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National Board Certified Physical EducatorsAmelia Mays Woods a & Jesse Lee Rhoades ba Department of Kinesiology and Community Health , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaignb Department of Physical Education, Exercise Science and Wellness , University of North DakotaPublished online: 23 Jan 2013.

To cite this article: Amelia Mays Woods & Jesse Lee Rhoades (2012) National Board Certified Physical Educators, Research Quarterly forExercise and Sport, 83:2, 235-244, DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2012.10599854

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Key words: advanced certification, teachers, workplace conditions

The National Board for Professional Teaching Stan-dards (NBPTS) voluntarily certifies experienced

teachers in over 25 fields. State licensing systems within the U.S. set basic requirements for teachers; however, the NBPTS provides teachers the opportunity to demonstrate advanced practice. Similar to board-certified doctors, architects, and accountants, National Board Certified Teachers (NBCTs) have met rigorous standards through intensive study, expert evaluation, self-assessment, and peer review. The NBPTS’s five core propositions are designed to identify and recognize teachers who (a) are committed to students and their learning, (b) know the subjects they teach and how to teach those subjects to students, (c) are responsible for managing and monitor-

ing student learning, (d) think systematically about their practice and learn from experience, and (e) are members of learning communities.

The typical candidate spends approximately 400 hr completing the required exercises in over one to three years (Hakel, Koenig, & Elliott, 2008). The assessment process includes an evaluation of the candidate’s teach-ing through four portfolio entries, two of which are vid-eorecorded. These portfolio entries must illustrate that the candidate teacher knows and uses the standards set forth by the NBPTS (2008b). Knowledge of content and appropriate pedagogy is also assessed through a timed test at a designated Assessment Center. Approximately half the teachers who attempt National Board Certification (NBC) achieve their goals (NBPTS, 2008a). In 2001, more than a decade after its inception, the NBPTS published standards for physical education (NBPTS, 2009). To date approximately 1,250 physical educators have gained NBC.

Copious research has examined the impact of the NBC process on teaching practices (e.g., Bond, Smith, Baker, & Hattie, 2000). Much of this research has focused on the relationship between NBC and student outcomes and can be examined in two ways. Completion of the cer-tification process may indicate preexisting teaching effec-tiveness, or the process of becoming board certified may increase the teacher’s effectiveness (Hake et al., 2008).

National Board Certified Physical Educators: Perceived Changes Related to the Certification Process

Amelia Mays Woods and Jesse Lee Rhoades

Submitted: August 26, 2010 Accepted: March 11, 2011 Amelia Mays Woods is with the Department of Kinesiology and Community Health at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Jesse Lee Rhoades is with the Department of Physical Education, Exercise Science and Wellness at the University of North Dakota.

In this study, we examined National Board certified physical education teachers’ (NBCPETs) perceptions of change as a result of certification. Randomly selected NBCPETs (65; women = 53, men = 12) were interviewed. Analysis was done through the lens of Lawson’s (1989) Model of the Interactive Factors Influencing Workplace Conditions for the Physical Education Teacher. Several themes connected to teachers’ views of themselves as NBCPETs surfaced. In particular, more teaching reflection and a greater focus on student learning and assessment, including an increased emphasis on individualizing teaching were described. An elevation in their perceived status and credibility and expanded opportunities within the educational community also emerged. Alternatively, several NBCPETs explained that the certification process had little or no effect on their teaching.

Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport©2012 by the American Alliance for Health,Physical Education, Recreation and DanceVol. 83, No. 2, pp. 235–244

Pedagogy

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Clearly, these differentiations are difficult to tease out. A litany of reports and papers suggest that National Board certified teachers (NBCTs) have an impact on student learning and demonstrate greater teaching effectiveness than their noncertified counterparts (Cantrell, Fullerton, Kane, & Staiger, 2007; Cavalluzzo, 2004; Goldhaber & Anthony, 2005; Harris & Sass, 2007). Other research, how-ever, shows fewer differences in NBCT status and student achievement (McColskey et al., 2005; Sanders, Ashton, & Wright, 2005). Due to small sample sizes, selection bias, attrition, and other methodological problems, much re-search has been difficult to interpret (Hakel et al., 2008).

