National Air Pollution Control Programme, 2019, …...Referat EU:s utsläppstakdirektiv (2016/2284)...

National Air Pollution Control Programme, 2019, Finland

Annex

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National Air Pollution Control Programme 2030

PUBLICATIONS OF THE MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT | 2019:7 ym.fi

Publications of the Ministry of Environment 2019:7

National Air Pollution Control Programme 2030

Ministry of the Environment, Helsinki 2019

Ministry of the Environment

ISBN (PDF): 978-952-361-008-8

ISBN (printed): 978-952-361-009-5

Layout: Government Administration Department, Publications

Cover photo: A winter day at Arabianranta, Pirjo Ferin/YHA Kuvapankki

Helsinki 2019

Kuvailulehti

Julkaisija Ympäristöministeriö 21.3.2019

Julkaisun nimi Kansallinen ilmansuojeluohjelma 2030

Julkaisusarjan nimi

ja numero

Ympäristöministeriön julkaisuja 2019:7

Diaari/hankenumero YM 036:00/2017 Teema Ympäristönsuojelu

ISBN painettu 978-952-361-009-5 ISSN painettu 2490-0648

ISBN PDF 978-952-361-008-8 ISSN PDF 2490-1024

URN-osoite http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-361-008-8

Sivumäärä 91 Kieli suomi

Asiasanat ilmansuojelu, ilmanlaatu, päästöt, terveysvaikutukset, ympäristövaikutukset,

puun pienpoltto, maatalous, katupöly, pienhiukkaset

Tiivistelmä

EU:n päästökattodirektiivi (2016/2284) velvoittaa jäsenmaita laatimaan kansallisen ilmansuojeluohjelman.

Ilmansuojeluohjelma sisältää ne toimet, joilla direktiivissä asetetut rikkidioksidin, typenoksidien, haihtuvien

orgaanisten yhdisteiden, pienhiukkasten ja ammoniakin ilmapäästöjen vähentämisvelvoitteet toteutetaan.

Ilmansuojeluohjelmassa esitetään Suomen ilmansuojelun nykytila (päästöt, ilmanlaatu, vaikutukset) sekä

arvio päästöistä, vaikutuksista ja tarvittavista toimista vuoteen 2030.

Suomen ympäristökeskuksen tekemien laskelmien mukaan Suomi toteuttaa päästökattodirektiivissä

sille asetetut päästöjen vähentämisvelvoitteet jo sovituilla energia- ja ilmastostrategian ja

maatalouden ammoniakkiohjelman toimenpiteillä.

Huolimatta päästövelvoitteiden noudattamisesta ilmansaasteet aiheuttavat edelleen terveys- ja

ympäristöhaittoja. Tämän vuoksi ohjelma sisältää toimia, joilla ilmanlaatua voidaan edelleen parantaa ja

altistumista vähentää. Nämä toimet koskevat erityisesti taajamien hengityskorkeuden päästölähteitä

(puun pienpoltto ja katupöly, pakokaasut) ja toisaalta ilmanlaatuun vaikuttavia muiden sektorien toimia.

Ilmansuojeluohjelma painottaa sitä, että ilmansuojelu tulisi ottaa johdonmukaisesti huomioon kaikessa

ilmanlaatuun vaikuttavassa suunnittelussa ja päätöksenteossa kaikilla päätöksenteon tasoilla. Ilmanlaatuun

vaikutetaan erityisesti liikenne-, energia-, ilmasto-, maatalous- ja maankäytön sektoreilla ja kunnissa. Hyödyt

näkyvät hyvinvointisektorilla. Yhteistyöhankkeet, jotka edistävät mm. hiilineutraaliutta ja kansalaisten

terveyttä, parantavat yleensä myös ilmanlaatua.

Kustantaja Ympäristöministeriö

Painopaikka ja vuosi Grano Oy, 2019

Julkaisun

jakaja/myynti

Sähköinen versio: julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi

Julkaisumyynti: julkaisutilaukset.valtioneuvosto.fi

http://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/

http://julkaisutilaukset.valtioneuvosto.fi/Etusivu

Presentationsblad

Utgivare Miljöministeriet 21.3.2019

Publikationens titel Nationellt luftvårdsprogram 2030

Publikationsseriens

namn och nummer

Miljöministeriets publikationer

2019:7

Diarie-/

projektnummer YM 036:00/2017 Tema Miljövård

ISBN tryckt 978-952-361-009-5 ISSN tryckt 2490-0648

ISBN PDF 978-952-361-008-8 ISSN PDF 2490-1024

URN-adress http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-361-008-8

Sidantal 91 Språk finska

Nyckelord luftvård, luftkvalitet, utsläpp, hälsoeffekter, miljökonsekvenser, småskalig

vedeldning, jordbruk, gatudamm, fina partiklar

Referat

EU:s utsläppstakdirektiv (2016/2284) ålägger medlemsländerna att utarbeta nationella luftvårdsprogram.

Luftvårdsprogrammet innefattar de åtgärder som krävs för att de åtaganden om minskning av utsläppen av

svaveldioxid, kväveoxider, flyktiga organiska föreningar, fina partiklar och ammoniak som fastställts i

direktivet ska fullgöras. Luftvårdsprogrammet innehåller en beskrivning av det aktuella luftvårdsläget i

Finland (utsläpp, luftkvalitet, konsekvenser) och en bedömning av utsläppen, konsekvenserna och de

behövliga åtgärderna fram till 2030.

Enligt Finlands miljöcentrals kalkyler kommer Finland redan med de åtgärder som angetts i energi-

och klimatstrategin och i programmet för att minska jordbrukets ammoniakutsläpp att kunna fullgöra

de åtaganden om utsläppsminskningar som fastställs för landet i utsläppstakdirektivet.

Även om åtagandena om utsläppsminskningar fullgörs kommer luftföroreningarna fortfarande att orsaka

olägenheter för hälsan och miljön. Därför innehåller programmet åtgärder som ska bidra till bättre

luftkvalitet och lägre exponering. Åtgärderna gäller framför allt utsläppskällor i andningshöjd i tätorterna

(småskalig vedeldning och gatudamm, avgaser) men också sådana åtgärder inom andra sektorer som kan

ha inverkan på luftkvaliteten.

I luftvårdsprogrammet framhävs att luftvården konsekvent bör beaktas i all planering och allt

beslutsfattande som har inverkan på luftkvaliteten, och detta bör ske på alla beslutsnivåer. Beslut som

påverkar luftkvaliteten fattas framför allt inom transport-, energi-, klimat-, jordbruks- och

markanvändningssektorn och i kommunerna. Nyttan syns inom välfärdssektorn. Samarbetsprojekt som

bl.a. främjar koldioxidneutralitet och den allmänna hälsan förbättrar i allmänhet också luftkvaliteten.

Förläggare Miljöministeriet

Tryckort och år Grano Ab, 2019

Distribution/

beställningar

Elektronisk version: julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi

Beställningar: julkaisutilaukset.valtioneuvosto.fi



Description sheet

Published by Ministry of the Environment 21 March 2019

Title of publication National Air Pollution Control Programme 2030

Series and publication

number

Publications of the Ministry of

Environment 2019:7

Register number YM 036:00/2017 Subject Environmental

protection

ISBN (printed) 978-952-361-009-5 ISSN (printed) 2490-0648

ISBN PDF 978-952-361-008-8 ISSN (PDF) 2490-1024

Website address

(URN) http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-361-008-8

Pages 91 Language Finnish

Keywords Air pollution control, air quality, emissions, health impact, environmental

impact, small-scale woodburning, agriculture, street dust, fine particulate

matter

Abstract

The European Union’s revised NEC directive (2016/2284) lays down the obligation to prepare a National Air

Pollution Control Programme (NAPCP) for member states. The NAPCP comprises the actions for realizing

the emission reduction commitments laid down in the directive for emissions of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen

oxides, volatile organic compounds, fine particulate matter and ammonia. The NAPCP includes a

description of the current state of Finland’s air pollution control (emissions, air quality, effects) and an

estimate on the amount of pollution, the effects caused by it and what measures must be implemented by

2030.

The calculations made by the Finnish Environmental Institute show that Finland already meets the

emission reduction obligations set by the directive with the previously agreed on measures set out in the

energy and climate strategy and the action plan to reduce ammonia emissions from agriculture.

Air pollution continues to cause health hazards and environmental damage despite the fact that the emission

reduction obligations are met. Due to this, the NAPCP includes measures to further improve air quality and

reduce exposure to pollution. These measures are specifically related to emissions that are inhaled (small-

scale woodburning and street dust, exhaust fumes) and, on the other hand, to the actions of other sectors

that affect air quality.

The NACPC emphasizes the need to take air pollution control into account systematically in all planning and

decision-making activities that affect air quality at all levels of decision-making. In particular the traffic,

energy, climate, agriculture and land-use sectors, together with municipalities, can affect air quality. The

benefits can be seen throughout the welfare sector. Joint projects, aimed at promoting carbon neutrality

and public health, usually also improve air quality.

Publisher Ministry of the Environment

Printed by

(place and time) Grano Ltd, 2019

Distributed by/

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Contents

Executive summary ................................................................................................................ 9

Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 16

1 Finland’s air pollution control policy and its relationship to other policies ........................ 19

1.1 Objectives and priorities....................................................................................... 19

2 Responsibilities at national, regional and local levels ....................................................... 36

3 Trends in air pollution control measures, as well as in air quality and other environmental impacts, in the period 1990–2017 .................................................................................... 38

3.1 Emission trends .................................................................................................... 38

3.2 Air quality trends and current air quality situation ................................................ 41

3.3 Adverse effects of air pollutants on human health ............................................... 46

3.4 Environmental impacts of air pollutants ............................................................... 51

4 Compliance with obligations related to emissions and air quality .................................... 55

4.1 Exceedances related to emission reduction commitments ................................... 55

4.2 Exceedances of obligations related to air quality .................................................. 56

5 Emission trends according to the baseline projection ..................................................... 60

5.1 Sulphur dioxide .................................................................................................... 63

5.2 Nitrogen oxides ................................................................................................... 64

5.3 Fine particulate matter ........................................................................................ 66

5.4 Non-methane volatile organic compounds ........................................................... 70

5.5 Ammonia ............................................................................................................. 71

5.6 Black carbon and methane ................................................................................... 72

5.7 Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 73

6 Additional measures and their impact on emissions and air pollutant concentrations ..... 74

6.1 Road transport ..................................................................................................... 75

6.2 Small-scale woodburning ..................................................................................... 77

6.3 Taking air pollution control into account in planning and decision-making activities

in other sectors .................................................................................................... 81

6.4 Other measures .................................................................................................. 86

7 Monitoring of the implementation and effects of the NAPCP ........................................ 88

7.1 Monitoring of emission trends ..............................................................................88

7.2 Monitoring of the ecological impacts of emissions .............................................. 89

7.3 Air quality monitoring ..........................................................................................92

7.4 Monitoring of the measures included in the NAPCP ............................................. 93

References ........................................................................................................................... 94

Annex 1. Reported (2005, 2010, 2015) and projected (2020, 2025, 2030) air pollutant

emissions ............................................................................................................ 96

Annex 2. Air pollution control legislation ....................................................................... 98

Annex 3. Measures included in the National Energy and Climate Strategy (NECS) for 2030

that affect air pollution control ............................................................................ 98

Annex 4. Measures included in the Medium-term Climate Change Policy Plan (KAISU) for

2030 that affect air pollution control ................................................................... 99

9

NATIONAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL PROGRAMME 2030

Executive summary

National Air Pollution Control Programme and attainment of emission reduction commitments

This National Air Pollution Control Programme (NAPCP) extends to 2030. The NAPCP

comprises the actions for implementing the emission reduction commitments laid down in the

National Emission Ceilings Directive (2016/2284, NECD) as well as other actions for improving

air quality.

Finland’s air pollution control policy aims to improve citizens’ well-being by ensuring a good

status of the environment, including air quality, to safeguard biodiversity and to prevent

acidification and eutrophication of ecosystems. This aim contributes to the fulfilment of the

obligation laid down for the public authorities in the Constitution of Finland to endeavour to

guarantee for everyone the right to a healthy environment.

The NECD requires that Member States reduce their emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2),

nitrogen oxides (NOx), ammonia (NH3), fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and non-methane

volatile organic compounds (NMVOC). These emission reduction commitments follow on from

the commitments laid down in the first NECD. Through the emission reduction commitments,

the directive aims to reduce the number of premature deaths caused by air pollutants in Europe

by almost 50% by 2030 compared to the situation in 2005. The Directive requires that Member

States draw up national air pollution control programmes to reduce their emissions.

The emission reduction commitments laid down in the NECD for Finland are presented in

Table 1. The commitments were set as percentages compared to emissions in 2005. For

illustrative purposes, Table 1 also includes the emission reduction commitments in tonnes,

calculated on the basis of current emission inventory data.

10

PUBLICATIONS OF THE MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT 2019:7

Table 1. Finland’s old and new emission reduction commitments as percentages

and their amounts in kilotonnes (kt) calculated on the basis of the percentages

Pollutant Old commitments 2010

Emissions in kilotonnes in 2005 used as the basis

for the new commitments

New commitments 2020–2029

New commitments from

2030

SO2 110 kt 70 kt -30% (49 kt) -34% (46.2 kt)

NOX 170 kt 205 kt -35% (133.3 kt) -47% (108.7 kt)

NMVOC 130 kt 145 kt -35% (94.3 kt) -48% (75.2 kt)

NH3 31 kt 37 kt -20% (31 kt) -20% (31 kt)

PM2.5 - 28 kt -30% (19.6 kt) -34% (18.5 kt)

The calculations made by the Finnish Environment Institute show that Finland already meets

the emission reduction obligations set by the NECD with previously agreed measures set out

for the implementation of the National Energy and Climate Strategy and the action plan to

reduce ammonia emissions from agriculture, as well as with the implementation of the existing

and previously agreed sector-specific regulation through emission limits. In addition, the

additional measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions included in the Medium-term

Climate Change Policy Plan (KAISU) will also contribute to the reduction of air pollutant

emissions.

Effects of air pollutants In general, air quality in Finland is good. Nevertheless, air pollutants have significant adverse

effects. In Finland, they cause 1,600-2,000 premature deaths annually. Although both long-

range transboundary air pollution and emissions from domestic sources will fall significantly by

2030 thanks to the EU’s climate and air quality policy, the reduction in the number of

premature deaths will only be approximately 10% between 2015 and 2030, based on expert

opinion. The reasons for this are population growth and ageing, as well as continuing

urbanisation. While long-range transboundary air pollution will decrease, emissions from

small-scale woodburning and street dust from road transport will remain. These emissions are

generated close to inhalation height and are still partly unregulated.

The adverse effects of air pollutants on human health are mainly (64%) caused by fine

particulate matter (PM2.5), which contains carcinogenic compounds and heavy metals, for

example. These particles are carried by air into all parts of the respiratory tract and not only

cause direct allergic, immunological and toxic effects in the lungs but also partly enter the

bloodstream and are transferred further to other parts of the body, such as the myocardium

and the brain. The effects of other air pollutants are also severe, but less significant than those

of fine particulate matter.

In Finland, the estimated surface area of ecosystems at risk of acidification is less than 1% of

11


the total area of ecosystems, and the estimated surface area of ecosystems at risk of

eutrophication is 3%.

Measures in the programme to improve air quality and reduce exposure

Air pollution will continue to cause adverse effects on human health and the environment in

2030 despite the fact that the emission reduction obligations set by the NECD are met. Due to

this, the NAPCP includes measures that will help to lower the levels of air pollutant emissions

and concentrations below the level set in EU legislation.

These measures are specifically related to emissions that are inhaled (small-scale woodburning

and street dust) and to linking air quality to all planning and decision-making activities and

implementation affecting air quality. In addition, several other measures to promote air

pollution control are proposed. These include the development of communication in all of its

forms, efforts to influence EU and international activities, and the dissemination of

information on the cost of health damage.

The responsibility for the implementation of the measures will be borne by an extensive group

of national, regional and local actors. Key actors include various ministries (Ministry of the

Environment (YM), Ministry of Social Affairs and Health (MSAH), Ministry of Economic Affairs

and Employment (MEAE), Ministry of Transport and Communications (LVM), Ministry of

Finance (VM), Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MMM), Ministry of Education and Culture

(MoEC)), Centres for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment (ELY Centres),

Valvira (National Supervisory Authority for Welfare and Health), Traficom (Finnish Transport

and Communications Agency), municipalities, Helsinki Region Environmental Services

Authority HSY, research institutes (Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), National Institute for

Health and Welfare (THL), Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI)), equipment manufacturers

and various organisations (such as the Central Association of Chimney Sweeps, the

Organisation for Respiratory Health, and Tulisija- ja savupiippuyhdistys TSY ry (Association of

fireplace and chimney manufacturers)).

Small-scale woodburning

Small-scale woodburning is the most significant source of fine particulate matter emissions in

Finland, accounting for approximately 50% of all domestic fine particulate matter emissions. It

has been estimated that exposure to particles from small-scale woodburning causes some

200 premature deaths in Finland annually. In the future, emissions from other sources are

expected to fall significantly in accordance with the current legislation, while it appears that

emissions from small-scale woodburning will remain at the current level or will only decrease

slightly. The impacts of the Ecodesign Directive, which will enter into force in 2020 and 2022,

on emissions from small-scale woodburning in Finland are estimated to be relatively low by

12


2030, as the stock of heat-retaining fireplaces is replaced slowly in Finland and sauna stoves

are not covered by the scope of the directive. In other words, the adverse effects of small-scale

woodburning on human health must be reduced by additional national measures. Small-scale

woodburning is also clearly the most significant source of black carbon emissions in Finland.

In order to prevent the adverse effects of small-scale woodburning, the following measures are proposed:

• Increasing guidance to citizens and other actors

• Reducing the adverse effects of polluting woodburning sauna stoves

• Increasing the efficiency of smoke nuisance prevention

Road transport

Road transport impairs air quality due to exhaust emissions and street dust. Adverse effects

can be mitigated by improving the energy efficiency of transport systems and vehicles, by

replacing fossil oil-based fuels with electricity and gas, and by influencing the regulation of

exhaust emissions. In addition to combustion-related air pollutants, street dust causes adverse

effects on human health and decreases the comfort of citizens. These effects can be reduced

by preventing street dust formation.

In order to prevent the adverse effects of road transport, the following measures are proposed:

• Implementing the recommendations of the Dusty Roads project.

• Enhancing the dissemination of best practices in street cleaning and maintenance to

municipalities and contractors.

• Incorporating best practices into the contractor selection criteria in procurement.

• Increasing guidance on the best tyre options in terms of air quality and safety to

motorists.

• Investigating the possibility to limit the use of studded tyres in certain areas.

• Supporting measures and initiatives to expedite the renewal of the vehicle stock and

the increase in the percentage of zero- and low-emission vehicles of the total vehicle

stock.

• Supporting measures that reduce the passenger car transport performance in urban

areas.

Affecting air pollution control through planning and decision-making

activities in other sectors

In addition to technical emission reduction measures, improving air quality requires that air

quality be taken into account systematically in all planning and decision-making activities that

affect air quality and when assessing the health and environmental impacts of any measures to

be taken in other sectors. Key sectors for air pollution control include the land-use and

13


planning, energy, climate, transport, agriculture and welfare sectors. Key strategies and

programmes that should consider air quality include:

• National Energy and Climate Strategy (2017)

• KAISU (2017) (Medium-term Climate Change Policy Plan)

• Programme for the promotion of walking and cycling (Ministry of Transport and

Communications, 2017)

• Interim report by the Transport Climate Policy working group: Carbon-free transport

by 2045 – Paths to an emission-free future (Ministry of Transport and

Communications, 2018)

14


Municipalities’ leverage to promote air pollution control

Under Finnish legislation, municipalities play a key role in safeguarding good local air quality.

For instance, municipalities monitor air quality in their areas and, based on their monitoring

activities, take any measures needed to improve air quality if the limit values are exceeded or

are at risk of being exceeded. However, the most important leverage to affect air quality

relates to decision-making other than that concerning actual air quality monitoring.

Municipalities make decisions on issues such as land use, transport and energy production that

have a significant impact on emissions, air quality and exposure.

When promoting air pollution control, efforts should be made to use the existing programme

and organisation structures established for climate change mitigation, as the actors are mainly

the same in both areas. Practical measures in both air pollution control and climate change

work are often taken in municipalities. Municipalities participate in several national and

international programmes and networks that take actions to mitigate climate change and

adapt to its impacts. Municipalities are also involved in networks that aim to exchange good

practices in the promotion of well-being and health.

