Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) Origins

A Noble Corsican Family Trained in armies of Ancien Regime Commissioned 1785 Was in favor of the Revolution.

Character He saw himself as a man of Destiny A rationalist and an opportunist Romantic Streak

Compared himself to Alexander the Great and Caesar. Devoted to his family - he made them important all

over Europe.

Coup of 18 Brumaire

Napoleon Named First Consul 1799 The Coup did not go well.

Napoleon addressed the Assembly Shouted down and became angry.

Saved by his brother Lucien calling in the army forced away the deputies.

Napoleon's account of this later was distorted Failed to mention that Lucien saved him. Napoleon become one of three consuls.

Presents himself as saving the Republic

New Constitution of the Year VIII

It appealed to republican theory (Checks and Balances) it included a Council of State (ref. Louis XIV) It actually made Napoleon ruler Approved by plebiscite (3,011,077 to 1,567) May be regarded as then end of the French Revolution

Declaration to that effect in 1799 In reality the rev. was over at Thermidor.

Napoleon's Rule in France (1799-1814)

The Consulate (1799-1804) Napoleon maintained order in the state by his policies. Liberal Policies

worked out important compromises between competing groups Employed people from all political groups. (e.g. Talleyrand) Gains of the peasants were confirmed Granted an amnesty to nobles Decreed improved education. Signed the Concordat of 1801 with Pope Pius VII

Gave Catholics freedom of worship. It said Catholicism is Religion of most Frenchmen. State named bishops and paid priests The Church gave up its claims on property. Clergy swore loyalty to the state.

Conservative Order

Central government control of the Provinces. Stopped the free press and free speech 1800 Ruthless in crushing opposition secret police developed.

Murdered the Bourbon Duke of Enghien 1804 Stopped free elections - especially when he declared

himself emperor

CIVIL CODE 1804 = Napoleonic Code

Granted the Middle class equality Safeguarded property rights Abolished all Privileges of birth Made state officials be chosen by merit Gave men control over their wives Labor unions forbidden

Set the tone of all later French life legally egalitarian, socially bourgeois, and administratively

bureaucratic.

Napoleon's Rule in France The Empire (1804-1814)

Used fears of a Bourbon comeback to get himself crowned Emperor. Also had another new constitution: also approved by

plebiscite. Pope came to do it but Napoleon crowned himself

Story of Charlemagne in 800AD being crowned by pope and then having to support him.

Restoration of a Quasi-nobility: Legion of Honor. 1809 Napoleon married Archduchess Marie Louise

A more fitting wife for an emperor than Josephine, (supposedly she was sexually to much for him).

Coronation of Napoleon

Conquering an Empire Peace of Ameins(1802) Britain was only truce because of Napoleon’s ambitions

Army sent to quell colony of Haiti, aroused British fears of French American empire because Spain restored Louisiana to France(1800), also in Swtzerland, Italy, Germany

Treaty of Campo Formio: Redistribution of territories along Rhine, princes scrambled for land Reduction of Austrian influence, emergence of Napoleon-dependant

larger German states British Naval Supremacy

British sent ultimatum Napoleon ignored it, Britain declared war May 1803 – William Pitt Jr. returned as prime

minister(1804), began constructing 3rd Coalition; persuaded Austria/Russia

Oct. 21, 1805, British Admiral Horatio Lord Nelson, destroyed combined French/Spanish fleets at Battle of Trafalgar:

British lost no ships – ended all hope of French invasion of Britain, guaranteed Britain control of sea

War against Third Coalition (Aus. Russ. Swed. GB)

Lost Naval dominance to Britain at Trafalgar 1805 (Lord Horatio Nelson killed)(21 Oct)

Britain now had the dominance of the seas it was to keep for the next century.

Napoleon Dominant in Europe 1805 Austerlitz (Dec 2)(just after Trafalgar) -

Napoleon gains Italy 1806 Jena defeats Prussia (supposedly best

army in Europe). 1807 Treaty of Tilsit

Signed by Napoleon, by Alexander I of Russia (secretly)

Russia becomes part of continental system -French Territorial gains confirmed Russia reduced in size.

The Grand Empire and the Continental System

French controlled all of Continental Europe (achievement shows unrealized possibilities of France under the later Ancien Regime). 1806 The Holy Roman Empire dissolved.

Germany re-organized July 1806 as The Confederation of the Rhine.

French Empire set up including land up to the Rhine and beyond. New Kingdoms set up - Spain, Italy, Holland, Sweden -

All with Napoleons family or followers on the throne. One relative became a Cardinal.