With the abundant research on NBCTs in the general education realm, it is surprising that only two investiga-tions of National Board certified physical education teachers’ (NBCPETs) have been published (Phillips, 2008; Woods & Rhoades, 2010). Phillips (2008) compared mean differences between high school NBCPETs’ and non-NBCPETs’ scores on the South Carolina Physical Education Assessment Program (SCPEAP) as measures of student competency. Benchmarks for state standards are measured through SCPEAP, and student achievement data determine program effectiveness. Four distinct per-formance indicators include motor skill performance, cognitive fitness knowledge, outside-of-class participation, and health-related fitness levels. The percentage of stu-dent competency for each teacher was analyzed for each performance indicator and an overall measure. NBCPETs performed higher (but not significantly) on all indicators and on the overall measure of student competency.

Woods and Rhoades (2010) examined NBCPETs’ demographic characteristics, subjective warrants for en-trance into the profession, and reasons for seeking the advanced certification. Findings indicated that NBCPETs are predominantly female (79%), Caucasian (78.9%), and hold master’s degrees (71.1%); just over half (55.1%) work in the elementary setting. The mean age is 45 years, and these teachers have about 20 years of teaching experi-ence. Themes related to subjective warrants included ca-reer pursuit because of a joy of working with and helping children; continued association with sport and physical activity; motivation to coach; and enjoyment of physical activity. The most frequent reasons for pursuing NBC were financial incentives, an attempt to meet the challenge, and desire to develop professionally

No doubt, the pursuit of NBC is a substantial under-taking. Because of test fees ($2,565, of which $500 is a nonrefundable initial fee), time obligation, the necessity to gain administrative, collegial, and parental support, and the risk of embarrassment through failure to certify, one might wonder why teachers voluntarily seek certifica-tion. Predictably, monetary incentives offered at state and district levels are motivational. While some states offer no monetary rewards, in North Carolina, as a case in point, all fees are paid by the state and certified teachers receive

a 12% pay increase for the full 10 years of the certificate. Participation rates are related to state incentives, reflected by the highest participation in states with the greatest financial rewards (Hakel et al., 2008).

Teacher Change

Traditionally, teacher change has been directly con-nected with planned professional development activities (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002). Guskey (2003) noted that nearly every educational reform initiative that seeks to improve student learning is accompanied by teacher professional development programs. Promoting teacher change may be difficult, because individuals who enter the teaching field tend to be rather conservative or cautious and are often resistant to change (Lortie, 2002). Even the more open-minded individuals find that real change involves loss, anxiety, and struggle (Marris, 1975). Educa-tional change is not a single entity but is multidimensional. Fullan (2001) reported at least three dimensions involved in implementing a new policy or program: the possible (a) use of new or revised materials including curricular materials or technologies, (b) use of new teaching ap-proaches, and (c) alteration of beliefs. All three compo-nents are needed to achieve specific educational goals; in fact, Fullan (2001) asserted that all successful educational innovations involve substantial changes with regard to the three dimensions.

Changes in physical educators’ professional practice have been investigated by a number of scholars (Bechtel & O’Sullivan, 2007; Cothran, 2001). Cothran examined teachers who had successfully integrated new curricula into their programs. Three common characteristics of their success were teacher reflection, power of students, and solicitation of external resources. First, she contended that reflection functions as a method of value clarifica-tion in which teachers reflect on desired instructional outcomes. Second, students had a powerful effect on the ability of successful change in practices. One of the most prevalent motivators for continuing changes in practice was student achievement. Although changes to practice are difficult to implement, many teachers instituted these changes because of “payoff in student reward.” Third, these teachers sought external resources beyond the con-fines of their own classrooms benefiting from continuous and ongoing support from others.

Bechtel and O’Sullivan (2007) used an interpretivist approach to better understand the enhancers and inhibi-tors to teacher change in four secondary physical educa-tors. Results demonstrated that teachers’ enthusiasm and willingness to try innovative practice and maintain change as well as their recognition of colleagues, principals, and students’ contributions to sustain change, stems from their beliefs. All teachers deserve professional development op-portunities to help improve their teaching and programs.

