reading of Hofstede's cultural dimensions.

Hofstede's work has also been criticized by researchers who think that he

identifies cultures with nations based on the supposition that within each nation there is a

uniform national culture, a suggestion explicitly denied by Hofstede himself in chapter 1of 'Cultures and Organizations'. According to Hofstede, the point about culture is

 precisely its resilience to change in spite of all this flux.

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LEVERAGING CULTURAL CHARACTERISTIC FOR 

GREATER EFFECTIVENESS:

As we can see, the unique 'behavior' of an organization can be attributed to the

makeup of the values that it espouses - the organizational culture. Let us understand the

 primary characteristics of organizational culture that help shape up the organization's'personality'.

These are very general characteristics that every organization would have to look into, otherwise the culture would seem incomplete. Although all these characteristics are

at some level a part of every company, the importance and individual interpretation of 

each differs from business to business, thus making each business unique in its own way.

There are 7 primary characteristics of organizational culture. They are listed below.

1. Innovation and Risk Taking:

Risk and returns go hand in hand. Places where you take a risk (calculated risk of course!), the chances of returns are higher. Same goes for innovation. You could

either be a follower or a pioneer. Pioneering has its share of risks, but at times it canalso have a breakthrough outcome for the organization. Thus, innovation and risk 

taking is one of the main characteristics of organizational culture defining how much

room the business allows for innovation.

2. Attention to Detail:

Attention to detail defines how much importance a company allots to precisionand detail in the workplace. This is also a universal value as the degree of attention

the employees are expected to give is crucial to the success of any business. Themanagement defines the degree of attention to be given to details.

3. Outcome Orientation:

Some organizations pay more attention to results rather than processes. It is really

the business model of each business that defines whether the focus should be on the

outcome or the processes. This defines the outcome orientation of the business.

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4. People Orientation:

This is still one of the most contentious issues in organizational culture today.

How much should be the management focus on the people? Some organizations arefamous for being employee oriented as they focus more on creating a better work 

environment for its 'associates' to work in. Others still are feudal in nature, treatingemployees no better than work-machines.

5. Team Orientation:

It is a well established fact today that synergistic teams help give better results ascompared to individual efforts. Each organization makes its efforts to create teams

that will have complimentary skills and will effectively work together.

6. Aggressiveness:

Every organization also lays down the level of aggressiveness with which their employees work. Some businesses like Microsoft are known for their aggression and

market dominating strategies.

7. Stability:

While some organizations believe that constant change and innovation is the key

to their growth, others are more focused on making themselves and their operationsstable. The managements of these organizations are looking at ensuring stability of 

the company rather than looking at indiscriminate growth.

Just like having a strong personality adds character to a person, organizationalculture does give a business its own special identity. It helps create cohesion among theemployees as they share the primary characteristics of organizational culture and imbibes

in them the spirit of team work .

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CHANGES OCCURRING IN THE CONTEXT AND THEIR 

IMPACT ON ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOR:

The social and technological changes, knowledge explosion, product and serviceobsolescence and globalization have immense effects on organizations. Based on asystematic analytic of past and current events, Naisbitt predicts the following

‘Megatrends’ which appear relevant to the study of OB.

1. Conversion of an industrial society into a society based on knowledge

and information.2. High level of diversity among people, groups, instruments and

geographic locations.

3. Decentralization of business, government, political and social

institutions.

4. Reduced dependence on institutions and movement towards old-fashioned self-reliance.

5. Replacement of the traditional ‘top-down’ sorporate authority systemwith the innovative ‘bottom-up’ system, having built-in mechanisms

for employee participation.

6. Acceptance of computers as liberators rather than as tyrants and slavedrivers.

7. Reliance on personal contacts and human relationships, with increasing

exposures to high technology, i.e. accomplishment of a balance between technology and human contacts.

Based on the above ‘Megatrends’, Luthans identifies at least six specific trendsrelevant to the fields of OB:

1. Declining Productivity and the Japanese Threat:

The challenge is to reverse declining trends; ensuing better interplay betweenmanagement approches and techniques nad employees.

2. Revolution in Middle Management :

A big cut in the middle management carde; restructuring and redefining the roles

of those are left out; emphasis on knowledge and skills of people in manufacturingand marketing.

3. Computerized Offices and Factories:

The use of personal computers; revolution in the way organizations are structured

and the way the managers’ function.

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