Key joint projects affecting air pollution control in municipalities include:

• Energy efficiency agreements

• The implementation of KAISU 2017–2025 in municipalities and regions

(”KuntaKaisu” or Municipal Kaisu)

• IlmastoKunnat (ClimateMunicipalities) activities of the Association of Finnish Local

and Regional Authorities

• HINKU Forum (a network for climate change mitigation that brings together

municipalities committed to ambitious CO2 emission reductions, as well as products

and services supporting this aim and experts in the energy and climate sectors)

• Healthy Cities – Terve Kunta network

• MAL agreements (agreements concerning land use, housing and transport that the

State concludes with the main city regions in Finland)

• Municipal strategy (for each term of the municipal council)

Other measures

In order to promote air pollution control, it is also proposed that communication in all of its

forms be developed, the knowledge base be improved, and efforts be taken to influence EU

and international activities. These measures include:

• Supporting air pollution control in municipalities

• Enhancing communication relating to air pollution control and increasing its

customer orientation in cooperation with other actors

• Developing air quality and emission websites to make them more customer-oriented

• Promoting the improvement of the knowledge base through projects focusing on

15


the cost of health damage, for example

• Participating in the WHO scientific evaluation to revise air quality guideline values

• Influencing the development of the EU’s air quality limit values to reduce long-range

transboundary air pollution

Monitoring of implementation and effects

The attainment of the emission reduction commitments is monitored annually through

emission inventories and projections prepared and updated by the Finnish Environment

Institute. The NAPCP must be updated if the monitoring shows that one or more emission

reduction commitments are not fulfilled or are at risk of not being fulfilled.

The monitoring of the negative impacts of atmospheric sulphur and nitrogen emissions on

ecosystems, as required by the NECD, and the monitoring of ozone air pollution loads are

carried out by the Finnish Environment Institute, ELY Centres, Natural Resources Institute

Finland (Luke), the Finnish Meteorological Institute and the Ministry of the Environment. The

Finnish Environment Institute publishes the emission and impact monitoring data in a public

information network service.

In Finland, air quality is mainly monitored by municipalities and the Finnish Meteorological Institute.

The Ministry of the Environment will establish a monitoring network to support and monitor

the implementation of the measures proposed in the NAPCP. Key actors responsible for the

implementation of the programme will be invited to join the network. In addition, the

implementation of the measures will be assessed through separate studies in 2026 and 2031.

16


Introduction Good air quality is important for both human health and comfort and the well-being of the

natural environment and the preservation of the built environment. In general, air quality in

Finland is good, but air pollutant concentrations still have to be lowered, in particular in areas

with the highest exposure, that is, in agglomerations.

Air quality has improved over the past 30 years as emissions into the air have been cut, in

particular in the industry, energy and transport sectors, based on international agreements and

EU legislation and also partly through national legislation. The most important drivers have

been the United Nations (UN) Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution1 and its

Protocols, as well as the sector-specific emission limit values and other obligations concerning

emission reduction and air quality set in EU legislation.

The EU’s most recent National Emission Ceilings Directive (NECD)2, which limits emissions of

specific air pollutant substances, was adopted in December 2016. The directive requires that

Member States reduce their emissions of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ammonia, fine

particulate matter and non-methane volatile organic compounds. Thoracic particles (PM10) are

not covered by the reduction commitments laid down in the NECD, but total PM10 emissions

must also be reported to the Commission annually. The emission reduction commitments

follow on from the commitments laid down in the first NECD3. The directive requires that

Member States draw up national air pollution control programmes to reduce their emissions.

Through the emission reduction commitments, the directive aims to reduce the number of

premature deaths caused by air pollutants in Europe by almost 50% by 2030 compared to the

situation in 2005.

1 The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution of 1979 2 Directive (EU) 2016/2284 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 December 2016 on the reduction of

national emissions of certain atmospheric pollutants 3 Directive 2001/81/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2001 on national emission

ceilings for certain atmospheric pollutants

http://www.unece.org/environmental-policy/conventions/envlrtapwelcome/the-air-convention-and-its-protocols/the-convention-and-its-achievements.html

https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32016L2284



https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1555338521029&uri=CELEX:32001L0081



17


This National Air Pollution Control Programme (NAPCP) extends to 2030 and comprises the

measures for implementing the emission reduction commitments laid down in the directive, as

well as the additional national measures needed to improve air quality and reduce the number

of people exposed to poor air quality.

In addition, the NAPCP discusses black carbon and methane emission trends as part of climate

change mitigation, in particular in the Arctic region. No reduction commitments are laid down

in the NECD for the emissions of these air pollutants. However, black carbon emissions must

be reported as part of the EU reporting under the directive. The Arctic Council has set emission

reduction targets and issued recommendations to limit black carbon emissions.

The preparation of the NAPCP also took account of strategies, programmes and projects

implemented and being prepared in various sectors, such as energy and climate change policy,

transport and agriculture, and actions taken under these.

The NAPCP was prepared by the Ministry of the Environment and a working group established

by the Ministry on 13 December 2017. In addition to the Ministry of the Environment, the

following participated in the work of the working group: the Ministry of Economic Affairs and

Employment, the Ministry of Transport and Communications, the Ministry of Social Affairs and

Health, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, the Finnish Environment Institute, the

National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), the Finnish Meteorological Institute, the

Uusimaa ELY Centre, the Association of Finnish Local and Regional Authorities, the Central

Union of Agricultural Producers and Forest Owners (MTK), Finnish Energy, the Finnish Forest

Industries Federation, the Chemical Industry Federation of Finland, Technology Industries of

Finland, the Finnish Petroleum and Biofuels Association and the Finnish Association for Nature

Conservation. The Finnish Environment Institute was responsible for the estimation of

emissions.

The working group met seven times. In addition, the working group organised a workshop on

small-scale woodburning on 7 June 2018 and a public consultation on its draft proposals on 19

September 2018, and consulted several experts. Stakeholders and citizens were provided with

the opportunity to present their opinions on the proposals of the working group through the

lausuntopalvelu.fi portal.

The NAPCP and its implementation are communicated widely using a variety of channels.

These include the websites of the Ministry of the Environment and its stakeholders, Twitter

and YouTube, as well as events organised by the Ministry and its stakeholders.

The Government adopted the NAPCP in its plenary session on 7 March 2019.

18


Abbreviations BaP benzo[a]pyrene, a carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon BC black carbon CO carbon monoxide CH4 methane CLRTAP United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Convention on Long-Range

Transboundary Air Pollution NECD National Emission Ceilings Directive NH3 ammonia NMVOC non-methane volatile organic compounds NO2 nitrogen dioxide NOx nitrogen oxides O3 ozone PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PM2.5 fine particulate matter PM10 thoracic particles SO2 sulphur dioxide TRS total reduced sulphur

Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

Sulphur dioxide is a gas that irritates the respiratory tract and causes acidification in ecosystems. Most sulphur emissions originate from the combustion of sulphurous fuels in energy production. Sulphur emissions have fallen strongly since the 1980s. In the atmosphere, sulphur dioxide converts into sulphate, which forms part of the size category of fine particulate matter.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx)

Nitrogen oxides irritate the respiratory tract, cause eutrophication and acidification in ecosystems, and participate in the formation of ground-level ozone. In Finland, emissions of nitrogen oxides mainly originate in energy production and transport. In the atmosphere, nitrogen dioxide converts into nitrate, which forms part of the size category of fine particulate matter.

PM10 PM10 refers to particles with a diameter of less than 10 µm. When inhaled, they can

penetrate the lungs and have significant adverse effects on human health. PM10 consists of various substances and can contain harmful heavy metals and carcinogenic hydrocarbons, for example. Street dust is a significant domestic source of PM10 in Finland.

Fine particulate matter (PM2.5)

Fine particulate matter refers to particles with a diameter of less than 2.5 µm. These particles can penetrate deep into the respiratory ducts and are very harmful to health. PM2.5 consists of various substances and can contain harmful heavy metals and

carcinogenic hydrocarbons, for example. Fine particulate matter is generated by energy production, in particular by small-scale woodburning and peat production, and also originates from fossil fuels used in transport, road abrasion, and tyre and brake wear.

Ammonia (NH3) Ammonia causes acidification and eutrophication in ecosystems. In Finland, the most significant domestic source of emissions is agriculture, in particular bovine manure.

Ozone (O3) Ground-level ozone is harmful to vegetation and human health. The formation of ozone is affected by the quantities of nitrogen oxides and various hydrocarbons, as well as sunlight. In Finland, the highest concentrations are recorded in rural background locations.

Non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC)

Non-methane volatile organic compounds affect the formation of ground-level ozone and secondary particles. Volatile organic compounds are generated in incomplete combustion (in particular in small fireplaces), transport, industrial processes, and in the use of solvents, adhesives, paints and printing inks, as well as in the distribution of petrol.

Methane (CH4) In addition to carbon dioxide, methane is one of the most significant greenhouse gases.

Methane is generated when organic matter breaks up in anaerobic conditions, such as in

the digestive system of animals, or in peatlands or landfills. In addition, methane is

released in combustion processes.

Black carbon (BC)

Atmospheric black carbon refers to particles that absorb light strongly and have a high

inorganic carbon content. Black carbon is formed through incomplete combustion.

Emission sources include diesel vehicles, woodburning, shipping and long-range

transboundary air pollution. Black carbon forms part of the size category of fine particulate

matter.

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1 Finland’s air pollution control policy and its relationship to other policies

1.1 Objectives and priorities

1.1.1 Air pollution control

In general, air quality in Finland is good. Nevertheless, air pollutants have significant adverse

effects (sections 3.3 and 3.4). The aim is to improve air quality by targeting emission reduction

and other measures in areas with the most significant adverse effects, namely in city centres

and densely built up agglomerations. When planning measures, account is taken of the

development of cities and changes in population age structure, such as an increase in the

percentage of elderly people, as well as other increases in city living and the related changes in

the living environment and behaviour.

In Finland, the air quality limit values based on EU legislation are only occasionally exceeded.

However, this does not guarantee that there are no adverse effects. Therefore, measures are

taken to improve local air quality, in particular with respect to PM10, nitrogen dioxide and

benzo[a]pyrene. In addition, efforts are made to cut fine particulate matter emissions, as their

adverse effects on human health are considerable, although the concentrations are low.

1.1.1.1 Objectives Finland’s air pollution control policy aims to improve citizens’ well-being by ensuring good

environmental quality, including air quality, to safeguard biodiversity, and to prevent

acidification and eutrophication of ecosystems. This aim contributes to the fulfilment of the

obligation laid down for the public authorities in section 20(2) of the Constitution of Finland

(731/1999) to endeavour to guarantee for everyone the right to a healthy environment. The

importance of this objective is also evident from the Environmental Protection Act (527/2014),

which specifically pays attention to securing good air quality. The aim is to make everyone

aware of the significance of good environmental quality as a factor contributing to health and

well-being and as a competitive factor, and to incorporate it into the operating culture.

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Environmental quality is improved by reducing the adverse effects of air pollutants on human

health and the environment. This is achieved by preventing the generation of emissions,

limiting emissions with the help of the best available techniques, such as emission limit value

regulation, and by planning and constructing a living environment in which human exposure to

air pollutants is as low as possible. The prevention of adverse effects pays particular attention

to the reduction of those emissions that cause the most significant adverse effects on human

health. These mainly comprise emissions from transport and small-scale woodburning. In

order to achieve good air quality, this aim is integrated in all planning and other decision-

making activities (living environment planning, urban planning, community planning,

residential area planning, traffic planning, energy planning).

According to the strategy of the Ministry of the Environment4, the quality of the living

environment will be monitored and assessed using various indicators. These include fine

particulate matter and black carbon emissions, nitrogen dioxide emissions, and the

satisfaction of the residents with the general amenity of their residential area.

Finland’s air pollution control policy also aims to promote international actions to reduce air

pollutant emissions. It is important for Finland that other countries also cut their emissions, as

long-range transboundary air pollution accounts for a significant share of air pollutants in

Finland.

1.1.1.2 Emission reduction commitments and targets

Emission reduction commitments

The emission reduction commitments laid down in the NECD for Finland are presented in

Table 1. The commitments were set as percentages compared to emissions in 2005. For

illustrative purposes, Table 1 also includes the emission reduction commitments in tonnes,

calculated on the basis of current emission inventory data. The emission reduction

commitments have been set for each Member State in such a manner that cost efficiency at

EU level can be maximised.

Table 1. Finland’s old and new emission reduction commitments as percentages

and in kilotonnes (kt). The emission reduction commitment for ammonia is 20%,

which means maximum emissions of 31 kt.

Pollutant Old commitments 2010

Emissions in kilotonnes in 2005 used as the basis for the new commitments

New commitments 2020–2029

New commitments from 2030

SO2 110 kt 70 kt -30% (49 kt) -34% (46.2 kt)

NOX 170 kt 205 kt -35% (133.3 kt) -47% (108.7 kt)

NMVOC 130 kt 145 kt -35% (94.3 kt) -48% (75.2 kt)

NH3 31 kt 37 kt -20% (31 kt) -20% (31 kt)

PM2.5 - 28 kt -30% (19.6 kt) -34% (18.5 kt)

4 Strategy 2030, Ministry of the Environment

https://www.ym.fi/en-US/The_Ministry/Goals_and_results/Strategy_2030

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Emission reduction targets

Methane and black carbon emissions will be cut in accordance with the recommendations

issued by the Arctic Council. In 2017, the Arctic Council5 recommended that black carbon

emissions be jointly limited voluntarily between 25% and 33% below the 2013 levels by 2025.

The Arctic Council set no emission reduction target for methane, but the members of the Arctic

Council are encouraged to limit their methane emissions significantly, both jointly and

individually.

In addition, this NAPCP sets national targets to reduce the adverse effects caused by small-

scale woodburning and street dust. The potential to reduce emissions from small-scale

woodburning and street dust and their effects are assessed in Chapter 6.

1.1.1.3 Air quality requirements and objectives

According to the Environmental Protection Act, the aim for all activities shall be to achieve a

level of air quality in which the quantity of hazardous or harmful substances or compounds in

ambient air, or in the deposition of these, is not present at a level that would cause harm to

health, be detrimental to nature and how it functions, or cause a loss of general amenity of the

environment. In order to achieve this aim, air quality limit values and target values are laid

down in government decrees. Most of these are based on EU legislation. The content of these

government decrees is discussed in more detail under section 1.1.1.4.

According to the General Union Environment Action Programme to 20206, the aim is to

safeguard the Union’s citizens from environment-related pressures and risks to health and

well-being, and to ensure that by 2020 outdoor air quality in the Union has significantly

improved, moving closer to the levels recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO).

This means that the long-term objective of Finland and all other EU Member States must be

the achievement of the recommended air quality objectives issued by the WHO.

1.1.1.4 Air quality regulation in the EU and Finland

EU legislation establishes standards for air quality. These have been implemented nationally

with the Environmental Protection Act and the decrees issued under it. The aim is that air

quality requirements and objectives are taken into account when planning activities,

monitoring the state of the environment and supervising the implementation. In addition,

environmental quality requirements and targets must be taken into account in permit

consideration as a basis for dimensioning permissible emissions caused by the activity.

5 Members of the Arctic Council: Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the United States. 6 Decision No 1386/2013/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council on a General Union Environment Action Programme to 2020 ‘Living well, within the limits of our planet’.

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Air quality legislation

In the EU, the Ambient Air Quality Directive7 lays down limit values for sulphur dioxide,

nitrogen oxides, PM10, fine particulate matter (PM2.5), lead, carbon monoxide and benzene in

ambient air, target values and long-term objectives for ozone, and critical levels applicable to

sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. In addition, the directive lays down provisions on air

quality monitoring methods and their data quality objectives, the selection, location and

number of sampling points, public information, the preparation and implementation of air

quality plans and short-term action plans, and the transmission of information to the European

Commission. In addition, the EU’s air quality legislation includes the Heave Metals Directive8

relating to the concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, mercury, nickel and polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAH) in ambient air.

The Ambient Air Quality Directive and the Heavy Metals Directive have been implemented

nationally with the Environmental Protection Act9 and the Government Decree on air quality10

(Valtioneuvoston asetus ilmanlaadusta 79/2017, hereinafter the Air Quality Decree) and the

Government Decree on arsenic, cadmium, mercury, nickel and polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons in ambient air11 (Valtioneuvoston asetus ilmassa olevasta arseenista, kadmiumista,

elohopeasta, nikkelistä ja polysyklisistä aromaattisista hiilivedyistä 113/2017, hereinafter the

Heavy Metals Decree).

The Air Quality Decree and the Heavy Metals Decree lay down provisions on air quality limit

values and target values, the organisation of air quality monitoring, reference measurement

methods for air quality measurements, data quality objectives set for monitoring, air quality

reporting, and informing and alerting the public.

The Air Quality Decree lays down the limit values for the protection of human health, as

presented in Table 2; the target values and long-term objectives for the protection of human

health and vegetation, as presented in Table 3; and the critical levels of sulphur dioxide and

nitrogen oxides for the protection of ecosystems and vegetation, as presented in Table 4. The

target values for heavy metals and benzo[a]pyrene laid down in the Heavy Metals Decree are

presented in Table 5. The 24-hour and one-hour limit values have been determined statistically

in such a manner that the numerical value of the limit value may be exceeded a certain number

of times in any calendar year. For the sake of comparison, the guideline values set by the WHO

for the protection of human health are also presented in Table 2.

7 Directive 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008 in ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe 8 Directive 2004/107/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 December 2004 relating to arsenic, cadmium, mercury, nickel and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air 9 Environmental Protection Act 527/2014 10 Government Decree on air quality (Valtioneuvoston asetus ilmanlaadusta 79/2017) 11 Government Decree on arsenic, cadmium, mercury, nickel and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air (Valtioneuvoston asetus ilmassa olevasta arseenista, kadmiumista, elohopeasta, nikkelistä ja polysyklisistä aromaattisista hiilivedyistä 113/2017)

https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32008L0050&from=fi

https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32008L0050&from=fi

https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52007DC0740



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The EU’s air quality limit values for PM2.5 (annual average), sulphur dioxide (24-hour average)

and PM10 (annual average) are clearly higher than the WHO guideline values, while the EU

standards for PM10 (24-hour average) and nitrogen dioxide (annual average) are consistent with

the WHO guideline values. The WHO air quality guideline values are based on scientific

evidence of the effects of air pollution on human health. When setting legally binding limit

values, account must be taken of technical feasibility, as well as the cost of compliance and the

benefits provided. According to the WHO guidelines12, the cost of compliance with the limit

values can be reduced by allowing a certain number of occasions on which the values can be

exceeded.

Table 2. EU and WHO limit values for air pollutants

Substance Averaging period

Limit value µg/m3

Number of exceedances allowed per

calendar year

Date since which the limit value has been

in force

WHO guideline value µg/m3

Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

One hour 350 24 01/01/2005

24 hours 125 3 01/01/2005 20

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

One hour 200 18 01/01/2010 200

Calendar year

40 - 01/01/2010 40

Carbon monoxide (CO)

8 hours 10,000 - 01/01/2005

Benzene (C6H6) Calendar year

5 - 01/01/2010

Lead (Pb) Calendar year

0.5 - 15/08/2001

PM10 24 hours 50 35 01/01/2005 501)

Calendar year

40 - 01/01/2005 20

Fine particulate

matter (PM2.5)

Calendar year

25 - 01/01/2010 10

24 hours 25

The national exposure concentration ceiling has been 20 µg/m3 since 31 December 2015.

1)99% compliance; not to be exceeded more than 3 times.

Table 3. Ozone target values and long-term objectives

Objective Averaging period or statistical parameter

Target value for 2010 Long-term objective

Prevention and reduction of adverse effects on human health

8 hours 120 µg/m3 not to be exceeded on more than 25 days per calendar year averaged over three years

120 µg/m3 during a

calendar year

Protection of vegetation

AOT401) 18,000 µg/m3 ∙ h averaged over five years

6,000 µg/m3 ∙ h

1)AOT40 (µg/m3 ∙ h) means an ozone load expressed as the sum of the difference between hourly concentrations greater

than 80 μg/m3 and 80 μg/m3 over a given period using only the one-hour values measured each day.