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One such program designed to improve teaching through professional development opportunities is NBC, where research findings regarding professional develop-ment in general education reinforce many of the elements recommended by the NBPTS (Hakel et al., 2008). Anec-dotal reports and surveys suggest that NBCPET certifica-tion does provide outstanding professional development (Childers-Burpo, 2002; Coskie & Place, 2008). Although the impact may vary, the process can have a positive impact on teachers’ practice over time (Coskie & Place, 2008).

Theoretical Framework

Schools are the workplaces of teachers, and Lawson (1989) contends that “the work of, and work conditions for, physical educators affect their careers, personal lives, and their students’ experiences in physical education” (p. 146). As such, Lawson conceptualized the Interac-tive Factors Influencing Workplace Conditions for the Physical Education Teacher through which he asserted that workplace conditions for physical educators include personal-social factors (students, teachers), situational factors (curriculum, occupational communities, student subcultures), organizational factors (resource allocation systems, goal systems, prestige and reward systems, super-visory and control systems), and political and economic factors (national and state requirements for physical education and physical education teachers, community expectations and demands, allocated resources). All fac-tors ultimately influence interactions between and among students and teachers.

Lawson pointed to three features of his framework. First, the categories interact with each other within and across the categories. Second, specific influences and their original categories may be used to examine both organiza-tional socialization and organizational culture. Third, not only can the influences “shape and change the orientation and actions of physical education teachers, so too can teachers act upon and shape these influences” (p. 154).

A better understanding of NBCPETs’ perceptions of the certification process and their experiences as NBC teachers could influence school policy related to profes-sional development. Such findings may encourage others to pursue NBC. This study explores the following ques-tion: What are NBCPET’s perceptions of their change as a result of the certification process?

Method

Participants and Procedures

Participants in this study were 65 randomly selected NBCPETs. We selected this subset from among the 334 participants who completed quantitative questionnaires

related to their NBC experiences (Woods & Rhoades, 2010). These NBCPETs were certified by 2008 and were traced through a directory on the NBPTS’ website.

Data Collection

On agreement to participate, the NBCPETs com-pleted an assent form. To gather rich and detailed infor-mation, respondents (N = 65; women = 53, men = 12) participated in telephone interviews. We interviewed each teacher individually and used standardized open-ended interview questions, based on an interview guide (Patton, 2002). We asked the same 27 questions of all teachers based on six topical areas related to the NBCPETs’ (a) perceptions and effects of the certification process, (b) individual dispositions, (c) motivations, (d) work environ-ments, (e) professional activities, and (f) career cycles. Using Patton’s (2002) suggestions on interview style and structure, we developed questions in each topical area to assess participants’ perceptions and opinions about themselves, the NBC process, and its ultimate effect. We asked each teacher additional questions based on her or his response to the previous questions. Teachers were as-sured of anonymity, and we assigned a pseudonym to each teacher. Interviews lasted approximately 45 min and were tape-recorded and later transcribed verbatim for analysis.

Data Analysis and Trustworthiness

Data analysis of interviews was continuous and fol-lowed procedures recommended by Miles and Huberman (1984). We first used an inductive approach to analyze and compare answers from formal interviews without regard to a theoretical orientation. Subsequently, we analyzed interviews deductively using Lawson’s Interac-tive Factors Influencing Workplace Conditions for the Physical Education Teacher (1989) model. Preliminary themes emerged by comparing participant responses on individual questions in relation to the selected theories. Additional themes evolved through constant comparison (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

Trustworthiness of the research was established through multiple techniques to enhance credibility, transferability, dependability, and conformability. Specifi-cally, we conducted member checks with approximately 25% of the participants who were directly quoted in the manuscript, and they suggested no changes. We estab-lished an audit trail specifying the steps involved in the methodological procedures followed in the study. In addition, we used negative case analysis by searching for and subsequently reanalyzing any disconfirming data. We also worked as a team and met weekly to discuss the data. As is the case in all qualitative research, the results here may be transferable to other settings that have similar characteristics (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

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Results

Several factors connected to teachers’ views of them-selves as NBCPETs surfaced as they described perceived differences as a result of the certification process. Here, each NBCPET was asked (a) if she or he was different from before gaining certification and (b) to provide details for his or her answer. In particular, they described more teaching reflection and a greater focus on student learning and assessment, including an increased emphasis on individualizing teaching. An elevation in perceived status and credibility and expanded opportunities within the educational community also emerged as noteworthy outcomes of the NBC process. Alternatively, several NBC-PETs explained that the certification process had little or no effect on their teaching.

Changes in Reflection

Teacher reflection is a cornerstone of the NBPTS vi-sion of accomplished teaching (Hakel et al., 2008). These core propositions are designed to identify and recognize teachers who think systematically about their practice and learn from experience. Thus, it is not surprising that most (60%) NBCPETs mentioned changes in teaching reflec-tion as a result of the certification process. According to Hannah Britt, “The National Board process in essence forces you to reflect on every aspect of why you teach things, and when you teach them, and how you teach them.” Donna Lietz said that becoming Board Certified gave her “different parameters to reflect on so instead of just reflecting on [her] my teaching.” Particularly notable were reflection foci, ranging from the ultimate purpose of the profession, to curricular reflection, to specific teaching strategies and various aspects of individual lessons. Mari-anna Boughton gave an example of critical reflection on the broad-based purposes of physical education:

I began to understand the big picture of what [physical education] is all about. When I decided I was going to do this [certification], I really got into the books that I had bought through the years. George Graham and all those textbooks.... And I read the forwards and prefaces and I reread all those things and got the big picture, the whole scope of the elementary PE, and lifelong wellness, and teaching skills, and creating positive attitudes, and kids.

Similarly, Laura Sommers said that, “Reflecting over ‘why’ is one of the things that changed [me] the most.” The re-flection questions she used regularly were: “Okay, why am I doing this? Is this something that is going to be beneficial to my students? Is it something that is going to help the

students understand and learn more efficiently?” Fern Norton noted similar changes in reflective capabilities, “First I question why I am doing what I am doing” and then on “a broader scale too.” She began to consider curricular issues such as “changing units, adding units, subtracting units, being open to new ideas, and etc.” Teaching with a purpose was a new emphasis for these NBCPETs.

Belinda Roberts pointed to “more thought put into lessons,” detailing that, “There’s more critical thinking in how you take your children from point A, not just to point B, but to C, D, and E. How do you bring them through the levels of learning?” Changes in reflection made Kirk Jansen broaden the focus of his reflection as he began to feel the need to focus on “every single thing” related to his teaching. This ranged from “every minute detail of a lesson,” to the “warm-up and daily procedures and routines” to the “total educational experience of the student.” These sentiments are clear examples of NBCPETs’ notion of reflection which they define as the act of regularly contemplating the effects of the teacher’s actions and initiatives on student learning. This focus on student learning as an outcome of reflection also surfaced in results reported in the next section.

Focus on Student Learning

NBPT’s core proposition is that teachers should be com- mitted to students and their learning. Evidence of student learning is a required component in NBPTS portfolios wherein teachers must document their students’ learning outcomes as a result of teaching initiatives. Over half the NBCPETs in the current study addressed the newfound or renewed emphasis on student learning as a result of NBC.

Hilary Petra explained teaching for learning as, “I think more clearly about what is it that I want kids to learn and not necessarily just what I want them to do.” Emphasizing student learning was a new program hallmark, she said, “So I was a lot more specific about what I was planning and focused on students learning as opposed to making sure I had plans for the children to do.” Likewise, according to Brenda Senn, “I think I look into student learning. I used to concentrate before on my delivery and curriculum. But it really makes you look into students and the impact and what they are learning.” The impact of NBCPETs’ emphasizing student learning as opposed to simply keeping students busy was a strong theme. Koppich, Humphrey, and Hough (2006) had similar findings, wherein the NBC candidates they studied recognized student learning as the top motive for pursu-ing certification.