12 Air quality guidelines – Global update 2005 (p. 7) and “Guidance for setting air quality standards”.

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Table 4. Critical levels for the protection of ecosystems and vegetation

Substance Averaging period Critical level µg/m3 Date since which the critical level has been in force

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Calendar year and winter (1 October–31 March)

20 15/08/2001

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Calendar year 30 15/08/2001

Table 5. Target values for heavy metals and benzo[a]pyrene

Substance Target value 1 January 2013

Arsenic (As) 6 ng/m3

Cadmium (Cd) 5 ng/m3

Nickel (Ni) 20 ng/m3

Benzo[a]pyrene (C12H20) 1 ng/m3

Provisions on air quality are also laid down in the national Government Decision on the air

quality guideline values and sulphur deposition target value (Valtioneuvoston päätös

ilmanlaadun ohjearvoista ja rikkilaskeuman tavoitearvosta 480/1996)13. No deadline has been

set for the guideline values, and they are mainly suitable for guiding land-use, transport and

construction planning. These guideline values are not discussed further in this NAPCP.

Operator obligations

The Environmental Protection Act requires that operators have knowledge of the

environmental impacts and risks of their operations, and of the management of these impacts

and risks, and of ways to reduce adverse impacts. This knowledge requirement applies to a

wide range of environmental impacts of the operations, such as those caused by emissions into

the air. Knowledge of the environmental impacts of operations is a condition for granting an

environmental permit. In practice, the knowledge requirement also means that operators have

an obligation to monitor the impacts of emissions on the state of the environment, in addition

to other monitoring, control and measurement obligations. In addition, operators must

organise their operations in such a way that environmental pollution can be prevented in

advance, and where pollution cannot be fully prevented, it must be limited to the lowest level

possible.

Obligations of municipalities

The Environmental Protection Act also contains provisions on the obligations of municipalities.

The act requires that within their territories, municipalities see to the necessary monitoring of

the state of the environment according to local conditions, and ensure good air quality in their

territories. If a limit value is exceeded, or if there is a risk of such, municipalities must prepare

air quality protection plans aimed at keeping pollution below the limit value.

13 Government Decision on the air quality guideline values and sulphur deposition target value (Valtioneuvoston päätös ilmanlaadun ohjearvoista ja rikkilaskeuman tavoitearvosta 480/1996)



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The air quality protection plan must contain information on the following, for example:

concentrations detected, the extent of the area where limit values are exceeded and the size of

the population exposed, the amount of emissions, the emission sources and the reasons for the

exceedance, including any load originating from outside the area in question, as well as

information on the responsible authorities and on any measures targeted at transport and

other activities causing emissions.

No air quality protection plan needs to be drawn up in cases concerning the exceedance of limit

values specified for PM10 that is caused by sanding or salting for the winter maintenance of

roads and streets. In such cases, the municipality may prepare, instead of an air quality

protection plan, a report on the exceedance of the limit values, the reasons for the exceedance,

and the measures required to lower concentrations. The requirements set for the content of

such “sanding reports” are lower than those set for air quality protection plans. However, the

report must contain information on the concentrations, the extent of the area where limit

values are exceeded, the impacts of sanding and salting on the concentrations, and the

measures to lower concentrations.

According to the Environmental Protection Act, in the implementation of plans drawn up to

secure air quality, municipalities may issue regulations on restricting and suspending activities

other than those subject to a permit and registration. A municipality can change traffic

arrangements or even prohibit traffic in a certain area, for example. In addition, to enforce the

act, municipalities may issue necessary general regulations based on local circumstances,

pertaining to the entire municipality or a part of it (municipal environmental protection

regulations). The regulations may apply to activities, limitations and structures that prevent

emissions, or their harmful impacts. For instance, the regulations may relate to the use of solid

fuels, such as wood, in certain areas.

1.1.2 Climate change policy and its impact on air pollution control

Air pollution control and climate change policy have several links, as their policy measures

target the same emissions sources. Such measures include increasing the share of renewable

and low-carbon energy sources, promoting cleantech solutions and improving energy

efficiency. However, certain objectives, such as increasing the use of bioenergy, if this means

an increase in small-scale woodburning, and reducing air pollutants, may be in conflict with

each other, and their reconciliation requires further measures. Air pollutant emissions, and

black carbon in particular, also have significant impacts on the climate. More attention should

be paid to these impacts in climate change policy assessments.

In addition to national energy and climate change policy objectives, the content of Finland’s

climate change policy is affected by the obligations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

established in EU legislation (Table 6). These are split between the EU Emissions Trading

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System (EU ETS) sector (energy production and energy), which has an EU-wide obligation, and

the sectors not covered by the EU ETS (e.g. transport, buildings, agriculture and waste), in

which a national emission reduction target has been set for each Member State.

Table 6. Obligations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in relation to the 2005 levels

By 2020 By 2030

EU-wide obligation (EU ETS sector) -21% -43%

Finland’s national target (non-EU ETS sector) -16% -39%

The Climate Change Act14 establishes a framework for the planning of climate change policy in

Finland and the monitoring of its implementation, while concrete policy measures are defined

in the National Energy and Climate Strategy for 203015 and the Medium-term Climate Change

Policy Plan for 2030 (KAISU)16 adopted by the Government. Their key measures affecting air

pollution control are listed in Annexes 3 and 4.

Climate Change Act

The Climate Change Act lays down provisions on the planning system for climate change policy

and on the monitoring of the implementation of the climate change policy objectives. The goal

of the planning system is to contribute towards meeting the binding obligations set for Finland

relating to greenhouse gas emission reduction and monitoring, and towards mitigating climate

change and adapting to it through national measures. The Act sets a long-term target to

reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 80% by 2050 compared to the 1990 levels. Based

on the planning system, a medium-term climate change policy plan for 2030 has been drawn

up.

National Energy and Climate Strategy for 2030

Finland’s National Energy and Climate Strategy outlines the actions that will enable Finland to

attain the greenhouse gas emission reduction targets specified in the 2015 Programme of

Prime Minister Juha Sipilä’s Government and adopted in the EU for 2030, and to make

systematic progress towards achieving an 80−95 per cent reduction in greenhouse gas

emissions by 2050. According to the strategy, Finland will phase out the use of coal for energy,

with minor exceptions; the use of biofuels will be increased in the transport sector; and the

share of electricity, gas and renewable energy in the total energy consumption will be

increased, for example.

14 Climate Change Act (609/2015)

15 Huttunen R. (Ed.) 2017 Government report on the National Energy and Climate Strategy for 2030. Publications of the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment 12/2017.

16 Ministry of the Environment 2017. Government Report on Medium-term Climate Change Policy Plan for 2030 – Towards Climate-Smart Day-to-Day Living. Reports of the Ministry of the Environment 21en/2017.

https://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/2015/en20150609.pdf

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According to the impact assessment of the strategy, it is estimated that while the quantity of

air pollutants will decrease as a consequence of the policies proposed in the strategy, health

risks associated with them will continue to be significant. Policies seeking to reduce transport

performance or increase the number of electric and gas-powered vehicles play the most

significant role in reducing air pollutants, as they cut the emissions of nitrogen oxides and fine

particulate matter directly. However, the impact on air quality in cities will ultimately also

depend on trends in vehicle performance and their geographical distribution. For instance, a

decrease in vehicle performance resulting from a switch to walking, cycling and public

transport plays a significant role in improving air quality in cities, in particular.

The strategy’s policies will not significantly change the current status of small-scale

woodburning, meaning that no national measures are proposed relating to small-scale

woodburning. The strategy states, however, that emissions can be influenced by means of

technical standards, innovations, education and instructions issued by municipalities, among

other things, yet no measures relating to these are proposed.

Medium-term Climate Change Policy Plan for 2030

The Medium-term Climate Change Policy Plan for 2030 – Towards Climate-Smart Day-to-Day

Living (KAISU) outlines the means to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the non-emission

trading sectors, namely in transport, agriculture, building-specific heating and waste

management. The plan further specifies and supplements the emission reduction actions set

out in the National Energy and Climate Strategy. Linkages and cross-cutting themes between

the sectors are also examined, such as air pollution control, the role of consumption, and work

on climate change issues done locally and efforts to improve energy efficiency. The

implementation of the actions included in the plan has been started.

According to the plan, the greatest potential for reducing carbon dioxide emissions is in the

area of transport, especially in road transport. In this area, fossil fuels will be replaced with

renewable and low-emission fuels and power sources. With respect to air quality, switching to

electric vehicles is particularly important. In addition, the plan aims to improve the energy

efficiency of means of transport and the transport system. Combining various modes of

transport and reducing the transport performance of cars are of particular importance in

achieving the goal.

In the area of building-specific heating, phasing out oil heating will be encouraged, energy

efficiency will be improved, and the use of renewable energy as well as the clean combustion of

pellets and firewood will be promoted.

Most of these measures will also help to improve air quality. The plan does not include any

measures that would result in increased small-scale woodburning. If small-scale woodburning

increases for some other reason, adverse effects on air quality may also increase, unless

combustion technology and equipment, fuel quality, and awareness among equipment users

are improved simultaneously. Using the current stock of equipment, small-scale woodburning

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also produces a significant quantity of black carbon emissions, which have a significant

warming effect in the Arctic region. At the moment, there are no binding emission reduction

targets for black carbon emissions. However, it would be important to consider the impacts of

black carbon and other air pollutants on the climate, as part of national climate change policy

plans.

The Medium-term Climate Change Policy Plan for 2030 proposes measures that will create

better preconditions for developing public transport, cycling and walking, reducing the

transport performances of private cars in particular, and improving the energy performance of

buildings. Electric vehicles will reduce local emissions from combustion, thereby improving air

quality, promoting health and increasing comfort. In addition, reduced transport performances

will cut street dust emissions. Measures to reduce transport emissions include various

subsidies, as well as voluntary, informative and normative steering instruments.

1.1.3 The role and objectives of municipalities in air pollution control

According to Finnish legislation, municipalities play a key role in safeguarding good local air

quality (see section 4.2 for more detailed information with respect to the Environmental

Protection Act). For instance, municipalities monitor air quality in their territories and, based

on their monitoring activities, take any measures needed to improve air quality if the limit

values are exceeded or are at risk of being exceeded. However, the most important leverage to

affect air quality relates to decision-making other than that concerning actual air quality

monitoring. Municipalities make decisions on issues such as land use, transport and energy

production that have a significant impact on emissions, air quality and exposure.

One of the key areas of decision-making affecting emissions is the competence of

municipalities to grant environmental permits to other than large industrial installations.

Emissions are also affected through the supervision of these permits and of activities subject to

registration. In certain circumstances, municipalities can also affect emissions by issuing

environmental protection regulations applicable to activities other than those subject to a

permit or registration, to prevent environmental pollution.

Any of the decisions referred to above must be supported by a comprehensive impact

assessment carried out in advance in collaboration between various sectors so as to ensure that

impacts on air quality and human health are also considered.

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MAL agreements17 support cooperation in urban municipalities, and between municipalities

and the State, in community structure guidance and the coordination of land use, living and

transport. In terms of energy-efficiency and local air quality, district heating, combined heat

and power generation and district cooling are good ways of producing and distributing energy

in densely populated agglomerations. Land use and urban planning and decisions relating to

the siting of buildings also affect local people’s exposure. In addition, local air pollution control

includes measures to reduce street dust and emissions from small-scale woodburning.

Municipalities draw up a strategy for each term of the municipal council, specifying the

objectives and priorities of the coming years. The need to ensure a healthy living environment

that promotes well-being and to mitigate climate change is already reflected in municipal

strategies. Many municipalities have joined voluntary agreements (such as energy efficiency

agreements and Society’s Commitments to Sustainable Development) and networks that take

climate action, such as the HINKU Forum18 and the FISU network19. The work carried out for

the climate by many projects and networks also contributes to air pollution control. The

achievement of the objectives set in the municipal strategy is monitored by issuing an

extensive report on well-being for each term of the municipal council, for example. The report

can also incorporate indicators relating to the living environment and air quality.

17 Agreements concerning land use, housing and transport (MAL) are agreements that the State concludes with the main city regions in Finland.

https://www.ym.fi/en-US/Land_use_and_building/Steering_of_land_use_planning/Landuse_housing_and_transport_letters_of_intent

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1.1.4 The role and objectives of key sectors in air pollution control

In Finland, emissions of air pollutants are generated by industry and energy production,

transport and agriculture, in particular. Finland reduces emissions mainly by implementing the

EU’s sector-specific emission regulations, and no sector-specific targets have been set. A

specific action plan has only been prepared for agriculture.20

1.1.4.1 Industry and energy production

Industry and energy production are still significant emission sources of sulphur dioxide,

nitrogen oxides, fine particulate matter and volatile organic compounds. However, all

emissions have fallen significantly and will continue to fall thanks to emission reduction

obligations set directly for the activities and indirectly due to increased use of low-emission and

emission-free energy sources and improved energy efficiency in production and consumption.

Key EU legislation concerning industry and energy production includes the Industrial Emissions

Directive21 and the Medium Combustion Plant Directive22. These have been implemented in

Finland with provisions on environmental permit and registration procedures, in accordance

with the Environmental Protection Act and with Government decrees23 that include emission

limit values and other detailed requirements.

18 HINKU Forum 19 FISU network 20 Action plan to reduce ammonia emissions from agriculture in Finland 21 Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial emissions (integrated pollution prevention and control). 22 Directive (EU) 2015/2193 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2015 on the limitation of emissions of certain pollutants into the air from medium combustion plants 23 Government Decree on Limiting Emissions from Large Combustion Plants (936/2014), Government Decree on Environmental Protection Requirements for Medium-sized Energy Production Units (1065/2017) and Government Decree on Waste Incineration (151/2013)

http://www.hinku-foorumi.fi/en-US

http://www.fisunetwork.fi/en-US

http://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/160629/MMM_1b_2018.pdf

https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32015L2193



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https://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/2017/en20171065



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Emissions into the air from industrial installations that are significant in terms of the

environment (installations covered by the directive) are limited by requiring, in the

environmental permit procedure, that the best available techniques (BAT) be introduced. In

implementing the requirement for the best available techniques, the emission limit values,

monitoring and other permit regulations of an installation covered by the directive must be

based on the BAT conclusions. The Environmental Protection Act also requires that

installations subject to an environmental permit that are smaller than installations covered by

the directive utilise the best available techniques.

Emissions into the air from industry and energy production can also be cut by increasing the

share of low-emission or emission-free forms of energy production. Measures to promote this

end are included in both the National Energy and Climate Strategy and the Medium-term

Climate Change Policy Plan for 2030 (for further details, see section 1.1.2).

Emissions from energy production can also be lowered by taking energy-efficiency measures.

As energy efficiency improves, the need to produce energy reduces. The Environmental

Protection Act provides for the possibility that the environmental permit gives regulations on

the energy efficiency of installations covered by the directive. According to the act, the

issuance of such regulations is not, however, required if the operator has joined an energy-

efficiency agreement or other similar voluntary arrangement. These voluntary energy-

efficiency agreements play a significant role in Finland, and they have become the primary

means of promoting energy efficiency. The energy-efficiency agreement for businesses

concluded for 2017–2025 covers industry, the energy sector and the private service sector.

1.1.4.2 Transport

Transport is a significant emission source of nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds,

particulate matter and carbon dioxide. Road transport no longer causes sulphur dioxide

emissions. Exhaust emissions from vehicles have been cut and will continue to be cut

effectively through EU legislation on different types of vehicles. However, the increase in traffic

volumes will slow down the reduction in total emissions, although unit emissions will decrease.

Finland has not been as successful in reducing street dust as in lowering direct exhaust

emissions from transport. Street dust manifests itself in elevated PM10 concentrations in spring,

in particular. Municipalities control street dust by enhanced street and road cleaning and dust

binding. It has been possible to lower the concentrations slightly from the top levels recorded

in the 1990s.

32


At the moment, the key reason for developing transport systems and the stock of vehicles is

climate change mitigation. In addition to climate change policy objectives, the environmental

strategy of the Ministry of Transport and Communications24 sets out goals to cut nitrogen

oxide and particulate emissions. Nitrogen oxide emissions from road transport should be

reduced by 25% and particulate emissions by 20% by 2020 in comparison with 2011. The goal is

to achieve a significant improvement in air quality in urban areas as a result of decreased

emissions, and a reduction in cases of premature death and illness arising from poor air quality.

Most measures relating to the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions, such as the decrease in

transport performance, developments relating to the means of travel and the urban structure,

and switching to electric and gas-powered vehicles, will also lower the emissions of air

pollutants – above all the emissions of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter – and thus

measures primarily taken for climate change policy reasons will also support the reduction of

adverse effects on human health caused by poor air quality. By 2030, the goal is to have, in

total, a minimum of 250,000 electric vehicles (fully electric vehicles, hydrogen-powered

vehicles and rechargeable hybrids) and at least 50,000 gas-powered vehicles on the roads.25 All

these measures will be implemented in the next few years as part of the implementation of the

strategies.

The National Energy and Climate Strategy and the Medium-term Climate Change Policy Plan

for 2030 (KAISU) outline actions to achieve Finland’s national climate change policy objectives

(see section 1.1.2). According to the strategy, the use of biofuels will be increased in the

transport sector and the share of electricity, gas and renewable energy in the total energy

consumption will be increased.

The Medium-term Climate Change Policy Plan for 2030 proposes measures that will create

better preconditions for developing public transport, cycling and walking, and for reducing the

transport performances of private cars in particular. In addition to exhaust emissions, reduced

transport performances will cut street dust emissions. Measures to reduce transport emissions

include various subsidies, as well as voluntary, informative and normative steering instruments.

The implementation of the measures has been started by reserving an appropriation in the

central government budget for the construction of infrastructure for charging electric vehicles,

for supporting the acquisition of electric cars, and for promoting walking and cycling.

Alternative solutions to develop transport are also discussed in the report on carbon-free

transport by the Transport Climate Policy working group26. The report describes three

alternative scenarios for eliminating transport-caused emissions: the development of services,

the use of biofuels and the utilisation of technological solutions27. 24 Environmental Strategy for Transport 2013-2020

25 Government Report on Medium-term Climate Change Policy Plan for 2030. Reports of the Ministry of the Environment 21en/2017. 26 Hiiletön liikenne 2045 27 Hiiletön liikenne 2045 – polkuja päästöttömään tulevaisuuteen (Carbon-free transport by 2045 – Paths to an emission-free future – Interim report by the Transport Climate Policy working group). Liikenne- ja viestintäministeriön julkaisuja 9/2018.

http://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/handle/10024/77927


33


The impacts of the alternatives on air quality have not been assessed, but air quality would

probably improve regardless of the scenario selected.

One of the most important ways to improve air quality is the objective to switch from private

motoring to walking, cycling and the use of public transport services. This aim is supported by

several measures, including the programme for the promotion of walking and cycling28 and the

development of Mobility as a Service (MaaS) solutions. With regard to the means of travel, the

target set in the promotion programme is a share of 35–38% for walking and cycling in 2030

instead of the current 30%. In the more extensive MaaS model, service users in urban areas are

provided with market-based mobility and transport services to meet their needs, and thus they

do not have to use or own a private car of their own.29

Emissions from transport are reduced indirectly by the limit values set in the EU for passenger

cars, vans and heavy-duty vehicles30. At the moment, the limit values set for passenger cars

and vans are being tightened to at least a 15% reduction from 2025 and at least a 35%

reduction from 2030 onwards. The corresponding limits for heavy-duty vehicles are 15% from

2025 and at least 30% from 2030 onwards. The limit values are manufacturer-specific, and they

are calculated on the basis of the vehicles sold by the manufacturer. Therefore, the tighter the

limit values achieved, the higher the probability that the manufacturer benefits from focusing

on the development of zero- or low-emission vehicles, in particular.

1.1.4.3 Agriculture

The obligations to reduce air pollutant emissions from agriculture are based on the

requirements set in the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution and the

NECD. These obligations concern ammonia emissions, in particular. As much as 90% of total

ammonia emissions originate from agriculture. Finland has had difficulties in taking sufficient

measures to limit ammonia emissions since 2010. In order to meet the obligations, the Ministry

of Agriculture and Forestry and the Ministry of the Environment adopted an action plan to

reduce ammonia emissions from agriculture in Finland31 in 2017. The action plan defines the

measures that need to be taken to achieve the level of ammonia emissions required to meet

the commitment set for 2020 in the NECD. The action plan will be updated for the period 2021–

2030 in 2019.

In Finland, agriculture is the most significant (more than 90%) source of ammonia (NH3)

emissions. Therefore, the commitment set in the NECD to reduce emissions by 20% from 2020

onwards compared with 2005 mainly concerns agriculture.

28 Kävelyn ja pyöräilyn edistämisohjelma (Programme for the promotion of walking and cycling) 29 See Göran Smith, Jana Sochor, Steven Sarasini: Mobility as a service: Comparing developments in Sweden and Finland. Research in Transportation Business & Management 2018. In press.

30 COM(2018) 284 and COM(2017) 676. 31 Action plan to reduce ammonia emissions from agriculture in Finland (2018). Publications of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 1b/2018.


http://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/160629/MMM_1b_2018.pdf

34


According to the Environmental Protection Act (527/2014), a permit is required for activities

that pose a risk of environmental pollution. This permit requirement is partly based on the

Industrial Emissions Directive (installations covered by the directive) and partly purely on

national regulations (national list of installations). The permit requirements for farm animal

facilities are based on the keeping of livestock in the facilities. The facilities also comprise the

exercise and grazing areas and the storage, handling and utilisation of the manure, urine and

wastewater produced in them. The environmental permit may include regulations on the

limitation of ammonia emissions.

Pig and poultry production units that fall within the scope of the Industrial Emissions Directive

apply the BAT conclusions established for the intensive rearing of poultry and pigs

(Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2017/302). The Environmental Protection Act also

requires that farm animal facilities subject to an environmental permit that are smaller than

installations covered by the directive utilise the best available techniques.

In addition, the Nitrates Decree32 regulates ammonia emissions (requirements relating to

manure storage and application and the maximum amounts of nitrogen fertilisers).

The regulations in the environmental permit may also be stricter than those in the Nitrates

Decree concerning, for example, more rapid incorporation of manure (within 4 hours, for

example) and fixed covers on manure stores (including the existing ones). The permit may also

require that slurry may only be spread by injection or that spreading in windy conditions should

be avoided. As presented above, the permit regulations must be based on the best available

techniques, but the use of a specific technique cannot be required.

The various forms of aid under the EU’s common agricultural policy and the related conditions

(the Rural Development Programme for Mainland Finland 2014–2020) affect the application

rates and handling of manure and fertilisers and the related investments, for example.

Negotiations concerning aid for the post-2020 period (2021–2027) were started in summer

2018.

1.1.4.4 Small-scale woodburning


Finland, accounting for approximately 50% of all domestic PM2.5 emissions. In the future,

emissions from other sources are expected to fall significantly in accordance with the current

legislation, while it appears that emissions from small-scale woodburning will remain at the

current level or will only decrease slightly.

32 Government Decree on Limiting Certain Emissions from Agriculture and Horticulture 1250/2014

https://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/2014/en20141250_20151261.pdf

https://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/2014/en20141250_20151261.pdf

35


No quantitative targets or obligations have been set to limit emissions from small-scale

woodburning. The Commission Regulations on new fireplaces (2015/1185) and boilers

(2015/1189) issued pursuant to the EU Ecodesign Directive (2009/125/ EC), which will enter into

force in 2020 and 2022, will slowly affect the amounts of fine particulate matter emissions. The

provisions do not apply to sauna stoves, which are the most significant individual source of

emissions from small-scale woodburning in Finland. Therefore, national measures are required

to reduce emissions from small-scale woodburning and the adverse effects they cause. In

particular, promoting the right methods of using fireplaces and encouraging the use of lower-

emission sauna stoves have been found to be feasible, effective and cost-effective ways to

reduce the adverse effects caused by small-scale woodburning. Such measures are proposed in

Table 11 in section 6.2.

Small-scale woodburning is also clearly the most significant source of black carbon emissions in

Finland. Black carbon is a climate forcer, the warming effect of which is emphasised in the

Arctic region (e.g. AMAP Assessment 2015). Reducing emissions from small-scale woodburning

will also limit black carbon emissions.

1.1.5 Reducing black carbon and methane emissions

The aim of reducing black carbon and methane emissions is to slow down climate change by

addressing short-lived climate forcers in addition to carbon dioxide emissions.

Measures taken to limit black carbon emissions will also reduce fine particulate matter

emissions and will thus improve air quality. The Arctic Council, of which Finland is a member,

has issued a recommendation to limit black carbon emissions by 25–33% by 2025 compared to

2013 levels33. The members of the Arctic Council34 have committed themselves to report

information on black carbon emissions, prepare projections on emission trends and outline

measures to limit emissions.

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has discussed black carbon emissions from

ships in the Arctic region. Negotiations on measures to limit black carbon emissions from ships

will be initiated in spring 2019.

No quantitative targets have been set for reducing methane emissions at international or EU

level. Methane emissions are reduced by waste management measures, such as prohibiting the

landfilling of organic waste. No obligations or targets to reduce methane emissions have been

set for agriculture.

33 Arctic Council Ministerial Meeting, 11 May 2017, Fairbanks, USA. 34 Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the United States.

36


2 Responsibilities at national, regional and local levels

The responsibilities of the key authorities and other actors in the field of air pollution control in

Finland are listed in Table 7.

Table 7. Key authorities and other actors in the field of air pollution control in Finland

Actor Responsibilities

Ministry of the Environment

Prepares national air pollution control objectives, participates in international

cooperation, and develops and prepares legislation on air pollution control

and other environmental protection. National contact point for the

Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. National

coordination of the Medium-term Climate Change Policy Plan (KAISU).

Property-specific energy production and use, and implementation of the

Ecodesign Directive. policy making, coordination

Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment

Responsibilities within the ministry’s own sector, such as the National Energy

and Climate Strategy, as well as industry and energy policy measures. policy making

Ministry of Social Affairs and Health

Responsibilities within the ministry’s own sector, such as reducing the adverse effects of air pollutants on human health. policy making

Ministry of Transport and Communications

Responsibilities within the ministry’s own sector, such as transport emissions reduction and transport policy measures. policy making

Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry

Responsibilities within the ministry’s own sector, such as reduction of ammonia emissions from agriculture. policy making

Ministry of Finance Responsibilities within the ministry’s own sector, such as economic

instruments relating to emission reduction, including fuel taxes and transport

taxes policy making

Regional State Administrative Agencies (AVI)/National Supervisory Authority of Finland (Luova)

Grant environmental permits to installations (all the large and some of the

medium-sized) falling under their competence. implementation

Centres for Economic

Development,

Transport and the

Environment (ELY

Centres)/National

Supervisory Authority

of Finland (Luova)

Guide and promote air pollution control in their respective areas.

Supervise environmental permits granted by the state supervisory authority

(AVI). Work related to air pollution control is carried out, in particular, in the

context of the supervision of energy production units and industrial

installations (e.g. supervise compliance with emission limit values and, where

necessary, negotiate with operators on measures required to reduce

emissions).

implementation, enforcement

37


Actor Responsibilities

Other supervisory authorities relevant to air pollutant emissions covered by the Environmental Protection Act

Finnish Safety and Chemicals Agency (Tukes) and Finnish Transport and Communications Agency (Traficom)

Market surveillance of paints and varnishes that contain VOCs, as well as of combustion engines installed in machinery.

Municipalities Monitor air quality in agglomerations; safeguard and promote local air

quality; grant environmental permits to installations (the small and some of

the medium-sized) falling under their competence; supervise the

environmental permits of installations that they have granted, as well as

activities subject to registration (e.g. energy production); decide on town and

country planning and make decisions on transport and energy production

that have a significant impact on emissions, air quality and exposure; issue

environmental protection regulations to prevent environmental pollution

applied to activities other than those subject to a permit or registration. implementation, enforcement

Expert agencies and

research institutes

Finnish Meteorological Institute

Monitoring of air quality outside agglomerations; air quality modelling,

research and reporting; the national air quality reference laboratory;

maintenance of the air quality section in the environmental protection

database.

Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE)

Air pollutant emission scenarios and modelling, emission inventories,

reporting, research, impact assessment and monitoring; expert research

services to support the preparation and implementation of national and

international air pollution control legislation; the National Focal Point for

BAT information exchange.

National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL)

Research into exposure to air pollutants and related adverse effects on

human health, impact assessment, support for ministries, regional

administration and municipalities relating to the theme, international

cooperation (WHO, in particular).

Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke)

Monitoring of the ecological impacts of air pollutants on forests.

VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd Modelling and calculation of transport emissions research, monitoring of effects

Operators Reduction, control and management of emissions and the related risks caused by the activities; monitoring and reporting to authorities; compliance with permit regulations (e.g. emission limit values) and the environmental protection requirements set for activities subject to registration (e.g. emission limit values); provision of information; air quality monitoring in accordance with the permit decision, carried out together with other operators and the municipality as joint monitoring.

38


3 Trends in air pollution control measures, as well as in air quality and other environmental impacts, in the period 1990–2017

3.1 Emission trends

Finland’s emissions into the air (NOx, NMVOC, SOx, NH3, PM2.5, PM10, CH4 and black carbon)

from the 1980s until 2017 are illustrated in Figures 1–3. International water transport and air

transport have been excluded from the emission calculations. National emissions include

emissions from domestic water transport (inland waters and territorial waters) and air

transport (internal flights and landing and take-off cycles of international flights). Finland’s

emissions have fallen significantly, mainly based on technological development rather than

changes in consumption or production patterns. This reduction in emissions has been

contributed to by international agreements, the implementation of EU legislation, and specific

national legislation. Sulphur dioxide emissions have been reduced mainly by measures in

industry (desulphurisation systems, fuel quality); nitrogen oxide emissions by measures in

transport (passenger car engine technology and catalytic converters), as well as in energy

production and industry (combustion and deNOx technologies); volatile organic compounds by

measures in transport and industry; and particulate emissions by measures in energy

production, industry (electrostatic precipitators) and transport. In the period 1990–2017, PM2.5

emissions have, on average, accounted for 64% of PM10 emissions (range 59–74%). The

development of ammonia emissions results from changes in the number of livestock and

measures related to manure management.

39


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Figure 1. Emissions of nitrogen and sulphur oxides, volatile organic compounds,

ammonia, methane and PM2.5 in Finland in the period 1980–2017 (kilotonnes, kt).

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Figure 2. Finland’s air pollutant emission trends (NOx, SOx, NH3, NMVOC, PM2.5 and PM10) (kt/a) by emission source. NMVOC emissions include NMVOC emissions caused by livestock, which are not covered by the NECD and which are not included in the scenarios presented in Chapter 5.

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Figure 3. Methane and black carbon emission (kt/a) trends in Finland in the period 1990–

2017 by emission source.

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3.2 Air quality trends and current air quality situation

Air pollutant concentrations in Finland are low compared to many European cities. Most

concentrations have fallen so much over the period 1990–2016 that the air quality limit values

are not exceeded or are only rarely exceeded. However, air pollutants still cause adverse effects

on both human health and the environment. A large proportion of air pollution comes to

Finland as long-range transboundary pollution.

The limiting of acidifying sulphur dioxide emissions was started as European cooperation as

early as the 1980s, and emissions and concentrations started to decline sharply. In the 2000s,

the decline in sulphur dioxide concentrations has been only slight. Locally elevated sulphur

dioxide levels may mainly be recorded momentarily in the context of industrial incidents.

Similar trends can also be seen in total reduced sulphur (TRS) emissions.

Nitrogen dioxide concentrations have fallen since the early 1990s, although clearly more slowly

than sulphur dioxide concentrations. The situation is worst in the busiest street canyons in

Helsinki, where the annual limit value set for nitrogen dioxide to protect human health was

exceeded in official air quality measurements in the period 2010–2015. Since 2015, the limit

values have, however, only been exceeded in indicative measurements. The emission

standards defined for petrol engines have also clearly lowered carbon monoxide and

hydrocarbon concentrations in traffic environments.

Finland has not been as successful in reducing street dust as in lowering direct exhaust

emissions from transport. Street dust manifests itself in elevated PM10 concentrations in spring,

in particular. Municipalities control street dust by enhanced street and road cleaning and dust

binding. Annual PM10 concentrations have thus fallen slightly from the top levels recorded in

the 1990s. In addition, thanks to street dust control measures, the number of times the 24-hour

PM10 limit value has been exceeded has decreased significantly in the Helsinki metropolitan

area, for example. The PM10 limit values have not been exceeded in Finland since 2006.

In Finland, fine particulate matter (PM2.5) measurements were included in air quality monitoring

programmes approximately ten years ago, which was before this was explicitly required by EU

legislation (the Ambient Air Quality Directive). In Finland, PM2.5 levels at all measurement sites

(43 stations in 2016) are less than half of the limit values set for the protection of human health,

and the concentrations have fallen slightly. Fine particulate matter found in the air either

originates directly from emission sources or is formed in the air when gases interact with one

another. In particular, small-scale burning of wood and other solid fuels often produces

significant amounts of direct emissions or substances that rapidly develop into particulates in

ambient air. Similarly, traffic and street dust can be considerable sources of fine particulate

matter emissions.

42


The majority of fine particulate matter in ambient air results from long-range transboundary air

pollution and consists of secondary particles, meaning particles formed in the atmosphere from

chemical reactions between gases (sulphates, nitrates, ammonium compounds, organic

compounds, etc.). Particles formed in this way are permanent in the air and can be formed

slowly, which means that their effects can often be seen far away from the emission source.

Domestic sources are estimated to account for, on average, 20% of PM2.5 concentrations in

ambient air, including both primary and secondary particles.35 However, a significant share of

domestic emissions is produced in areas where the population density is also high, and thus

they have a considerable impact on the population’s exposure to air pollutants. Examples of

this include nitrogen dioxide and PM10 in traffic environments, and PM2.5, benzo[a]pyrene and

black carbon in areas with detached houses where small-scale woodburning is very common.

There have been no clear changes in ozone concentrations. Ozone can travel long distances,

and its highest concentrations are typically recorded at urban background locations and in rural

areas. The numerical value (120 µg/m3) of the long-term objective set for the protection of

human health is exceeded in Finland annually, but the number of days on which the limit value

has been exceeded has remained below 25. Therefore, the target value set for 2010 has not

been exceeded.

The general improvement of air quality has resulted in reduced population exposure to many

toxic organic and inorganic substances, especially in cities and industrial agglomerations. This

is likely to have benefited public health significantly in Finland.

Air quality trends at the air quality measurement stations of certain locations in Finland are

presented in Figures 4–9.

35 EMEP Status Report 1/2016

43


Sulphur dioxide

SO2 annual

averages

Critical level

Source: FMI, cities, SYKE

Nitrogen dioxide

NO2 annual

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square Kokkola

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Figure 4. Sulphur dioxide concentrations (annual averages, µg/m3) at the air

quality measurement stations of certain locations and total sulphur dioxide

emissions (kt) in Finland 1980–2017.

300 NO2 emissions

Helsinki Töölöntulli 50 Helsinki Hämeentie

Helsinki Mäkelänkatu Helsinki Mechelininkatu

Helsinki Mannerheimint 40 Turku market square

200 Lahti Vesku Oulu city centre Vantaa Tikkurila

30 Helsinki Vallila Helsinki Kallio Raisio city centre Kajaani city centre

20 Jyväskylä Lyseo 100 Lahti Kisapuisto

Kotka Kirjastotalo Oulu Pyykösjärvi

10 Imatra Rautionkylä Porvoo Mustijoki Espoo Luukki Virolahti

0 0 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015

Utö Ähtäri

Figure 5. Nitrogen dioxide concentrations (annual averages, µg/m3) at the air

quality measurement stations of certain locations and total nitrogen dioxide

emissions (kt) in Finland 1994–2017.

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Raja-arvo

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direct PM2.5 emissions Helsinki Töölöntulli EspooTuomarila Helsinki Hämeentie

Helsinki Mannerheimint Tampere Epilä Turku Oriketo Helsinki Mäkelänkatu Helsinki Mechelin Helsinki Kallio

Helsinki Katajanokka Oulu city centre Lappeenranta Tirilä Imatra Rautionkylä

Lahti market square Vantaa Tikkurila

Tampere bus station Lappeenranta city centre Helsinki Vartiokylä Espoo Leppävaara Espoo Lintuvaara Lappeenranta Pulp Tampere Kaleva Raahe Merikatu

Espoo Luukki Virolahti Kouvola Kankaan Koulu Vaasa water tower

Kuopio Kasarmipuisto Vantaa Hämeenlinnanv Imatra Teppanala Lohja Nahkurintori Utö Kuopio Niirala

Vaasa city centre Rovaniemi Etelärinne Lahti Saimaankatu Varkaus main health centre

Vantaa waste-to-energy plant Kittilä Matorova

Source: FMI, cities, SYKE

Figure 6. Fine particulate matter concentrations (annual averages, µg/m3) at the

air quality measurement stations of certain locations and total fine particulate

matter emissions (kt) in Finland 1998–2017.

Helsinki Töölöntulli Helsinki Mäkelänkatu

40 Helsinki Mannerheimint Helsinki Töölö Turku Market Place Helsinki Vallila

Lahti Laune Tampere Pirkankatu

Pietarsaari Bottenviks Lahti Market Place

30 Vaasa Centre Kotka Rauhala Helsinki Kallio Kotka Library

Raisio Centre Imatra Teppanala

Lappeenranta Joutseno Jyväskylä Lyseo

20 Heinola Centre Kokkola Centre

Raahe Centre Varkaus Psaari

Äänekoski Hiski Rauma Hallikatu

Imatra Mansikkala Naantali Centre 10 Imatra Rautionkylä Kuopio Kasarmipuisto

Jyväskylä Palokka Oulu Pyykösjärvi

Kokkola Ykspihlaja Kaarina

0

1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 2014 2018

Muonio Sammaltunt

Source: FMI, cities

Figure 7. PM10 concentrations (annual averages, µg/m3) at the air quality

measurement stations of certain locations in Finland 1994–2017.

Fine particulate

matter PM2.5

annual averages

WHO guideline value

PM

2.5

con

cen

tra

tio

n µ

g/m

3

PM

10 c

on

cen

tra

tio

n µ

g/m

3

Dir

ect

PM

2.5

em

issi

on

s

kt

45


2.0

1.5

Benzo[a]pyrene BaP annual averages

Target value

Raahe Lapaluoto

Vantaa Päiväkumpu

Vantaa Ruskeasanta

Espoo Lintuvaara

Helsinki Puistola

Vantaa Rekola

Vantaa Rekola Etelä

Loviisa

Raahe Merikatu Espoo Kattilalaakso

1.0 Helsinki Vartiokylä

Raahe Centre

Helsinki Mäkelänkatu

0.5

0.0

2008 2010 2012 2014 2016

Helsinki Kallio

Kirkkonummi Veikkola

Virolahti

Juupajoki Hyytiälä

Kittilä Matorova

Source: FMI, cities

Figure 8. Benzo[a]pyrene concentrations (annual averages, µg/m3) at the air

quality measurement stations of certain locations in Finland 2008–2017.

12 Arsenic As annual averages Harjavalta Kaleva

Harjavalta Pirkkala

10 Helsinki Kallio

Raahe Lapaluoto

8

6

Target value

4

2

0 2012 2014 2016

Raahe Merikatu

Raahe Centre

Kokkola Yksipihlaja

Virolahti

Ähtäri

Juupajoki Hyytiälä

Kittilä Matorova

Source: FMI and cities

Figure 9. Arsenic concentrations (annual averages, ng/m3) at the air quality

measurement stations of certain locations in Finland 2007–2017.

Ba

P c

on

cen

tra

tio

n n

g/m

3 A

s co

nce

ntr

ati

on

ng

/m3

46


3.3 Adverse effects of air pollutants on human health

The emissions of all common gaseous and particulate pollutants have fallen considerably over

the past few decades, which has been directly reflected in their concentrations in ambient air in

cities and industrial agglomerations.

The adverse effects of air pollutants on human health are mainly (64%) caused by fine

particulate matter (PM2.5), which contains carcinogenic compounds and heavy metals, for

example. PM10 accounts for 13% of adverse effects, and nitrogen oxides (NOx) account for

13%.36 Particles are carried by air into all parts of the respiratory tract and not only cause direct

allergic, immunological and toxic effects in the lungs, but also partly enter the bloodstream and

are transferred further to other parts of the body, such as the myocardium and the brain. These

particles increase cardiovascular disease and mortality through oxidative stress and systemic

inflammation. The effects of other air pollutants are also severe, but less significant than those

of fine particulate matter.

Figure 10 illustrates the shares of various air pollutants in causing adverse effects to human

health in Finland in 2013. The assessment has been made using the disease burden concept.

Disease burden describes loss of health among the population. It combines the number of

years lost due to premature death with morbidity.

Figure 10. Shares of various air pollutants in the total disease burden caused by air

pollutants in Finland in 2013. TRS= total reduced sulphur, C6H6=benzene, PMc =

coarse particulate matter (Ministry of the Environment 2016). 36 Ilmansaasteiden terveysvaikutukset YMra_16_2016 (Health effects of air pollutants)

Supplementary assessment

Main assessment

Other

https://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/74861/YMra_16_2016.pdf

47


Although the air quality situation has improved clearly in Finland in recent years, adverse

effects on human health are still caused at the air pollutant levels recorded in Finland.