At the core of many NBCPETs’ discussions was the influence of evaluating student learning. Ann Johnson, for example, acknowledged that her assessment was “much better.” She gave details of her reflections prior to certifi-cation as, “I only focused on what I wanted to teach them

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or teaching to the standards. I worry now more about the students learning processes.” Alyse Dupree explained, “Because you do a whole [portfolio] entry on assessing, I think about how to assess the kids and the best way to find out if they’ve actually understood and learned.” This focus on student learning is logically associated with a concern for appropriate assessment measures that enlighten the NBCPETs effect on their instructional success.

Approximately one third (32%) of the NBCPETs described ways the process shaped their focus on indi-vidual students within the class as opposed to “seeing a sea of students.” Sample comments included, “I really saw them more individually rather than a group;” “I am more focused on individual advancement…where they are and what they come in the classroom with.” More specifically, Charlene Elin described a new respect for student’s “indi-viduality, diversity, religion, and everything.” Hilary Petra claimed to be better at teaching to all of the students in the class and, “addressing individual differences especially related to special needs children.” Clearly, the significance of attending to pupils’ individual differences was an out-come of the NBC process for these teachers.

Elevated Status and Enhanced Credibility

Armour and Jones (1998, p. 14) noted that among the teachers they studied, “[t]he message from the com-munity and the school culture appeared to be, time and time again, that physical education is not education.” With a similar premise, Kirk (1988) and Kirk and Tinning (1990) reported that physical education was perceived as a noncognitive activity and was even considered coun-terproductive to cognitive development. Many physical educators in the current study, however, said they felt less marginalized and described how gaining NBC elevated their status within their work environments and communi-ties. Also, because of this certification Angela Thorp said, “I’m more confident in knowing that I am of high caliber and noticed as someone who is at the top of the food chain not a bottom feeder for sure.” Two further emergent themes related to an increase in status and credibility and an expansion of professional opportunities.

When asked if and how they viewed themselves dif-ferently as a result of the certification process, 30% of NBCPETs pointed to a resulting elevated professional status and enhanced credibility. They frequently identified perceptions of increased respect from community mem-bers, administrators, and colleagues. At the community level, for example, after notice of her certification was published in the newspaper, Patrice Price explained that she felt like a “celebrity,” who had “people coming up to [her] in the grocery store” with congratulations on her accomplishment. The increased attention was startling, because she did not normally receive “recognition” within her community. Harper Jenkins spoke of the newfound perception of respect, “It helped me in terms of my col-

leagues and my administrators and even our central office personnel in terms of they will seek out my advice for opin-ions.” Paradoxically, Hanna Britt said, “I really had to set boundaries, because suddenly I was asked to do everything in my district.” Another NBCPET said that she felt that people took “a little more stock in what you say when you have an initial after your name. So it helps. It’s like, ‘Well who are you,” and I can say, ‘well I’m a National Board Certified Physical Educator’.” The professional elevation seemed to be well received by the NBCPETs.

After gaining certification, Belinda Roberts claimed her “administrators held her in high esteem” and felt that certification “carried a lot of weight” in an interview for a new teaching position which she accepted. Hannah Britt summarized the overall respect from her principal as a result of NBC, “I don’t know what it is about that piece of paper, but administrators will listen.” Another spoke of her status, “I’ve seen that administrators came to value what I have to say more, because they know that I’m a National Board Certified Teacher.” This positive regard from ad-ministrators, according to Butler and Mergardt (1994), is a critical factor in the success of physical education pro-grams. Likewise, Macdonald (1999) acknowledged that support from the school community and administration was related to job satisfaction and commitment among the physical educators she studied.

Loreen Ammons described increased standing of the area of physical education as a result of NBC:

Interestingly at school I think that it [certifica-tion] did lend some credibility to my subject area…by having a National Board Certified Teacher in that subject area, I think that it brings awareness of ways we can collaborate and now we really do share in the education of the children in the school.

Bonnie Vickers echoed this sentiment, “I think the overall effect in the building is that it enhances the respect for physical education.” This contrasts Stroot and Whipples’ (2003, p. 317) inclination that “[e]ducation specialists and the public rarely perceive physical education as a le-gitimate subject area.” Bonnie also revealed the individual esteem that she felt after she was certified:

It’s like, “Oh, she’s smart enough to do that.” It tends to be “just physical education,” they put you in a box…. Well, I actually read books outside of school. It’s that old P.E. teacher with a whistle. It’s the paradigm shift. And it’s like, “Whoa, you’re at our level, same with math and English people.” I say, “Yes, I’m right up there with you people.”