3.3.1 Adverse effects of fine particulate matter on human health

The mass concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) have fallen steadily over the past

few decades. Systematic measurement of PM2.5 concentrations was not started in cities in

Finland and other EU Member States until the early 2000s. The decrease in concentrations is

mainly attributable to extensive technological improvements implemented and being

implemented in industrial and energy installations and in road transport.

At the moment, the most important adverse effects of air pollutants are assessed to be those

caused by fine particulate matter. It has not been possible to identify an absolute safe

threshold level in terms of human health for fine particulate matter concentrations in urban air.

Numerous studies have found that even low fine particulate matter concentrations are harmful

to health and that limiting exposure to fine particulate matter is beneficial for health even at

low concentration levels. Risks of adverse health effects both appearing in the short term and

appearing in the long term grow as the PM2.5 concentration increases.

Scientific research in recent decades has shown that long-term exposure to PM2.5, in particular,

is harmful to cardiac, vascular and respiratory health (Janssen et al. 2012; WHO-REVIHAAP

2013; Chafe et al. 2015). The evidence is strongest for an elevated risk of chronic bronchitis, but

as fine particles penetrate the peripheral parts of the lungs and cause a continuous low-grade

inflammation there and in the blood circulation, this is likely to increase the risk of coronary

heart disease and cerebrovascular diseases, for example. According to an assessment carried

out by the WHO, long-term exposure (lasting several years or decades) to fine particulate

matter also increases the risk of lung cancer (WHO/IARC 2016). In addition, low-grade

inflammation appears to be associated with the development of many other chronic diseases.

Due to less reliable study designs and records than those used in the studies mentioned above,

there are far fewer studies on increased symptoms and usual pulmonary infections, outpatient

care visits, use of medication, and absences from work, school or kindergarten related to

exposure to particulate matter. This has led to the underestimation of many milder effects on

health, and in most cases, assessments of adverse effects focus on the assessment of

premature deaths and years of life lost.

Even short-term exposure to fine particulate matter can cause adverse effects on human

health. In the case of patients with respiratory diseases, such as asthma and chronic obstructive

pulmonary disease, elevated PM2.5 concentrations often increase symptoms and weaken their

condition rapidly, whereas in patients with cardiovascular diseases, adverse effects typically

appear several hours or days after higher than normal exposure. Several domestic and foreign

studies have demonstrated that the adverse effects of PM2.5 (sudden deaths, hospital

treatment, and changes in cardiac and pulmonary function) can be seen even at the lowest

48


concentrations measured in urban air or with personal monitors.

Fine particles that originate from combustion and that come from low nearby emission sources

grow rapidly into larger particles with a diameter of 0.1–1 µm in the atmosphere, which can

penetrate into dwellings and other buildings, such as schools and day-care centres, and stay in

the indoor air for several hours before they settle on surfaces. Therefore, they can be inhaled

into the lungs indoors for a much longer period than larger and heavier particulate pollutants. A

fairly considerable share of the total exposure to harmful chemical substances borne by black

carbon, for example, can thus happen within one’s own home, where most people spend most

of their time during the week or year. A higher total exposure increases the risk of morbidity in

sensitive population groups, or of the worsening of an existing chronic disease.

3.3.2 Assessments of the severity of adverse effects on human health

Advanced methods to assess premature mortality associated with exposure to air pollutants

have only been available to researchers for approximately ten years now. The EU’s second

programme on air quality, the Clean Air for Europe Programme (CAFE 2013), estimated on the

basis of the health study reviews of the World Health Organization (WHO) that long-term

exposure to PM2.5 caused approximately 380,000 premature deaths in the EU-27 in 2010,

mainly due to chronic cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. The worst gaseous air pollutant,

ozone, caused a further 26,000 sudden deaths. It was estimated that premature death resulting

from long-term exposure to fine particulate matter had shortened the lives of sensitive patients

with chronic diseases by approximately ten years, on average. The overall costs of premature

deaths and increased morbidity in the EU-27 in 2010 were estimated at EUR 330–940 billion,

including direct costs and indirect economic losses.

In studies, independent of one another and applying different methods to assess exposure, the

number of premature deaths caused by fine particulate matter in Finland during the period

2005–2015 has been estimated relatively consistently at 1,600–2,000 per year. The number of

sudden deaths caused by ozone has been estimated at less than 100 cases per year.

A Finnish assessment carried out on the situation in 2005 found that the population’s long-term

exposure to PM2.5 concentrations in ambient air caused a higher number of premature deaths

(1,800 cases) than all other common environmental factors combined (Hänninen et al. 2010)

(Figure 11).

49


Environmental exposure

Arsenic, drilled wells*

Benzene*

Radiation, drilled

wells

Chernobyl

Dioxin*

Ozone***

Drinking water chlorination*

Noise*

*

UV radiation

Radon

Passive smoking

Fine particulate

matter

0 50 100 150

Number of cases/year

* Includes both cancer morbidity and mortality

** One third of infarctions have been assumed to be fatal *** Divided by the ratio of the shortening of life expectancy attributable to deaths caused by fine particulate matter and ozone

Figure 11. Estimated numbers of premature deaths caused by environmental

pollutants and nuisance in Finland in 2005 (Hänninen et al. 2010).

According to an EU report (CAFE 2013), the estimated annual economic losses caused by

premature deaths and increased morbidity were approximately EUR 2.3–5.3 billion per year in

Finland in 2010.

3.3.3 Outlook by 2030

The impact of the National Energy and Climate Strategy and the EU’s air quality policy on the

disease burden and premature deaths caused by fine particulate matter in Finland has been

assessed (Karvosenoja et al. 2017). According to the assessment, the number of premature

deaths would decrease by approximately 20% between 2015 and 2030 if the population

remained unchanged. Approximately half of this reduction would result from reduction in long-

range transboundary pollution. Population growth and ageing, as well as continuing

urbanisation, will increase the quantity of adverse effects caused by fine particulate matter.

Taking into account the assumed demographic change, the estimated reduction in premature

deaths between 2015 and 2030 would be 10%.

With respect to domestic emission sources, the majority of health benefits would be achieved

by reduced exhaust emissions from transport. The adverse effects on human health caused by

small-scale woodburning and street dust are estimated to remain at approximately the current

level. Small-scale woodburning would thus be the most important individual factor

0.01

280

288

1,800

50


contributing to the disease burden caused by fine particulate matter, accounting for more than

50% of all PM2.5 emissions from domestic sources and premature deaths in 2030.

Street dust would account for less than 10% of all PM2.5 emissions in 2030. However, PM2.5 only

accounts for approximately 10% of all street dust particles, and the emissions of coarse

particulate matter (with a diameter between 2.5 µm and 10 µm) are considerably higher. Street

dust accounts for approximately one third of Finland’s total PM10 emissions. Coarse particulate

matter also causes serious adverse effects on health, especially to people suffering from

respiratory conditions and asthma. In addition, it reduces comfort during the street dust

season.

The report did not assess the adverse health effects of secondary particles emitted from

domestic sources, which may be significant. However, these effects will presumably decrease

in the future as gaseous emissions involved in the formation of such particles fall.

51


3.4 Environmental impacts of air pollutants

In order to assess the adverse effects of emissions that cause acidification, eutrophication and

the formation of ground-level ozone, critical loads have been set for various types of

ecosystems, meaning air pollutant depositions or concentrations below which emissions

should be reduced. Critical loads are set at a level below which significant long-term harmful

effects on sensitive elements of the environment do not occur according to current knowledge.

Acidification

Acidification of the environment refers to a process in which the capacity of soil or waters to

neutralise acid deposition from the atmosphere starts to weaken. As the process progresses,

the acid neutralising capacity of the system runs out, and the pH falls permanently below 5.

Low soil pH decreases the availability of alkaline nutrients to plants and increases the

conversion of aluminium and heavy metals into toxic soluble forms. Soluble metals, aluminium

in particular, and low pH damage aquatic organisms through acute or chronic toxic effects and

reduce biodiversity as species sensitive to acidification disappear.

The most significant acidifying compounds are sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and ammonia.

These emissions can be transported in the atmosphere over hundreds, even thousands of

kilometres. In the calculations modelled for 2014, domestic emissions are estimated to account

for 14% of the total deposition of oxidised sulphur compounds in Finland (EMEP 2016).

According to the modelling, 18% of oxidised nitrogen compounds and 38% of reduced nitrogen

compounds originated from domestic emissions in 2014 (EMEP 2016).

Acidifying compounds are deposited on the ground in rain as wet deposition or in particles and

gases as dry deposition. Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and ammonia emissions from Europe

have fallen considerably over recent decades.

In Finland, the estimated surface area of ecosystems at risk of acidification is less than 1% of

the total area of ecosystems (Table 8). This estimate is based on an assessment of the

acidification sensitivity of a representative group of lakes (total surface area 287 km2)

(Hettelingh et al. 2017).

Eutrophication

Eutrophication refers to an increase in primary production caused by an excessive supply of

nutrients to plants and algae. Nitrogen deposition, the amount of which is affected by

atmospheric emissions of nitrogen oxides and reduced nitrogen compounds (e.g. ammonia),

causes eutrophication in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

52


The estimates for eutrophication are based on empirical critical loads of nitrogen, which are in

the range of 3–5 kg N/hectare/year for most ecosystems in Finland (Holmberg et al. 2011, 2017).

It was estimated that the critical level for eutrophication will only be exceeded in 3% of the area

of ecosystems in Finland in 2020. The exceedances were calculated for ecosystems within

Natura 2000 sites, as well as for lakes and other habitats, covering a total area of 41,000 km2

(Hettelingh et al. 2017). Although the eutrophying atmospheric nitrogen deposition has

decreased in both the EU and Finland (Table 8), it still exceeds the critical level in some parts of

Southern and Western Finland (Hettelingh et al. 2017a) (Table 8, Figures 12 and 13). The

nitrogen deposition can also cause a threat to biodiversity (Table 8, Figure 14).

Table 8. Ecosystem area (% of the total area of ecosystems) where the critical

loads are exceeded in Finland and in the EU-28 in 2005 and 2020 (Hettelingh et al.

2017)

2005 2020

Finland EU-28 Finland EU-28

Acidification 1 14 0 6

Eutrophication 10 81 1 71

Biodiversity 9 28 4 10

53


Ozone formation

In Finland, the concentrations of ground-level ozone do not show a clear rising or declining

trend. In the 1990s, when measurement was started, the concentrations first rose, reached

their peak at the turn of the century, and have been in slight decline in the 2010s. The critical

levels set for the protection of vegetation were not exceeded in Finland in 2014 (EEA 2017).

However, the long-term objective set for the protection of vegetation (6,000 µg/m3 ∙ h) is often

exceeded at background stations in Southern Finland.

Figure 12. Ecosystem area at risk of acidification in Europe in 2005 and 2020


Figure 13. Ecosystem area at risk of eutrophication in Europe in 2005 and 2020


Exceedance (AAE) of CLaci Exceedance (AAE) of CLaci

Exceedance (AAE) of CLeutN Exceedance (AAE) of CLeutN

no exceedance no exceedance


54


Figure 14. Ecosystem area at risk of loss of biodiversity, meaning exceedances of

critical loads of deposition in Europe in 2005 and 2020 (Hettelingh et al. 2017).

Exceedance (AAE) of CLbio


Exceedance (AAE) of CLbio

55


4 Compliance with obligations related to emissions and air quality

As a general rule, Finland has reduced its atmospheric emissions at least in accordance with the

commitments and obligations laid down in EU directives and national legislation. In the period

2010–2016, the commitments were only exceeded for ammonia emissions. In general, air

quality in Finland is also good and air pollutant concentrations are low. However, emission

levels permitted according to the air quality obligations have been exceeded on some

occasions, as described above in section 3.2.

4.1 Exceedances related to emission reduction commitments

According to the EU’s first NECD (2001/81/EC), Finland’s maximum ammonia emissions since

2010 should have been 31 kilotonnes per year. In the period 1990–2015, Finland exceeded the

levels of emissions permitted according to its reduction commitments every year (Table 9). In

2018, Finland’s ammonia emissions into the air were calculated using a new revised method,

thanks to which the ammonia emissions have met the commitments since 2016.

Table 9. Total ammonia emissions and share of agriculture of the emissions in 1990, 2005 and 2010–2016

Year Total emissions (kt)

Agriculture (kt)

1990 33.0 31.1

2005 37.3 31.7

2010 34.9 31.0

2011 33.8 30.3

2012 33.3 29.9

2013 32.7 29.5

2014 33.1 29.8

2015 31.4 28.5

2016 31.0 28.1

56


4.2 Exceedances of obligations related to air quality

The annual limit value set for nitrogen dioxide and the 24-hour limit value set for PM10

have been exceeded occasionally in the largest cities and in the vicinity of busy roads.37

The concentrations of lead, carbon monoxide, benzene and sulphur dioxide recorded

in Finland are clearly below the limit values set in the Ambient Air Quality Directive. In

addition, the pollutant concentrations recorded across Finland are below the one-hour

limit value for nitrogen dioxide and the annual limit values for PM10 and PM2.5.

Annual limit value for nitrogen dioxide

The annual limit value for nitrogen dioxide set for the protection of human health, 40 µg/m3,

has been exceeded in Helsinki only. Exceedances have been recorded since 2005 at individual

measurement stations. The annual limit value for nitrogen dioxide has been binding on

Member States in the EU since 2010. The European Commission granted the City of Helsinki a

postponement of the deadline for compliance under the Ambient Air Quality Directive with

respect to the limit value for nitrogen dioxide until the beginning of 2015.

According to national legislation, if a limit value is exceeded, or if there is a risk of such,

the municipality must prepare an air quality protection plan in accordance with the

Environmental Protection Act, aiming to keep pollution below the limit value. Based

on this, air quality protection plans were drawn up in the municipalities of the Helsinki

metropolitan area to reduce air pollutant concentrations and improve air quality for

the period 2008–2016. However, the measures defined in the plans were not effective

enough, and the limit value was still exceeded in Helsinki in 2015. Therefore, the City

of Helsinki prepared a new air quality protection plan for 2017–202438.

In 2016 and 2017, limit values were not exceeded at the measurement stations that are

used for official supervision of limit values. However, nitrogen dioxide concentrations

are also monitored using less expensive methods than those used at the measurement

stations. These methods do not meet the quality requirements laid down for official

monitoring, but help to provide a more comprehensive picture of air quality. These

include methods such as the passive sampler method and new sensor techniques. The

results of these methods show that there is still a need for Helsinki to follow its new air

quality protection plan.39

The most significant source contributing to the high annual concentrations of nitrogen dioxide

in the urban environment is road transport. National legislation addresses emissions and

concentrations by limiting exhaust emissions from road transport in accordance with the EU’s

legislation on vehicles.

37 http://www.ymparisto.fi/fi-FI/Ilmasto_ja_ilma/Ilmansuojelu/Ilmansuojelun_raja_ja_ohjearvot 38 https://www.hel.fi/helsinki/fi/asuminen-ja-ymparisto/ymparistonsuojelu/ohjelmat/ilman 39 https://www.hsy.fi/en/residents/theairyoubreathe/Pages/airqualitymap.aspx

http://www.ymparisto.fi/fi-FI/Ilmasto_ja_ilma/Ilmansuojelu/Ilmansuojelun_raja_ja_ohjearvot

https://www.hel.fi/helsinki/fi/asuminen-ja-ymparisto/ymparistonsuojelu/ohjelmat/ilman

https://www.hsy.fi/en/residents/theairyoubreathe/Pages/airqualitymap.aspx

57


Nitrogen dioxide concentrations can be lowered by influencing transport, improving the

efficiency of transport system planning, and ensuring that housing, services and jobs form as

effective a whole as possible, promoting low-emission public transport (including the metro

and electric buses), walking and cycling, and seeking to reduce the use of private cars in city

centres. Key measures in the new air quality protection plan of the City of Helsinki include

introducing low-emission and zero-emission buses, increasing the share of alternatively

powered vehicles in the vehicle stocks of the City and its partners, extending the network of

charging stations for electric cars, and applying a comprehensive approach to land use and

transport planning.

The 24-hour limit value for PM10

The 24-hour limit value for PM10, not to be exceeded on more than 35 days per calendar year,

50 µg/m3, has been exceeded in Finland in Helsinki only. The limit value has been binding on

Member States since 2005.

The 24-hour limit value for PM10 was exceeded in Helsinki in 2003, 2005 and 2006. A report, as

referred to in the Environmental Protection Act, was prepared on the occasions the levels were

exceeded in 2003, and this stated that the exceedances were mainly caused by sanding for the

winter maintenance of streets and roads, assessed the areas where the limit value was

exceeded, and described the measures that the City would take to lower concentrations. The

European Commission approved the report at the beginning of 2006. Similar reports were

prepared on the exceedances in 2005 and 2006.

According to national legislation, if a limit value is exceeded, or if there is a risk of such, the

municipality must prepare an air quality protection plan in accordance with the Environmental

Protection Act, aiming to keep pollution below the limit value. If the limit value is exceeded due

to sanding or salting for the winter maintenance of roads and streets, the municipality may

prepare, instead of an air quality protection plan, a report on the exceedance, the reasons for it,

and the measures required to lower concentrations. Although the 24-hour limit value for PM10

has not been exceeded in the Helsinki metropolitan area since 2006, street dust control has

been included in the action plans prepared to lower concentrations and improve air quality in

the Helsinki metropolitan area for 2008–2016 and in the air quality protection plan for 2017–

2024, prepared by the City of Helsinki.

Exceedances of the numerical value of the 24-hour limit value for PM10 are recorded in Finnish

cities. A significant proportion of these exceedances are detected in traffic environments in

winter and spring, in particular (Figure 15). The main reasons for high concentrations detected

in spring are the use of studded tyres and the particle load caused by sanding for winter

maintenance of roads and streets. Studs erode asphalt from the start of the studded tyre

season (beginning of November), and the material used for sanding also increases the amount

of dust, as the material is crushed under the tyres and simultaneously erodes the road surface

by means of the sandpaper effect.

58


PM10 WHO guideline value Maximum number of permitted exceedances

The material itself can also contain dust. In moist conditions, the dust accumulates on street

surfaces, and it is stirred up into the atmosphere by traffic in dry weather.

As the number of days with exceedances is close to 35, it can be assumed that the critical

number of days with exceedances would be below 35 if the number of studded tyres were lower

or alternatively if no winter sanding was used. The City of Helsinki, for example, has been able

to reduce the number of days with exceedances by enhancing street cleaning and winter

sanding and salting. Smaller quantities of screened and washed crushed rock that produces less

dust are used, and applications are targeted at areas with problems. The street cleaning

process in spring is systematic and as timely as possible. In addition, the equipment used in

cleaning is more effective (e.g. suction washing road-sweepers) and streets are moistened with

weak calcium chloride solution to bind dust on the dustiest days. However, not all of these

measures are taken widely in Finland, and the measures are not in all respects sufficient with

respect to human health and comfort. So far, it has only been possible to solve the problem of

exceeding the air quality limit value, not the adverse effects on human health and comfort

caused by street dust.

35 Oct-Dec

30 June-Sep

25 Mar-May

20 Jan-Feb

15

10

5

0

* Less than 90% of airport data (monitoring site changed on 18 October 2017).

Figure 15. The distribution of the exceedances of the numerical value of the 24-

hour limit value for PM10 at the measurement stations of the Helsinki Region

Environmental Services Authority HSY in the Helsinki metropolitan area (HSY

Ilmanlaatu pääkaupunkiseudulla vuonna 2017).

Nu

mb

er o

f ex

ceed

ance

s o

f th

e lim

it v

alu

e

leve

l (50

µg

/m3 )

59


Ozone

As a general rule, the ozone target values set for 2010 are not exceeded in Finland, but the

long-term objectives are exceeded at rural background stations, in particular.

In order to avoid adverse effects on human health, the maximum daily eight-hour mean for

ozone should not exceed 120 µg/m3. However, the daily mean is permitted to exceed this level

25 times per year. Such exceedances are recorded at rural background stations every year.

However, the number of exceedances has been less than 25, and thus the target value is not

exceeded.

The public must be informed if the one-hour value of ozone concentration exceeds

180 micrograms per cubic metre of air. Concentrations as high as this are rare in Finland. The

most recent ozone episode exceeding the information threshold was measured in Virolahti in

May 2006.

Benzo[a]pyrene and certain metals

In Finland, the concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, nickel and benzo[a]pyrene are usually

clearly below the target values. An exception is made by some industrial plants: within their

area of influence, concentrations may exceed the set target values. Annual concentrations of

benzo[a]pyrene may also be high – close to the target value concentration or even above it – in

agglomerations where small-scale woodburning is very common.

The annual average concentration of benzo[a]pyrene in ambient air may not exceed the target

value of 1 ng/m3. This target value has been applied since 2013. It was exceeded in Raahe in

2013–2016 and in the Helsinki metropolitan area (Vantaa) in 2014.

The annual average concentrations of arsenic, cadmium and nickel in ambient air may not

exceed the target values of 6 ng/m3, 5 ng/m3 and 20 ng/m3, respectively. These target values

have been applied since 2013. Of these, the target value for arsenic was exceeded in Harjavalta

in 2013–2016 and the target value for nickel in 2016.

60


5 Emission trends according to the baseline projection This chapter presents the historical trends in the emissions discussed in the NAPCP and the

emission projections for 2020, 2025 and 2030. The emission projection modelled for 2020–2030

is referred to as the baseline projection. The development of emissions is affected by

technological reduction measures, as well as by changes in the use of fuels, the number of

livestock and other activities.

Projections of the activities included in the baseline projection, meaning developments in the

use or volume of fuels in various sectors, are mainly based on the National Energy and Climate

Strategy and, where necessary, on other sources (Table 10). In addition, the baseline projection

takes account of any legislative measures that have an impact on the reduction of emissions

and on which an implementation decision has already been made (Table 11). The measures

proposed in the Medium-term Climate Change Policy Plan for 2030 (KAISU) are not included in

the baseline projection.

Table 10. Projections of activities used in emission modelling for the baseline

projection. For transport, the emission projection has been directly extracted from

the LIPASTO calculation system for traffic exhaust emissions and energy use.

Emission sector Activity/emission projection

Energy production and industry National Energy and Climate Strategy, the policy scenario

Small-scale woodburning by households

National Energy and Climate Strategy, the basic scenario

Waste sector National Energy and Climate Strategy, the basic scenario

Transport and machinery LIPASTO by VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd.

Agriculture NH3 model by LUKE and SYKE

61


Table 11. The most important legal instruments and measures affecting the

emission trends in the emission projection for 2020–2030, that is, the baseline

projection

Activity Instrument or other measure

Energy production and

industry (including

waste incineration)

Industrial Emissions Directive, BAT conclusions concerning energy

production and other industrial sectors, Medium Combustion Plant

Directive

Environmental Protection Act (527/2014)

Government Decree on Limiting Emissions from Large Combustion

Plants (936/2014)

Government Decree on Environmental Protection Requirements for

Medium-sized Energy Production Units (1065/2017)

Government Decree on Waste Incineration (151/2013)

Transport Euro emission classes (Euro 1–Euro 6) Act on the promotion of biofuels in transport (Laki biopolttoaineiden käytön edistämisestä liikenteessä, 446/2007)

Agriculture Industrial Emissions Directive and BAT conclusions on the intensive

rearing of poultry and pigs (Commission Implementing Decision (EU)

2017/302), Nitrates Directive

Environmental Protection Act 527/2014

Nitrates Decree (1250/2014)

Action plan to reduce ammonia emissions from agriculture in Finland.

Publications of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 1b/2018.


Ecodesign Directive (2009/125/EC) and Commission Regulations

2015/1185 on fireplaces and 2015/1189 on boilers issued pursuant to it

Waste sector Waste Act (646/2011)

Government Decree on Landfills (331/2013)

The fuel combustion projections for the energy production and industrial processes sectors

have been extracted from the policy scenario of the National Energy and Climate Strategy,

which is better in line with the target of phasing out the use of coal by 2030 set in the

Programme of Prime Minister Sipilä’s Government than the basic scenario. According to the

policy scenario, the use of coal will not be phased out completely, but it will decline

considerably more than in the basic scenario. Overall, the two scenarios are very similar with

respect to the use of fuels by the energy production sector. The activities of small-scale

woodburning are as presented in the basic scenario of the National Energy and Climate

Strategy.

The emission projection for fuel use by means of transport and related emissions is based on

the LIPASTO model developed by VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd. Its calculation

methods were updated in 2018. With respect to the use of fuels, the activity projection for road

transport is slightly higher than the scenarios of the National Energy and Climate Strategy,

whereas the projection for machinery and transport other than road transport corresponds well

to the strategy. The sector “Machinery and other transport” also includes emissions from rail

transport, as well as from domestic water transport and air transport.

Emissions from industry and energy production, as well as from small-scale woodburning, were






62


calculated using the national FRES emission model developed by SYKE (Karvosenoja 2008). In

addition, street dust emissions caused by transport were estimated using the FRES model,

based on a national application of the NORDUST model (Kupiainen et al. 2018). With respect to

emissions from agriculture, the projections of changes in the number of livestock and manure

management are central. They are based on data provided by the Natural Resources Institute

Finland (Luke).

Ammonia emissions from agriculture were calculated using the emission model for agriculture

(Grönroos et al. 2017). No projections were modelled for some of the less significant emission

sectors, but emissions were presented at the level of the most recent inventory year, 2016.

The following sections present projections of air pollutants covered by the NECD and discuss

the most important factors affecting the evolution of emissions. The emission trends present

the situation at five-year intervals so that the figures for 2005–2015 are extracted from the

national emission inventory (2018 reporting year) and the projections for subsequent years are

modelled, proportional reductions from the 2015 emissions.

The emission reduction commitments laid down in the NECD are also shown in the figures

describing the emission projections for those air pollutants for which such commitments have

been set. The emission reduction commitments were set as percentages compared to

emissions in 2005. Therefore, the amount of emissions that meets the commitments in 2020

and 2030 may still change if the development of calculation methods used for emission

inventories results in changes to the 2005 emission estimates. According to the most recent

emission reporting, the emission reduction commitments set for 2020 were already met in

201640, whereas the emissions of some air pollutants must still be lowered from the current

level to meet the commitments set for 2030.

In addition to the air pollutants covered by the NECD, black carbon and methane emission

trends were estimated. The projected development of these emissions is central to the work of

the Arctic Council in preventing warming in the Arctic region. In addition, black carbon

emissions must be reported in accordance with the NECD.

PM10 is not covered by the reduction commitments laid down in the NECD, but total PM10

emissions must also be reported to the Commission annually. Therefore, the development of

these emissions is not discussed in this chapter, but in Chapter 3.

40 Informative Inventory Report (IIR)

https://www.ymparisto.fi/en-US/Maps_and_statistics/Air_pollutant_emissions/Finnish_air_pollutant_inventory_to_the_CLRTAP

63


5.1 Sulphur dioxide

Situation: According to the development in the baseline projection, the emission reduction

commitment set for 2020 has already been met, and the commitment set for 2030 will also be

met.

Most sulphur emissions in Finland originate from the use of fuels in energy production and

industry (Figure 16). The largest individual emission sources are oil refining and metal industry

installations, as well as coal-fired power plants. In 2016, emissions were clearly below the levels

defined by the commitments, and the declining use of coal and the application of BAT

conclusions41 in power stations will further lower emissions.

SO2 80

70

Road transport 60

Machinery and other transport

50


40

Industrial processes

30

Fuel combustion in energy production and industrial processes

20

Other (e.g. agriculture and peat production)

10

0

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Figure 16. Sulphur dioxide emissions according to the baseline projection by

sector. The orange lines represent the levels defined by the emission reduction

commitments.

41 http://www.ymparisto.fi/fi-FI/Kulutus_ja_tuotanto/Paras_tekniikka_BAT/Vertailuasiakirjat

http://www.ymparisto.fi/fi-FI/Kulutus_ja_tuotanto/Paras_tekniikka_BAT/Vertailuasiakirjat

64


5.2 Nitrogen oxides



met.

In Finland, the most significant sources of nitrogen oxides are road transport and mobile

machinery, as well as energy production and industry (Figure 17). Emissions from transport and

machinery have fallen and will continue to fall thanks to EU legislation, although traffic

volumes have been increasing slightly. The realisation of the assumed emission reductions in

the transport sector plays a key role in meeting the emission reduction commitments set for

nitrogen oxides. According to the baseline projection, the proportion of alternatively powered

vehicles is growing, but is not yet significant. Therefore, emission reductions are mainly

attributable to advances in combustion engine technology. In many cases, the nitrogen oxide

emissions of new engines have not corresponded to the levels stated by the manufacturers in

normal use, and the impact of this information was updated in the LIPASTO emission values in

2018.

All combustion processes produce nitrogen oxide emissions. According to the National Energy

and Climate Strategy, the use of fuels by energy production will increase by more than 20%

between 2015 and 2030. Therefore, NOx emissions from energy production will fall only

moderately according to the baseline projection, although many energy production

installations invest in and introduce emission reduction methods based on BAT technology. In

2030, energy production and industry would account for almost 60% of total NOx emission in

Finland.

NOx 250

200 Road transport

Machinery and other transport

150


100 Industrial processes

Fuel combustion in energy production

and industrial processes

50 Other (e.g. agriculture and peat production)

0

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

kt/a

65


Figure 17. Nitrogen oxide emissions according to the baseline projection by

sector. The orange lines represent the levels defined by the emission reduction

commitments.

66


5.3 Fine particulate matter



met.

Fine particulate matter emissions are produced by many sectors, but small-scale woodburning

has become the most significant emission source in the 2000s (Figure 18). Exhaust emissions

from transport and machinery have fallen and will continue to fall as engine technology

develops and the stock of equipment is replaced. Exhaust emissions from the transport sector

will be a relatively insignificant emission source by 2030. Emissions from energy production

have also been on the decline thanks to stricter legislation and emission-reducing technologies.

Emission levels defined in the BAT conclusions will lower emissions from the current level,

although the use of fuels will grow according to the baseline projection.

Advances in the engine technology of means of transport will not affect street dust emissions.

Street dust emissions include particles caused by road abrasion, tyre and brake wear, and

gravel used for sanding. In addition, other dust settled on the road is stirred up into the air by

vehicles. Coarse particulate matter (PM10) accounts for a large proportion of street dust, and it

is the most significant individual source of PM10 emissions in Finland. However, street dust

emissions also include fine particulate matter, and as exhaust emissions are declining, street

dust will account for an increasingly significant proportion of fine particulate emissions caused

by transport. The baseline projection assumes no new measures to limit street dust emissions.

This means that emissions will increase slightly in line with the assumed growth in transport

performance. The trends in dust emissions from peat production and agriculture, and in other

diffuse emissions, have not been modelled; the emissions are assumed to remain at the 2016

level in the projection.

Particulate emissions from small-scale woodburning will be limited by legislation for the first

time, as the Ecodesign Directive sets maximum emission limits for small boilers and fireplaces

on the market as of 2020 and 2022. The impact of the regulation will be minor by 2030, as the

stock of equipment renews slowly, and a large proportion of fireplaces sold in Finland have for

years met the emission limits set in the regulation (Savolahti et al. 2016). In addition, the

regulation does not cover sauna stoves, which currently account for 40% of the total PM2.5

emissions caused by small-scale woodburning.

The adverse effects of small-scale woodburning are also affected by the volumes of wood used,

which are assessed at approximately ten-year intervals. According to statistics, the use of

firewood and pellets totalled approximately 19 TWh in 2010 and 17 TWh in 2015. Annual

fluctuations in temperature have a significant impact on the estimated use of wood. For

instance, according to Statistics Finland, the highest consumption since the early 1970s was

67


recorded in 2010 due to the cold winter. The use of firewood is assessed by means of surveys.

The Natural Resources Institute Finland has carried out four surveys on small-scale

woodburning since 1992. The most recent survey concerned the 2016/2017 heating season,

during which the use of wood was 3% higher than in the previous survey conducted during the

2007/2008 heating season. The use of wood in small-scale burning has increased clearly more

strongly during the last few decades. According to the National Energy and Climate Strategy,

the moderate growth recorded recently is expected to continue. The strategy estimates that

the use of wood in 2030 is within the same range as in the record year 2010. However, general

trends in the use of wood are difficult to forecast, and peaks in heating needs caused by cold

years may affect the attainment of emission reduction commitments.

PM2.5 30

Street dust

25

Road transport

20 Machinery and other transport

15 Small-scale woodburning


5

0

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030


Other (e.g. agriculture and peat production)

Figure 18. Fine particulate matter emissions according to the baseline

projection by sector. The orange lines represent the levels defined by the

emission reduction commitments.

Sauna stoves are estimated to account for approximately 40% of current emissions from

small-scale woodburning in Finland (Figure 19). Sauna stoves are not covered by the scope

of the Ecodesign Directive. Therefore, it is assumed in the modelling that their emission

factor will remain unchanged. However, based on the most recent, yet unpublished

emission measurements, it seems preliminarily that the sauna stoves currently on the

market produce, on average, clearly less emissions than assumed in the emission

calculations. It is likely that the use of new measurement results will lower the emission

projection at least for the post-2015 period.

kt/a

68


PM2.5 emissions from small-scale woodburning, kt/a

12,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0

2015 2030

Modern firewood boiler

Firewood boiler with water

heater Firewood boiler

without water heater Wood

chip boiler

Pellet boiler

Sauna stove

Open fireplace

Modern iron

stove

Conventional iron

stove Cooker

Masonry oven

Modern heat-retaining

masonry heater

Conventional heat-

retaining masonry heater

Figure 19. PM2.5 emissions from small-scale woodburning by type of equipment.

In modern heat-retaining masonry heaters and iron stoves, special attention

has been paid to the supply of air for combustion.

The projected concentrations of fine particulate matter in ambient air in Finland in 2015 and

2030 are presented in Figure 20. They include domestic primary and secondary particles, as

well as the contribution of long-range transboundary pollution. Due to long-range

transboundary pollution from Central Europe, background concentrations are clearly higher

in the southern parts of Finland than in the northern parts of the country. The impact of

local emissions on air quality is particularly significant in densely populated areas and along

major roads.

69


Figure 20. Projected concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in ambient air in 2015 and 2030. The modelling covers all domestic emission sources and long-range transboundary pollution. Fine particulate matter includes both primary and secondary particles. (Produced in the BATMAN project using the SILAM model developed by the Finnish Meteorological Institute.)

70


5.4 Non-methane volatile organic compounds



met.

Emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) were almost halved between

2005 and 2015, and the level of emissions is already close to the target set for 2030 (Figure 21).

The most significant reductions have been recorded in the emissions from transport and

machinery, as well as from industrial processes. In the future, emissions are expected to remain

close to the current level for other sectors, while emissions from transport and machinery will

continue to fall as vehicles are replaced. “Industrial processes” also covers industrial painting

shops, which are the most significant emission source within the sector. Various process

industry activities also produce NMVOC emissions, which are limited by emission limit values

established in BAT conclusions. However, the impact of the implementation of BAT

conclusions on the amount of emissions has not been assessed here, except for the oil refining

industry. The sector “Other” mainly includes emissions from the use of solvents, as well as

volatile emissions from the storage and distribution of oil, for example. The emission trend for

this sector has not been modelled; the emissions were kept at the 2016 level in the projection.

NMVOC 140

120 Road transport




40 Fuel combustion in energy production and industrial processes

20 Other (e.g. use of solvents and distribution of fuels)

0

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Figure 21. NMVOC emissions according to the baseline projection by sector. The

orange lines represent the levels defined by the emission reduction

commitments.

kt/a

71


5.5 Ammonia



met.

In Finland, approximately 90% of ammonia emissions originate in agriculture (Figure 22),

especially in the handling and application of animal manure. Emissions from agriculture have

fallen in the 2000s, partly due to the decreased number of livestock and partly thanks to the

increased use of emission-reducing manure management technologies. In addition, emissions

are affected by the amount of nitrogen excreted by animals in dung during a year, which

depends on the stock and feeding of animals, for example. As the production per animal

increases, the amount of nitrogen excreted per animal has also risen, which has slowed down

the reduction of ammonia emissions originating from manure.

It is assumed that ammonia emissions from agriculture will continue to fall, in particular, as the

number of animals is expected to decline. However, manure management measures are still

needed. With that in mind, an action plan was prepared in cooperation between the Ministry of

Agriculture and Forestry and the Ministry of the Environment to reduce ammonia emissions

from agriculture in Finland (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 2018). The ammonia emission

trends for sectors other than agriculture have not been modelled; the emissions were kept at

the 2016 level in the projection.

NH3 40

35

30

25 Road transport


Industrial processes

15 Agriculture

10

5

0

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Figure 22. Ammonia emissions according to the baseline projection by sector. The

orange lines represent the levels defined by the emission reduction commitments.

kt/a

72


5.6 Black carbon and methane

The NECD requires that Member States report on black carbon emissions, but no emission

reduction commitment is laid down for black carbon in the directive. In addition, black carbon

is mentioned in the directive in the context of fine particulate matter, as Member States are

encouraged to target reduction measures for particulate emissions with a high black carbon

content. In Finland, black carbon is mainly emitted by small-scale woodburning and transport.

By 2030, small-scale woodburning is expected to remain as the only significant emission source

of black carbon (Figure 23), as emissions from transport will fall, thanks to advances in engine

technology. Measures taken to lower fine particulate matter emissions from small-scale

woodburning also reduce black carbon emissions. The Arctic Council set a joint voluntary

target of limiting black carbon emissions between 25% and 33% below the 2013 levels by 2025.

In Finland, the emission trend would comply with this target according to the baseline

projection.

BC 7

6

5 Road transport



2 Fuel combustion in energy

production and industrial processes

1

0

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Figure 23. Black carbon emissions according to the baseline projection by sector.

Methane is not included in the air pollutants monitored under the NECD, but methane

emissions are reported under the Convention on Climate Change. Methane emissions were not

calculated when this programme was prepared, but the projection is extracted from the

National Energy and Climate Strategy (Figure 24). Emissions from the waste sector are

affected, in particular, by the prohibition on landfilling organic waste, which entered into force

in 2016. However, existing landfill sites will still remain sources of methane. Methane emissions

from agriculture are estimated to increase slightly until 2020, after which they will decline.

kt/a

73


CH4 250

200

150

100

Agriculture

Waste management

Use of fuels

50

0

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Figure 24. Methane emissions according to the baseline projection by sector.

5.7 Conclusions

The emission reduction commitments laid down in the NECD will be met by implementing the

measures specified in the baseline projection as presented above. In addition, the actions planned

to be implemented to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (e.g. the implementation of the Medium-

term Climate Change Policy Plan for 2030 (KAISU)) will also contribute to the reduction of air

pollutants.

However, any assessments of the attainment of emission reduction commitments involves

uncertainties. For instance, it may be that not all measures planned in the National Energy and

Climate Strategy or the action plan to reduce ammonia emissions from agriculture will be

implemented, or that the activities used as the basis of the calculations grow more than expected

and thus emissions from these activities are also higher than projected. Similarly, the

continuously evolving calculation methods may also lead to changes in emissions figures for past,

already reported years.

The attainment of the emission reduction commitments is monitored through emission

inventories and projections prepared and updated by the Finnish Environment Institute. The

NAPCP must be updated if the monitoring shows that one or more emission reduction

commitments are not fulfilled or are at risk of not being fulfilled.

kt/a

74


6 Additional measures and their impact on emissions and air pollutant concentrations

Air pollution will continue to cause adverse effects on human health and the environment in

2030 (see section 3.4) despite the fact that the emission reduction commitments set by the

NECD are met. For this reason, it is important to consider measures that would help to reduce

the levels of air pollutant emissions and concentrations below the level set in EU legislation.

This chapter proposes measures to improve air quality and reduce the number of people

exposed to poor air quality, especially in areas where exposure is highest. Fine particulate

matter generated in urban areas and close to inhalation height are the most harmful air

pollutant emissions to human health (Savolahti et al. 2018). These emissions mostly originate

from small-scale woodburning and road transport. Harmful effects caused by dust and exhaust

emissions from long, massive construction projects required for a more compact urban

structure are also a problem. Reducing emissions from these sources, in particular, is the best

way to improve air quality in densely populated areas.

In addition, achieving better air quality requires that no decisions that impair air quality in the

short or long term be made in any of the sectors affecting air quality. In order to prevent

undesirable developments, it is necessary that air quality be considered in all strategies,

programmes and projects planned and implemented in different sectors of society that affect

air pollution control. Measures to promote this end are proposed to ensure desirable

development.

The additional measures proposed for adoption at national level would improve public health

and citizens’ well-being and reduce the cost of health damage due to air pollutants.