Similarly, Sunny Kingsmore noted that certification helped her feel she had “more respect from colleagues.”

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Another NBCPET said that non-NBCs “look at you a little differently, in a positive way. I think most of them admire you for doing it.” Other teachers explained that they had “more status,” were held in “higher esteem,” and were “more of a teacher-leader” within their schools. And for Teresa Williams, the initials after her name “helped level the playing field with other teachers” in her school. On a personal level, Don Jernigan said, “I really feel like I’m in a select group of teachers who have gone through the process.” Likewise, Katherine Clary injected, “I feel acknowledged and I feel good about what I did and what kind of teacher I am.” These positive views contrast with the literature citing perceptions of physical educators as insignificant characters within the school environment (O’Sullivan, 1989).

Expanded Opportunities

Enhanced professional growth and development was a theme discussed by 24 (37%) in relation to their experi-ence as NBCPETs. Expanding their professional networks through conference attendance and participation in pro-fessional organizations was noteworthy for some, as were opportunities to collaborate and mentor others. Candace Lathrop described a shift from participant to leader within professional associations at a state-level conference:

I’ve become much more professional. Before I got involved I didn’t know as many people at the state level. I would go to convention every year, but I never presented. I would just be a spectator. But since I’ve been National Board Certified I’ve presented every year.

Several other NBCPETS expressed pride as they made professional presentations at their state conferences. One presenter, a fifth-year teacher, attributed her height-ened professionalism to her newfound self-assurance, “I just think the confidence. [Certification] gave me confidence to do things that I wouldn’t have done.” For another NBCPET, a consequence of certification was the opportunity to attend a national convention for the first time. As she explained, “I got to go to AAHPERD because I got Board Certified, and I tried years before and they never let me go until I was certified.” The empowerment granted by certification allowed some recipients to reach other professional goals.

More Mentoring

From its inception the NBCPET was intended to produce teachers who endeavored to improve instruction in their schools and districts by sharing their expertise through formal and informal mentoring (Carnegie Task Force on Teaching as a Profession, 1986). Twenty-three NBCPETs spoke to this outcome. Bethany Savage reported

she was grateful for the help she received and reciprocated with “a certain sense of not obligation, but just certain willingness to help others.” A commitment to mentoring other educators, both preservice and inservice teachers, was noted as an outcome of their NBC. Katherine Clary said she was a more knowledgeable mentor to student interns and was especially effective in focusing interns’ reflection on teaching. Mentoring colleagues through the NBC process and promoting the certification was a fresh ambition of others.

A number of NBCPETs assumed the role of mentor-ing NBC candidates. “I try to help one of my guys get through it,” Barbara Dodgen said, “and next year work on the next guy. I consider myself a cheerleader for others…I just want to help others.” Bo Glentworth, as well, worked with five physical educators the year before, and planned to do the same in the coming year, as it was his “way of improving the profession, one teacher at a time.” Clearly, these teachers were committed to steering others professionally and believed they had valuable skills to share with others.

Not Impactful

Six of those interviewed revealed that the NBC had little or no impact on them as teachers. Wes Gilford explained, “I would honestly say that there is no differ-ence in me as a teacher before or after the certification.” David Sims noted that he was an effective teacher prior to becoming certified by the NBPTS. David largely credited his teaching effectiveness to his high quality professional education and the outstanding professors with whom he had collaborated over the years. He said, “Years and years before National Board existed, I had been mentored (by his teacher educators), taught by them, and practiced strategies for effective teaching.” Continuing, he said, “I was a reflective teacher way before National Boards…It wasn’t something that going through the National Board process became a revelation.”

Ester Rogers said that throughout her career she had been highly involved in the profession and did not “feel that (she) was different” after she obtained certification. However, she did become more of an advocate for physical education and NBC. Likewise, Lucile Wells stated, “I really don’t think that I am different. I didn’t really change my teaching message or anything like that.” Hence, for these six educators, the effects of the certification process were not perceived to be as impactful as for others in the study.

Discussion

In this study, we sought to better understand NBC-PETs’ perceptions of the impact of the certification pro-cess. Some NBCPETs told of little change in their teach-

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ing, while others spoke of greater teaching reflection and focus on student learning and assessment. Others believed their perceived status and credibility was elevated along with an expansion of opportunities in their educational community. Subsequent sections of the Discussion are organized around Lawson’s (1989) conceptualization of interactive factors influencing workplace conditions for physical educators, including personal and social, situational, organizational, and political and economic.

Personal and Social Workplace Factors

At the core of physical educators workplace is the individual teacher and his or her students. The indi-vidual teacher’s characteristics and dispositions are clearly prominent foci of this aspect of Lawson’s model (1989). Of interest among the NBCPETs were the changes in teaching reflection as a result of the certification pro-cess. The NBCPTS reported changes in reflection foci, ranging from the ultimate purpose of the profession, to curricular reflection, to specific teaching strategies and various aspects of individual lessons. Williams (1993, p. 140) reported the strongest form of reflection was “the reconstruction of oneself as a teacher, with an expectation that teachers will become more aware of the cultural mi-lieu in which they operate.” Williams contended that this involved teachers reviewing and reconstructing assump-tions about physical education, about teaching physical education, and about education. Apparently, the strongest form of reflection, along with other reflective changes, occurred for a number of the NBCPETs.

The NBCPETs changes in reflection echoes find-ings from other research on NBCTs. For example, Tracz, Daughtry, Henderson-Sparks, Newman, and Sienty, (2005) found reflection was a prominent outcome of the NBC process. Among their participants, 64% indicated that they reflected more about instruction delivery to all students, and 40% indicated they were more aware of individual students. Increased reflection was also a signifi-cant outcome of the NBC process among the participants studied by Park, Oliver, Johnson, Graham, and Oppong (2007). Further examination on NBCPETs’ reflection is warranted. For example, is the reflection related to what Schon (1983) called reflection-on-action, that takes place before or after the teaching act, as opposed to reflection-in-action that is an immediate response to classroom events? Learning more about changes in reflections is undoubtedly important as this ability to scrutinize teach-ing practice is highly connected with decision making power and can change what happens in the classroom, including promoting student learning (Tracz et al., 2005).

Situational Workplace Factors

Lawson (1989) indicated that situational factors interact with broader organizational factors within the

school, including physical education, student subcultures, and occupational communities. As to the physical educa-tion program, many NBCPETs explained they were more focused on student learning and more reflective about their practice. Rink (2009) contended that the goal of teaching in physical education was student learning. Stu-dent learning as a physical education outcome, however, is not a value held by many school administrators, faculty, parents, students, or even physical education colleagues (Blankenship & Coleman, 2009). Lawson (1989) argued that a teacher’s orientation to student learning as a pro-gram outcome has an especially salient influence on his or her workplace environment. These NBCPETs created work settings that differ from otherwise similar colleagues. If, as Lawson (1989) suggested, the physical education’s culture is “produced and reproduced” in physical educa-tor’s daily teaching acts (p. 163), then perhaps for these teachers the physical education culture is produced with outcome-based orientations. A learning-focused physical education class affects not only students in the class but also other important stakeholders. The flow of this impact moves through the teacher’s situational influences and potentially into the other interactive workplace influences.

Another element included in Lawson’s (1989) situ-ational workplace factors consists of physical educators’ occupational communities. “The circumstances of physi-cal education teacher’s work influences their interaction and their community membership” (Lawson, 1989, pp. 158–159). From various perspectives NBCPETs discussed changes in their professional reputations within their schools, communities, and professional organizations as a result of gaining NBC. NBCPETs spoke of greater investments in mentoring other teachers. This mentoring influenced interactions within their occupational com-munities, and likely increased their status within these communities. Teachers told of needing to pass on what they had learned, becoming a cheerleader for other teach-ers, and reciprocating the guidance they had received to other teachers. In a profession known for isolation within the school setting (Stroot, Collier, O’Sullivan, & England, 1994) and fewer colleagues available for support (Mc-Cormack & Thomas, 2003), this collaborative behavior likely influenced the work environment in unique ways.