75


6.1 Road transport

Road transport contributes to poor air quality through exhaust emissions and street dust.

Adverse effects can be mitigated by improving the energy efficiency of transport systems and

vehicles, by replacing fossil oil-based fuels with electricity and gas, and by influencing the

regulation of local emissions. In addition to combustion-related air pollutants, street dust

causes adverse effects on human health and decreases the comfort of citizens. These effects

can be reduced by preventing street dust formation.

Exhaust emissions from vehicles have been cut effectively in Finland through EU legislation on

different types of vehicles, while Finland has not been as successful in reducing street dust. It

has been possible to lower the concentrations slightly from the top levels recorded in the

1990s. However, elevated concentrations of PM10 still cause adverse effects on human health.

Municipalities control street dust by enhanced street and road cleaning and dust binding.

In the policy scenario of the National Energy and Climate Strategy, the use of fuels by road

transport decreases from the current level clearly more than in the baseline projection

presented in the previous chapter. This would also lower air pollutant emissions. Road

transport plays a significant role in cutting nitrogen dioxide emissions, in particular. Measures

that could be used to reduce the use of fuels by road transport to the level specified in the

policy scenario are presented in the Medium-term Climate Change Policy Plan for

203042. These include improving the energy efficiency of transport and increasing the share of

electric cars. If energy use were as described in the policy scenario, NOx emissions would be

slightly less than 2 kt lower by 2030 than in the projection presented in Chapter 5.

Measures to reduce adverse effects on human health caused by exhaust emissions and street

dust from transport are proposed in Tables 12a and 12b. Most of these measures have already

been proposed in other policies on transport. However, this NAPCP wishes to support these

policies and ensure their implementation.

In addition, Table 14 lists linkages of current strategies, programmes and projects in various

sectors, including the transport sector, to air quality and their impacts on air quality, and

proposes measures to better take air pollution control into account in their implementation and

updates.

42 Ministry of the Environment 2017. Government Report on Medium-term Climate Change Policy Plan for 2030 –

Towards Climate-Smart Day-to-Day Living. Reports of the Ministry of the Environment 21en/2017.

76


Table 12a. Measures to reduce air pollutant emissions from road transport

MEASURE IMPACTS AND COST ASPECTS RESPONSIBLE BODY

Supporting measures and initiatives to

expedite the renewal of the vehicle stock

and the increase in the percentage of zero-

and low-emission vehicles of the total

vehicle stock

stricter limit values for heavy-duty

vehicles, passenger cars and vans

Act on clean vehicles in public

procurement

purchasing subsidy for electric cars

support for the construction of

distribution infrastructure for alternative

power sources

zero- and low-emission company cars

car-scrapping incentives without a

requirement to purchase a new car

development of transport taxation

Updating energy labelling of cars

consumers provided with information on

environmentally friendly vehicles

Measures that lower CO2 emissions also reduce

local emissions.

The limit values will encourage car

manufacturers to develop low- and zero-

emission cars, which will increase their number

on the markets.

The Act on clean vehicles in public

procurement will strongly steer towards the

use of electric, gas-powered and alternatively

powered vehicles in the public procurement of

vehicles and transport services.

The purchasing subsidy for electric cars (EUR 24 million in 2018–2021) and the support for distribution infrastructure (EUR 18 million in 2018–2021) aim to increase the number of electric and gas-powered cars to at least 250,000 and 50,000, respectively, by 2030.

The dissemination of information will increase the awareness of consumers and car dealers on environmental aspects relating to cars.

LVM, YM, VM

Supporting measures that reduce passenger

car transport performance in urban areas

Act on Transport Services

assessment of the local emissions

impacts, and development of

implementation taking into account

emissions and exposure

coordination of land use and transport,

development of a more compact urban

structure taking into account air quality

and the accessibility and development of

public transport (e.g. by means of

planning)

implementation of the programme for

the promotion of walking and cycling

(see Table 14)

development of a transport taxation

system that favours low-emission forms

of transport

The Act on Transport Services facilitates the production and coordination of new and old transport services. An increase in services will also increase their use and mitigate growth in passenger car performance and emissions. Improvements in the urban structure seek, on

one hand, to support the organisation of public

transport and, on the other hand, to promote

walking and cycling while reducing local

emissions.

The goal is a 30% increase in the number of

journeys made on foot or by bicycle. The

programme also includes an investment

programme to support projects promoting

walking and cycling in municipalities

(EUR 30 million).

People will choose low-emission vehicles and forms of transportation.

LVM, YM, VM,

cities

77


Table 12b. Measures to reduce air pollutant emissions, especially street dust, from

road transport

MEASURE IMPACTS RESPONSIBLE BODY

Implementing the recommendations of the Dusty Roads project, such as

integrated land use and transport planning

(speeds, heavy goods vehicles)

development of works contracts (equipment,

dust binding, screened and washed crushed

rock, timing of cleaning)

quality specifications for pavements and

surfaces

The amount of street

dust will decrease –

adverse effects on

human health will

decrease, comfort will

increase

Finnish Transport

Infrastructure Agency,

cities

Enhancing the dissemination of best practices in

street cleaning and maintenance to

municipalities and contractors.

Incorporating best practices into the contractor selection criteria in procurement.

Adverse effects on

human health will


increase.

Competence of contracting entities and contractors in environmental aspects will improve.

LVM, Association of Finnish Local and Regional Authorities, SYKE, municipalities

Increasing guidance to motorists on the best tyre

options in terms of air quality and safety.

Investigating the possibility to limit the use of studded tyres in certain areas.

Adverse effects on

human health will


increase.

Public awareness of the impact of the tyres selected will increase.

LVM, Association of Finnish Local and Regional Authorities, SYKE

6.2 Small-scale woodburning


Finland, accounting for approximately 50% of all domestic PM2.5 emissions. It has been

estimated that exposure to particulates from small-scale woodburning causes some

200 premature deaths in Finland annually (Karvosenoja et al. 2017). In the future, emissions

from other sources are expected to fall significantly in accordance with the current legislation,

while it appears that emissions from small-scale woodburning will remain at the current level or

will only decrease slightly. The impacts of the Ecodesign Directive, which will enter into force in

2020 and 2022, on emissions from small-scale woodburning in Finland are estimated to be

relatively low by 2030, as the stock of heat-retaining fireplaces is replaced slowly in Finland and

sauna stoves are not covered by the scope of the directive. In other words, the adverse effects

of small-scale woodburning on human health must be reduced by additional national

measures.

Emissions from small-scale woodburning, the potential to reduce them, and their effects on

human health have been widely studied in Finland (e.g. Tissari 2008, Savolahti et al. 2016,

Jalava et al. 2012, Salonen et al. 2015 and 2016). In particular, promoting the right methods of

using fireplaces and encouraging the use of lower-emission sauna stoves have been found to be

78


feasible, effective and cost-effective ways to reduce the adverse effects caused by small-scale

woodburning. Additional measures based on the studies mentioned above, for example, are

presented in Table 13.

Small-scale woodburning is also clearly the most significant source of black carbon emissions in

Finland. Black carbon is a climate forcer, the warming effect of which is emphasised in the

Arctic region (e.g. AMAP Assessment 2015). Black carbon emissions must be taken into

account when assessing the impacts of different heating methods on the climate.

79


Table 13. Measures to reduce fine particulate matter emissions from small-scale woodburning


Increasing guidance to citizens and

other actors:

Enhancing the dissemination of good

practices in information provision in

municipalities

Increasing citizens’ awareness of the

adverse effects of small-scale

woodburning

Increasing the provision of

information and advice on the

appropriate use of fireplaces

Increasing the use of various

communication channels (brochures,

videos, Twitter)

Initiating co-operation with new

actors (e.g. schools, hobby

organisations, areas with detached

houses, sauna societies)

Initiating co-operation with climate

projects in municipalities (energy

efficiency, emissions, air quality,

citizens’ well-being)

Better practices in small-scale woodburning

(stoves, fireplaces, sauna stoves) can reduce fine

particulate matter emissions from combustion by

a few per cent in Finland. In addition, the right

burning technique has a significant impact on the

efficiency of the fireplace and thus on the amount

of wood required for heating. Awareness of the

adverse effects on human health caused by

emissions may also reduce the unnecessary use of

fireplaces in agglomerations. In this case,

emission reductions may be clearly more

significant than estimated. The aim of the

measure is to reduce population exposure to fine

particulate matter, especially in areas where

small-scale woodburning is very common. The

measure is also estimated to be quite cost-

effective, even if its effectiveness were to be low.

Municipalities, HSY,

Association of Finnish

Local and Regional

Authorities, YM, SYKE,

MSAH, THL, MoEC

Central Association of

Chimney Sweeps,

Finnish Home Owners’

Association,

Organisation for

Respiratory Health,

Allergy, Skin and

Asthma Federation

Reducing the adverse effects of polluting woodburning sauna stoves:

Investigating the possibility of

setting technical requirements for

sauna stoves (including criteria

relating to low emissions, R&D

project)


introducing voluntary agreements

(e.g. Green Deal agreements) with

sauna stove manufacturers


introducing incentives to renew the

sauna stove stock

These measures are basic measures required to

bring low-emission sauna stoves onto the market.

YM, VM, sauna stove

manufacturers,

research institutes,

Tulisija- ja

savupiippuyhdistys

TSY ry

80


Increasing the efficiency of smoke nuisance prevention:

Updating the guidelines on small-

scale woodburning and health (STTV

Oppaita 6:2008) to turn them into a

more suitable tool for health and

environmental authorities. The

guidelines should state clearly that,

in addition to the Health Protection

Act (Terveydensuojelulaki 763/1994),

other legislation may be applicable

to smoke nuisance caused by small-

scale woodburning.

Developing measurement

technology used in practice to

guarantee the reliability of

measurements related to smoke

nuisance monitoring

Encouraging the replacement of old

fireplaces, boilers, and boilers

without water heaters with low-

emission equipment. Investigating

the possibility of introducing

incentives.

Developing a model and piloting

good practices to prevent smoke

nuisance caused by small-scale

woodburning by means of building

ordinance, detailed guidelines for

building, and plot assignment

stipulations.

Recommending property owners to

build a firewood store if they have a

wood-heated fireplace or boiler.

These measures are key measures to reduce smoke nuisance.

They will affect the activities of health and

environmental authorities in municipalities. There

is a need to develop common practices.

A measurement method would provide

information on ambient air pollution caused by

smoke from small-scale woodburning and on the

migration of air pollutants from outdoors into the

indoor environment. This information could be

used locally to inform residents in areas with

detached houses.

Reasonably priced, objective tools would

supplement the existing,

subjective organoleptic monitoring of smoke

nuisance and thus make the determination of

smoke nuisance easier. Such evidence would

expedite the phasing out of poor fireplaces and

high-emission wood boilers used for central

heating and based on limiting combustion air as a

primary heating method.

Conditions set for building can be used to prevent

smoke nuisance.

Proper storing of firewood improves the quality of firewood and thus affects emissions.

YM, MSAH, THL, Valvira,

municipalities, Finnish

Home Owners’

Association

81


6.3 Taking air pollution control into account in planning and decision-making activities in other sectors

Good air quality reduces morbidity and increases comfort. In addition to technical emission

reduction measures, improving air quality requires that air quality be taken into account

systematically in all strategies, programmes and projects that affect air pollution control and

their implementation in different sectors of society. This means that air pollution control

should be a factor affecting the policies outlined in all planning and decision-making relating to

these strategies, programmes and projects, and should also be taken into account when the

health and environmental impacts of any measures to be taken in other sectors are assessed.

Key sectors for air pollution control include the land-use and planning, energy, climate,

transport, agriculture and welfare sectors. Measures in the transport sector are also discussed

in section 6.1.

The progression of climate change will also have direct effects on human health. For instance,

as the average temperature increases, slippery weather conditions will be more frequent in

winter, which will increase the risk of accidents and also the need for sanding, which in turn will

increase street dust problems. These adverse effects on human health should be identified and

taken into account. In addition, more attention should be paid to the fact that many climate

measures, such as increasing energy efficiency and promoting cycling, also improve local air

quality. However, the impacts of climate measures may also weaken air quality. For example,

increasing the density of the urban structure may result in the formation of street canyons.

Therefore, measures that also improve air quality should be emphasised in climate change

mitigation.

When promoting air pollution control, efforts should be made to use the existing programme

and organisation structures established for climate change mitigation, as the actors are mainly

the same in both areas. Practical measures in both air pollution control and climate change

work are often taken in municipalities. Municipalities participate in several national and

international programmes and networks that take actions to mitigate climate change and

adapt to its impacts. Municipalities are also involved in networks that aim to share good

practices in the promotion of well-being and health.43

Table 14 lists linkages of current strategies, programmes and projects in various sectors to air

quality and their impacts on air quality and proposes measures to better take air pollution

control into account in them. In addition to their implementation, air quality aspects should

also be considered in their updates.

Table 15 presents current projects linked to air pollution control in municipalities and measures

to better take air pollution control into account in them.

43 https://thl.fi/fi/web/hyvinvoinnin-ja-terveyden-edistamisen-johtaminen/kansallinen-tuki-ja-verkostot/terve-

kunta-verkosto

https://thl.fi/fi/web/hyvinvoinnin-ja-terveyden-edistamisen-johtaminen/kansallinen-tuki-ja-verkostot/terve-kunta-verkosto




Table 14. Linkages of current strategies, programmes and projects to air quality and their impacts on air quality, as well as measures to better take air pollution control into account in them

Strategy or programme that affects air quality

Main measures and impacts of the strategy/programme affecting air quality

Measure Impacts and cost aspects Responsible body

All Improving the knowledge base related to

the adverse health effects and costs of

health damage due to air pollutants and its

usability, thus ensuring that effects on air

quality and human health are taken into

account as a factor affecting the policies

outlined in various projects.

SYKE, THL, FMI

National Energy

and Climate

Strategy (2017)

As a general rule, many measures in the strategy

will also improve air quality (phasing out coal in

energy production by 1 May 2029, reducing

transport performances, increasing the number

of electric and gas-powered vehicles).

Seeking to ensure that effects on air



outlined when the strategy is updated, for

example by illustrating the monetary value

of health benefits. This can be influenced,

for example, by supplementing the

guidelines issued for the impact

assessment of authorities’ plans and

programmes with a section that provides

guidance on determining the monetary

value of health benefits brought by air

pollution control.

People’s health will improve and comfort will increase as

climate measures also support the improvement of air

quality. This can often be achieved without additional

costs, as greenhouse gases and local emissions mainly

originate from the same sources.

Illustrating the monetary value of health benefits

brought by air pollution control will draw attention to

the potential to reduce society’s health costs through air

pollution control (national economic savings).

MEAE, YM,

LVM,

MSAH,

MMM, VM

Medium-term Climate Change Policy Plan for 2030 (KAISU, 2017)

Many measures in the plan will also mainly

improve air quality (electric cars, low-emission

machinery, tighter emission performance

standards for road transport, promotion of clean

small-scale woodburning).

Seeking to ensure that effects on air



outlined during the implementation of the

plan. This can be influenced, for example,

by supplementing the guidelines issued for

the impact assessment of authorities’ plans

and programmes with a section that

provides guidance on determining the

monetary value of health benefits brought

by air pollution control.


climate measures also support the improvement of air

quality. This can often be achieved without additional



Municipalities will implement many measures close to

citizens, which means that the effects of the measures

taken to improve air quality will benefit citizens quickly.

Illustrating the monetary value of health benefits

brought by air pollution control will draw attention to

the potential to reduce society’s health costs through air

pollution control (national economic savings).

YM, LVM, MEAE, municipalities

Programme for

the promotion of

walking and

cycling (Ministry

of Transport and

All measures to increase walking and cycling also

improve air quality. Measures related to the

development of the urban structure (e.g. MAL

agreements and their assessment criteria), the

planning of the location of services and the

Supporting the implementation of the

programme and especially the

development of assessment criteria relating

to the sustainability and local emissions

impacts for MAL agreements, including the

The application of the assessment criteria relating to the

sustainability and local emissions impacts for MAL

agreements will become an established part of

municipal, regional and national planning and

implementation of measures. Air quality along

LVM, YM, municipalities

PU

BL

ICA

TIO

NS

OF T

HE

MIN

IST

RY

OF

EN

VIR

ON

ME

NT

20

19:7 78


Communications,

2017)

planning of transport systems are particularly significant.

monetary value of health benefits brought

by air pollution control. Supporting the

application of the assessment criteria in all

projects.

pedestrian walkways and bicycle paths will improve.

Interim report by

the Transport

Climate Policy

working group:

Carbon-free

transport by 2045

– Paths to an

emission-free

future (Ministry of

Transport and

Communications,

2018)

The BIO, TECHNO and SERVICE scenarios would

reduce carbon dioxide emissions based on

different alternatives, which would all also be

likely to reduce air pollutants.

The SERVICE scenario would reduce transport

performance and improve energy efficiency,

and thus air pollutants would also decrease.

The starting point for all three scenarios is the principle that costs will always be raised for the most polluting polluters.

Supporting the implementation of the

proposals by ensuring that effects on air

quality and human health, as well as the

monetary value of achieved health

benefits, are taken into account as a factor

affecting the policies outlined.

Ensuring that air quality aspects, including

health benefits, are included in the impact

assessment of the scenarios.


policies relating to climate also support the improvement

of air quality. This is generally possible without additional



LVM, YM


Table 15. Current projects linked to air pollution control in municipalities, as well as proposed measures to better take air pollution control into account in them

Municipal projects that affect air quality

Links of the project to air quality (measures and impacts)

Measure Impacts and cost aspects

All projects Municipalities are actively involved in climate and

other projects and networks that affect air quality

and that can also serve as structures to promote

measures aimed at improving air quality.

Enhancing impact assessment carried out in collaboration between

various sectors. Incorporating air quality objectives into ongoing

programmes and projects.

Increasing the role of air quality in projects that are central to air

pollution control in municipalities.

In addition to adverse effects on human health, justifying measures

using the impacts of black carbon on climate in the Arctic region.

In order to link air quality aspects with ongoing and new projects, launching a project that identifies and highlights measures included in climate projects that also improve air quality and reduce population exposure and adverse effects on human health.

In addition to climate benefits, the

measures will improve air quality and

benefit human health. Any

implementation of measures that impair

air quality will be avoided. Land use,

transport, energy production. Small-scale

woodburning and street dust.

Energy efficiency

agreements

2017–2025

Increasing the efficiency of energy use and

production generally reduces the consumption of

fuels that cause emissions.

Encouraging energy users to join the agreements so as to increase the

coverage of the agreements.

Increased coverage of the agreements will

most likely also cut local emissions.

The

implementation

of KAISU in

municipalities

and regions

(”KuntaKaisu” or

Municipal Kaisu)

Measures taken to mitigate climate change in

municipalities also often improve local air quality

and reduce black carbon emissions.

Selecting KuntaKaisu projects that are also well suited for

promoting air quality. Disseminating best practices to double the

benefit.

The objectives of air pollution control will be better taken into account in climate change mitigation work at the local level, which will also promote human health and comfort, meaning that benefits will be visible quickly.

IlmastoKunnat

(ClimateMunic

ipalities)

activities of

the

Association of

Finnish Local

and Regional

Authorities

A network open to all, which aims to bring

together all types of municipalities and promote

their climate work while taking into account

their specific characteristics.

Developing the platform to ensure that air quality aspects are

considered adequately and appropriately.

In addition to climate change mitigation, air quality will be considered in local climate work, which will bring positive effects to human health and comfort.

HINKU Forum The aim is to reduce municipalities’ greenhouse

gas emissions by 80% from the 2007 level by 2030.

SYKE continues as the coordinator of HINKU projects with respect to air quality.

Air quality will be taken into account and

measures will be taken to improve it.

Healthy Cities–

Terve Kunta

network

Supports the dissemination of good practices to

promote health and well-being.

Integrating aspects relating to air quality and the living environment

into the work of the network. In this way, the existing cooperation

structure can be used and its work can be enriched with new content.

Air quality will be integrated into the

promotion of health and well-being.

NA

TIO

NA

L A

IR P

OL

LU

TIO

N C

ON

TR

OL

PR

OG

RA

MM

E 2

030

79


MAL agreements Cooperation between municipalities and the State

in the development of the urban structure affects

air quality.

Supporting the development of assessment criteria relating to the

sustainability and local emissions impacts for MAL agreements,

including the monetary value of health benefits achieved by air

pollution control.

Supporting the application of the assessment criteria in all projects.