Enhanced professional opportunities, including professional conference attendance, were noted by some NBCPETs as positive aspects of their certification. Accord-ing to Vega and Connell (2007), conference attendance is important because it often facilitates a professional development setting where individuals network and reju-venate professionally. Conferences are especially useful, as attendance can “empower those with similar disciplin-ary interests to form action coalitions” (Morse, 2008, p. 1159). Consequently, the work lives and work places of these NBCPETs were influenced in various ways by their professional opportunities.

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Organizational Workplace Factors

Organizational workplace factors refer to four sys-tems present in a school: (a) goal system, (b) allocation of resources, (c) control, supervision, and evaluation of teacher work performance, and (d) prestige, reward, and support present in the school (Lawson, 1989). Although all four workplace systems may have been affected, for many NBCPETs in the current study the prestige, reward, and support system was the most obvious factor that was transformed. The notion that physical education is typi-cally viewed as “peripheral to the central functions of the school” (Sparkes, Templin, & Schempp, 1993; p. 387) is not a new concept. Investigations of this phenomenon demonstrated that physical education is judged as less valuable in the school curriculum (O’Sullivan, Siedentop, & Tannehill, 1994). Armour and Jones (1998) noted that “establishing status and credibility in an educational framework has long been an elusive goal for the physical education profession” (p. 93). A number of NBCPETs conveyed their perceptions of improved status within schools and communities. Similar to the teachers studied by Armour and Jones (1998), these NBCPETs were not willing to accept the lower status of physical education and actually battled against it on many levels. Some, as O’Sullivan et al. (1994) recommended, promoted them-selves and their programs within the broader educational community. Advanced certification is viewed by many of these teachers as a form of both a self and professional promotion.

Political and Economic Workplace Factors

The NBCPETs acknowledged their perceived el-evated professional status and enhanced credibility. This sense of esteem is not unique among NBCPETs (Tracz et al., 2005) but is certainly meaningful for those who teach within a marginalized area. From policy and intervention perspectives, Ecological Theory suggests that changes at one or any levels of the environment can lead to changes in individual behavior (McKown, 2005). Within the school context, increased NBCPETs’ self-confidence and perceived esteem as a result of certification could certainly have an impact on their behaviors and their relationships with school stakeholders. Lawson’s model (1989) conceptualizes the interactive factors influencing workplace conditions for physical educators. It also em-phasizes interaction across categories and the reciprocal nature of change for teachers and workplace influences. With multiple social systems involved and the reciprocal nature of interactions, stakeholders may perceive these physical educators in a more positive light.

Teacher Change

It appears that Cothran’s (2001) characteristics for successful change: teacher reflection, power of students,

and solicitation of external resources were in place for many NBCPETs. The teachers repeatedly mentioned their reflection on teaching and desired program outcomes. Increase in the range and depth of their reflection is especially noteworthy. The NBCPET’s focus on student learning as a program product is consistent with Cothran’s characteristics of the power of student achievement as a prevalent aspect of continuation of changes in practice. Last, by pursuing NBC the teachers sought external resources beyond the confines of their classrooms and devoted hundreds of hours to their professional develop-ment. The topic of teacher change should certainly be the research focus for further investigations.

Participants in the present study constituted a unique group who could afford certification outright or in lieu of the large incentives that follow certification (in states that provide sizable incentives). The total fee can be sub-stantial and is likely prohibitive for physical educators in states with low salaries or for those in difficult economic circumstances.

For most participants in this study, NBC positively influenced perceptions of their teaching, professional engagement, and status within the school. Attainment of NBC, similar advanced certifications, advanced degrees or participation in other intense professional develop-ment opportunities could positively affect other physical educators.

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Authors’ Notes

This research was funded by the AAHPERD Research Grant Program. Please address correspondence con-cerning this article to Amelia Mays Woods, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 906 South Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 61801.

E-mail: amywoods@illinois.edu

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