The application of the assessment criteria relating to the sustainability and local emissions impacts for MAL agreements will become an established part of municipal, regional and national planning and implementation of measures.

Municipal

strategy (for

each term of the

municipal

council)

The achievement of the objectives set in the municipal strategy is monitored by issuing an extensive report on well-being for each term of the municipal council, for example. The report can also incorporate indicators relating to the living environment and air quality.

Developing environmental health indicators. The effectiveness of measures that affect

air quality will be monitored.

Helps to link air quality to health costs in municipalities.

Recommending the inclusion of the cost of air pollution damage (the

IHKU model) in the impact assessments of municipal strategies.

The costs of poor air quality for society

and people will be made visible.

86


6.4 Other measures

Table 16 lists general development and communication measures to promote air pollution

control in Finland.

Table 16. Other measures to promote air pollution control


Supporting air pollution control in municipalities

The aim is to better integrate air pollution

control into climate work in municipalities

in cases where such integration brings

cost savings and increases the efficiency

of activities and resource efficiency.

YM, MSAH, MEAE, LVM, SYKE, FMI, THL

Enhancing communication

relating to air pollution

control and increasing its

customer orientation in

cooperation with other actors

The aim is to provide citizens and

decision-makers with easy-to-understand

information on air quality and its effects

on human health, as well as on the cost of

damage caused by poor air quality. Old

and new communication channels will be

widely used.

Municipalities, YM, MSAH,

MEAE, LVM, SYKE, FMI,

THL, HSY,

Organisation for Respiratory Health, others

Developing air quality and

emission websites to make

them more customer-

oriented

The aim is for the air quality website of

the Finnish Meteorological Institute to

offer comprehensive information on air

quality, including a real-time calculation

of the exceedances of the numerical value

of the 24-hour limit value set for PM10 in

the EU and the exceedances of the WHO

24-hour guideline value set for PM2.5 by

measurement station. The information

on emissions will be shown on maps on

the website, which means that it can be

used when selecting a place of residence

or developing the living environment, for

example.

FMI, municipalities, SYKE, HSY

Launching a training project

in the calculation of air

pollution damage cost

The dissemination of information on

damage cost, for example, by promoting

the application of the IHKU model, will

increase knowledge of air quality impacts

and thus support decision-making.

YM, SYKE, THL, Association of Finnish Local and Regional Authorities

Participating in the WHO scientific evaluation to revise air quality guideline values

The aim is to ensure that the WHO

guideline values will be updated in

accordance with the most recent research

data available.

THL

Influencing the tightening of

the EU’s air quality limit

values

The aim is to ensure that the EU’s air quality limit values will be updated so that they correspond to the WHO recommendations as far as possible. Long-range transboundary pollution accounts for a large proportion of air pollution concentrations in Finland, and

YM, SYKE, THL, FMI


thus Finland benefits from emission reductions achieved in other countries.

Introducing air pollution

control ambassadors for

schools and organisations

The project will raise awareness of air

pollution control, and thus encourage

various actors to promote the cause.

MoEC, YM, MSAH, SYKE, FMI, THL

88


7 Monitoring of the implementation and effects of the NAPCP

7.1 Monitoring of emission trends

Estimates of air pollutants have been prepared based on international agreements since 1980

for sulphur compounds expressed as sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen compounds expressed as

nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ammonia (NH3); since 1987 for non-methane volatile organic

compounds (NMVOC); since 1990 for carbon monoxide (CO), heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg,

Ni, Pb, V ja Zn) and persistent organic pollutants or POPs (PCDD/F, PAH4, HCB, PCB, HCH,

PCP, SCCP); and since 2000 for particulate matter (TSP, PM10, PM2.5 and black carbon). The

guidelines provided by international agreements on emissions sources and compounds to be

reported are constantly changing and being supplemented.

Information on air pollutant emissions are submitted on an annual basis to the European

Commission in accordance with the NECD (2016/2284), to the United Nations Economic

Commission for Europe (UNECE) that acts as the secretariat of the Convention on Long-range

Transboundary Air Pollution, and to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic

Pollutants of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Information on air pollutant

emissions (NMVOC) is also used in Finland’s reporting to the United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

The Finnish Environment Institute is responsible for national emission inventories and

projections, as well as informative inventory reports. The inventory covers the emissions of

sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ammonia, NMVOC, PM2.5, PM10, carbon monoxide, certain

heavy metals (Cd, Hg, Pb), POPs (total PAHs, benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[b]fluoranthene,

benzo[k]fluoranthene, indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene, dioxins/furans, PCBs, HCB) and black carbon

(BC).


The Finnish Environment Institute publishes the emission inventories and projections prepared

and updated in a public information network service44. The emission data available includes

data as time series and by emission source, as well as the spatial distribution of emissions. In

addition, Finland’s informative inventory report (IIR)45 is available in English.

7.2 Monitoring of the ecological impacts of emissions

The NECD requires that Member States ensure the ecological monitoring of negative impacts

of air pollution.

The number of ecosystems to be monitored depends on the biogeography of the Member

State and the ecosystem types found in the country. The EU is divided into 11 biogeographical

regions. Of these, the Alpine (Upper Lapland) and Boreal region (other parts of the country)

extend to Finland.

In Finland, the relevant ecosystems covered by the monitoring of acidifying and eutrophying

impacts are freshwater ecosystems, forests and peatlands, while forests and agricultural soils

are represented in the monitoring of ozone air pollution loads. In Finland, ecological impact

monitoring, as required by Article 9 of the NECD, is carried out at 34 monitoring sites (Figure

25). In addition, the monitoring of impacts takes into account results obtained in the

monitoring activities carried out in the Baltic Sea region.

Provisions on the national implementation of monitoring the ecological impact of atmospheric

sulphur and nitrogen emissions with respect to the ecosystem types mentioned above, and on

the monitoring of ozone air pollution loads, are laid down in the Environmental Protection Act

and the Environmental Protection Decree (Ympäristönsuojeluasetus 713/2014). In the

Environmental Protection Act, the responsibilities for organising the monitoring of ecological

impact and the monitoring of ozone air pollution loads are divided between the Finnish

Environment Institute, ELY Centres, the Natural Resources Institute Finland, the Finnish

Meteorological Institute and the Ministry of the Environment. The Finnish Environment

Institute is responsible for compiling a report on the ecological impact monitoring data for the

European Commission and the European Environment Agency (EEA). In addition, the Finnish

Environment Institute publishes the information in a public information network service.

44 Air pollutant emissions in Finland 45 Informative Inventory Report

https://www.ymparisto.fi/en-US/Maps_and_statistics/Air_pollutant_emissions

https://www.ymparisto.fi/en-US/Maps_and_statistics/Air_pollutant_emissions/Finnish_air_pollutant_inventory_to_the_CLRTAP

90


Freshwater ecosystems

The acidifying and eutrophying impacts of air pollution are monitored in accordance with the

NECD at 24 monitoring sites (19 lakes, 5 streams), which cover geographically different types

of deposition and climatic conditions (Figure 25). The monitoring sites are oligotrophic lakes

and streams located in forested headwater areas that are sensitive to the impacts of air

pollutants and that reflect changes in air pollutant loads. The bodies responsible for monitoring

the ecological impacts on freshwater ecosystems are the Finnish Environment Institute and the

ELY Centres.


Forests and peatlands

For forests, the ecological impact monitoring, as required by the NECD, covers three stations

included in the ICP Forests level II/ICP IM) (Figure 25). The areas monitored are located in

protected areas and represent geographically different types of deposition and climatic

conditions. The monitoring sites are mainly conifer-dominated catchment areas, in which the

infertile soil is sensitive to the impacts of air pollutants. The body responsible for monitoring

the ecological impacts on forests is the Natural Resources Institute Finland.

Organising the ecological impact monitoring, as referred to in the NECD, does not require

continuous emission monitoring in peatlands. It means that the impacts of air pollutants on

vegetation and the chemical state of the soil need to be monitored at intervals of 5–10 years.

The peatlands monitored are also located in areas included in the ICP IM (Figure 25), which

represent various mire types, such as hardwood swamps, pine bogs and fens, as well as raised

bogs and aapa mires of the mire complex types found in Finland. The Ministry of the

Environment is responsible for ecological impact monitoring carried out in peatlands. The

Ministry commissions the monitoring, as referred to in Article 9 of the NECD, as specific

projects at regular intervals.

Figure 25. Ecological impact monitoring sites as referred to in Article 9 of the NECD

in Finland.

Monitoring sites as referred to in the NECD

Freshwater ecosystems Forests Ozone air pollution loads Peatlands

92


Ozone

The National Emission Ceiling Directive requires that Member States monitor ozone air

pollution loads to assess damage to vegetation growth and biodiversity. In Finland, ozone air

pollution loads are monitored at four stations included in international measurement

programmes (Figure 25). Three of the monitoring stations represent forest areas and one

represents agricultural soils. The body responsible for the monitoring of ozone air pollution

loads is the Finnish Meteorological Institute.

7.3 Air quality monitoring

In Finland, air quality is mainly monitored by municipalities and the Finnish Meteorological

Institute. In addition, the Finnish Meteorological Institute functions as the national air quality

reference laboratory, which plays a key role in ensuring the consistent quality of air quality

monitoring. As a national reference laboratory, it offers quality control and assurance support

to air quality monitoring networks in Finland, for example, by organising reference

measurements and training.

The most widely measured compounds are PM10, PM2.5 and nitrogen dioxide. Air quality

measurements have been organised in a decentralised manner in municipalities, meaning that

air quality measurements are carried out in approximately 60 municipalities at approximately

100 measurement stations that form approximately 30 measurement networks (Figure 26). The

measurement networks are very different from each other in terms of the scope of their

activities and their resources, ranging from networks only comprising one measurement

station to extensive measurement networks operating in the area of several municipalities and

comprising more than ten stations. In many cases, industrial installations operating in the area

and producing emissions participate in the measurement activities and its financing (joint

monitoring), but they may also have a measurement network of their own. Air quality data are

collected in a database maintained by the Finnish Meteorological Institute, which forms part of

the environmental protection database. The Finnish Meteorological Institute publishes up-to-

date data46 and reports further to European Commission.

46 https://en.ilmatieteenlaitos.fi/air-quality

https://en.ilmatieteenlaitos.fi/air-quality


Figure 26. Finland’s air quality monitoring network.

7.4 Monitoring of the measures included in the NAPCP

The measures adopted in the NAPCP will be implemented in cooperation with the different

responsible bodies. The measures specified in the baseline projection described in Chapter 5

will be assessed as part of the emission trends monitoring referred to in section 7.1.

The Ministry of the Environment will establish a monitoring network to support and monitor

the implementation of the measures proposed in the NAPCP. Key actors responsible for the

implementation of the programme will be invited to join the network. The implementation of

the measures proposed in Chapter 6 will be assessed through separate studies in 2026 and

2031. The Ministry of the Environment is responsible for the implementation of the

assessments together with the Finnish Environment Institute.

94


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http://www.emep.int/mscw/mscw_datanotes.html

http://emep.int/publ/reports/2016/EMEP_Status_Report_1_2016.pdf

https://wgecce.org/Publications/CCE_Status_Reports/CCE_FINAL_REPORT_2017

https://wgecce.org/Publications/CCE_Status_Reports/CCE_FINAL_REPORT_2017

http://www.rivm.nl/media/documenten/cce/Publications/SR2011/CCE_Report-2011_Finland.pdf

http://www.rivm.nl/media/documenten/cce/Publications/SR2017/Finland.pdf

https://wge-cce.org/Publications/CCE_Status_Reports/CCE_FINAL_REPORT_2017

http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi-fe2015103015772


Salonen, R.O., Pasanen, K., Pulkkinen, A.-M., Pennanen, A., Pärjälä, E., Koskentalo, T., Pukkala, E. 2016. Puun pienpolton savuja ulkoa sisälle ja pitkäaikaisesta altistumisesta syöpiä (2016) Ympäristö ja Terveys 8/2016: 28–39. http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi-fe201702281887

Savolahti M., Kangas L., Karppinen A., Karvosenoja N., Kukkonen J., Lanki T., Nurmi V., Palamarchuk Y., Paunu V-V., Sofiev M. & Tiittanen P. 2018. Ilmansaasteiden haittakustannusmalli Suomelle (IHKU). (Air Pollution Damage Cost Model for Finland (IHKU).) Valtioneuvoston selvitys ja tutkimustoiminnan julkaisusarja 26/2018

Savolahti M., Karvosenoja N., Tissari J., Kupiainen K., Sippula O., Jokiniemi J. 2016. Black carbon and fine particle emissions in Finnish residential wood combustion: Emission projections, reduction measures and the impact of combustion practices. Atmospheric Environment 140:495–505.

Suoheimo, P., Grönroos, J., Karvosenoja, N., Petäjä, J., Saarinen, K., Savolahti, M., Silvo K. 2015. Päästökattodirektiiviehdotuksen ja keskisuurten polttolaitosten direktiiviehdotuksen toimeenpanon vaikutukset Suomessa. (Impacts of the implementation of the Revision of National Emission Ceilings Directive and the Proposed Medium Combustion Plants Directive in Finland.) https://helda.helsinki.fi/handle/10138/153981

Tissari, J. 2008. Fine Particle Emissions from Residential Wood Combustion. Doctoral dissertation. Kuopio university publications C Natural and environmental sciences 237.

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https://helda.helsinki.fi/handle/10138/153981



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Annex 1. Reported (2005, 2010, 2015) and projected (2020, 2025, 2030) air pollutant emissions

Only those emission sectors are included that are covered by the emission reduction

commitments set in the NECD. Some of the figures for 2005–2015 are preliminary estimates

for updates in the inventory, and thus they may deviate from the reported values.

Emissions kt/a 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

SO2


51.6 53.4 32.2 23.2 19.0 18.7

Industrial processes 8.7 5.3 4.0 2.9 2.4 2.3

Small-scale woodburning 6.6 6.0 3.9 3.2 3.3 3.2

Road transport 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Machinery and other transport 1.9 1.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1

Other (e.g. agriculture and peat production) 0.7 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.1

Total 69.6 66.2 40.8 29.9 25.0 24.4

NOx


66.8 76.0 53.1 52.0 41.9 42.1



Road transport 74.7 49.7 35.8 26.3 17.8 13.1



Total 195.3 173.8 122.4 106.9 84.2 76.6

PM2.5


3.8 2.5 2.5 2.3 1.8 1.8



Road transport 3.0 1.8 1.1 0.6 0.5 0.4

Street dust 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2



Total 27.8 26.3 20.1 17.7 16.3 15.7

NMVOC


1.5 2.0 1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7



Road transport 25.1 12.9 7.1 3.0 2.0 1.8



Total 122.3 95.6 68.6 59.7 57.0 55.7


Emissions kt/a 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

NH3


0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0



Road transport 2.0 1.6 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0


Agriculture 31.7 31.0 28.5 26.1 25.1 24.6

Total 36.6 34.2 30.9 28.4 27.4 26.9

BC


0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1



Road transport 1.6 0.9 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.1

Street dust 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2



Total 6.4 6.3 4.6 3.6 3.3 2.9

CH4

Use of fuels 17.9 18.8 14.0 14.0 14.0 14.0

Waste management 106.7 96.4 72.0 50.0 41.0 32.0

Agriculture 90.9 90.7 92.0 93.0 89.5 86.0

Total 215.5 205.9 178.0 157.0 144.5 132.0

98


Annex 2. Air pollution control legislation

Environmental Protection Act 527/2014

Environmental Protection Decree (Ympäristönsuojeluasetus) 713/2014

Climate Change Act 609/2015

Government Decree on Waste Incineration 79/2017

Government Decree on arsenic, cadmium, mercury, nickel and polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons in ambient air (Valtioneuvoston asetus ilmassa olevasta arseenista, kadmiumista,

elohopeasta, nikkelistä ja polysyklisistä aromaattisista hiilivedyistä) 113/2017

Government Decree on Limiting Emissions from Large Combustion Plants 936/2014

Government Decree on Environmental Protection Requirements for Medium-sized Energy

Production Units 1065/2017

Government Decree on Limiting Certain Emissions from Agriculture and Horticulture

1250/2014

Annex 3. Measures included in the National Energy and Climate Strategy (NECS) for 2030 that affect air pollution control

NECS With minor exceptions, Finland will phase out the use of coal for energy.

NECS

The share of transport biofuels will be increased to 30 per cent, and an obligation to

blend light fuel oil used in machinery and heating with 10 per cent of bioliquids will be

introduced. The minimum aim is to have 250,000 electric and 50,000 gas-powered vehicles on the roads by 2030.

NECS

Technology-neutral tendering processes will be organised in 2018−2020, on the basis of which aid will be granted to cost-effective new electricity production from renewable energy.

NECS

The share of renewable energy in end consumption will increase to approximately 50 per

cent and self-sufficiency in energy to 55 per cent. The domestic use of imported oil will be halved as planned.


Annex 4. Measures included in the Medium-term Climate Change Policy Plan (KAISU) for 2030 that affect air pollution control

KAISU/Transport and land use

Replacing fossil fuels with renewable and low-emission fuels and power sources

KAISU/Transport and land use

Improving the energy efficiency of vehicles and other means of transport

KAISU/Transport

and land use Improving the energy efficiency of the transport system, including the impacts of

the development of land use on emissions

The State will participate in the coordination of transport and land use in urban

regions and in work concerning the transport system, for example through

agreements on land use, housing and transport (MAL). The aim is to ensure

that projects promoting walking, cycling and public transport will be prioritised

in urban transport planning and project funding.

The location of jobs and services in growing urban regions will be steered

towards regional centres, subcentres and public transport nodes with a high

service level.

Infill construction, the creation of locations that are good for the urban

structure, and the use of such locations for new construction will be promoted

in urban areas.

The joint programme of the State and urban regions for promoting walking

and cycling will be implemented in 2018–2022.

Park-and-ride facilities will be developed in transport nodes.

Station areas will be developed through market experiments and urban

development

pilots.

KAISU/Agriculture Growing crops in organic soils for several years with zero tillage.

Raising the water table through controlled subsurface drainage.

Planting forest and wetland forest in areas with organic soil.

Promoting biogas production.

KAISU/Machinery Frontloading the introduction of a bioliquid blending obligation and increasing

the blending ratio (for light fuel oil) towards the 10% target set for 2030. The

steering instrument used to accomplish this will be an amendment to the act

on promoting the use of biofuels in transport (laki biopolttoaineiden käytön

edistämisestä liikenteessä 446/2007).

Promoting the use of biogas in machinery.

Increasing the share of energy-efficient and low-emission machinery through

public procurement. Promoting the energy-efficient use of machinery through guidance by

information.

KAISU/Other

energy-related

emissions

Introducing an obligation to blend light fuel oil with 10% of bioliquid, and

frontloading its implementation.

Promoting the replacement of fuel oil-fired boilers with boilers fired with solid fuel.

Enhancing the efficiency of energy audits in accordance with the policies proposed in the National Energy and Climate Strategy.

100


The European Union’s revised National Emission Ceilings Directive

(2016/2284) lays down the obligation to prepare a National Air Pollution Control

Programme (NAPCP) for Member States. Finland’s NAPCP comprises the

actions for realising the emission reduction commitments laid down in the

directive for emissions of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic

compounds, fine particulate matter and ammonia. The NAPCP includes a

description of the current state of Finland’s air pollution control (emissions, air

quality, effects) and an estimate on the amount of pollution, the effects caused

by it, and what measures must be implemented by 2030.

The calculations made by the Finnish Environment Institute show that Finland

already meets the emission reduction obligations set by the directive with the

previously agreed measures set out in the National Energy and Climate

Strategy and the action plan to reduce ammonia emissions from agriculture.

Air pollution continues to cause health hazards and environmental damage

despite the fact that the emission reduction obligations are met. Due to this, the

NAPCP includes measures to further improve air quality and reduce exposure

to pollution. These measures are specifically related to emissions that are

inhaled (small-scale woodburning and street dust, exhaust fumes) and, on the

other hand, to the actions of other sectors that affect air quality.

The NAPCP emphasises the need to take air pollution control into account

systematically in all planning and decision-making activities that affect air quality

at all levels of decision-making. In particular the transport, energy, climate,

agriculture and land-use sectors, together with municipalities, can affect air

quality. The benefits can be seen throughout the welfare sector. Joint projects,

aimed at promoting carbon neutrality and public health, usually also improve air

quality.

ISBN: 978-952-361-009-5 (printed)

ISBN: 978-952-361-008-8 (PDF)

ISSN: 2490-0648 (printed)

ISSN: 2490-1024 (PDF)

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