All the other state were, for the time being allies. The Napoleonic Code was imposed everywhere. -end

of Feudalism + Local town oligarchies

Continental System

After Treaty of Tilsit, Napoleon needed to defeat British to feel safe Couldn’t defeat navy, so tried to cut off British trade and

drive Britain from the war The Milan Decree of 1807:

Attempted to stop neutral nation from trading w/Britain British economy survived

Continental System hurt European economies Napoleon rejected suggestions to make empire trade-free

Tariff policies favored France Increased foreign resentment less willing to enforce system, more likely to smuggle

Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808 in part to prevent smuggling, helped bring his ruin

Prussian Reform Prussian admin./social reforms

Baron vom Stein and Count von Hardenberg Wanted to keep power of Prussian monarch/nobles Tried to fight French w/revolution Reforms came from top, changed social scene

Broke Junker land monopoly/serfdom abolishedSome manorial labor) /new problems created by landless labor force w/population explosion

Military reforms: abolished inhumane military punishmentsEmbraced patriotismOpened officer corps to commoners/based on merit/war colleges

Reforms soon let Prussia regain former power Limited army to 42,000 men, universal conscription not introduced

until 1813(trained reserves)

The Wars of Liberation

Spain: resistance had deep social roots Napoleon used a revolt to dispose of

Spanish Bourbons replace with brother, Joseph

attacks on church enraged peasants General rebellion – new guerilla warfare, British

helped out, long campaign would drain French strength

elsewhere, big role in Napoleon’s defeat

Austria: Spanish troubles encouraged Austrians, renewed war 1809;

since defeat at Austerlitz, sought war of revenge, counted on Napoleon’s distraction

French weariness German princes (none happened)

French Army marched to Austria, won Battle of Wagram Peace of Schoenbrunn: Austria lost territory/3.5 million

Marie Louise spoils of Napoleon’s victory, Austrian archduchess, daughter of emperor – old wife was 46, no children; divorced her, married 18-yr-old Marie

considered marrying sister of Tsar Alexander

The Invasion of Russia March on Moscow 1810 Russians withdrew from the Continental system. and

resume contact with GB. 1812 Napoleon Attempts to march on Moscow, as his major

continental opponent. Defeated by the Cold and snow and lack of supplies

Russians used scorched earth policy. Also defeated by the resistance put up by the entire

Russian people - from the Tsar to the serfs. Tsar did not allow for any one decisive battle which

was Napoleon's forte (Borodino 1812 not decisive) The Retreat from Moscow - 1812/1813

Napoleon was unable to get together another army for six months. About 100,000 out of 600,000 survived.

Raised 350,000

The Opposition Becomes Effective 1813

Prussia after defeat at Jena reorganized and modernized Some land reform. end of serfdom, calls to patriotism.

42,000 men trained each year By 1813 it was strong again - army of 270,000

Napoleon still put down opponents in Paris/raised another 350K men

Other countries hesitant to attack, Austrian foreign minister, Prince Klemens von Metternich

would have settled reasonably, Nap didn’t consider compromising

Patriotic pressure/national ambition brought together - most powerful coalition v. Napoleon(1813)

European Coalition The Fourth Coalition, (Russia, Prussia,

Austria, GB) Russians drove westward, joined by Austria/Prussia

w/vast amounts of British $; Wellington marched peninsular army into France from west

New army was inexperienced/poorly equipped; still, waged skillful campaign in central Europe, defeated allies at Dresden

In Oct. Nap decisively defeated at Leipzig in “Battle of Nations” a few days later, Nap abdicated/went into exile on island of

Elba, of coast of northern Italy

The Congress of Vienna

Fear of Nap/hostility to ambitions had held coalition together; Split apart, seeking separate goals Agreement reached through Robert Stewart,

Viscount Castlereagh, British foreign secretary; Treaty of Chaumont (March9,1814)

restored Bourbons to French throne/contracted French frontiers

final deal at Vienna Congress HRE, dissolved since 1806, left untouched/established

legitimate monarchs/rejected republican/democratic politics that came from French Rev

Brought agreement that Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia would from Quadruple Alliance for 20 yrs to preserve settlement

Territorial Adjustments

Settlement of Eastern Europe divided victors Alex. I of Russia wanted Poland/ Prussia would

trade for Saxony Austria unwilling to give up share of Poland or see

Russian/Prussian power grow (Polish-Saxon Question)

Talleyrand, representing France, suggested that leak of “secret treaty” between

France, Britain, Austria would bring Alexander to his senses

Russia accepted smaller Poland, Prussia settled for ½ of Saxony, France was included as 5th great power in all

deliberations

The Hundred Days

Nap returned from Elba(March1,1815) army still loyal; Promised liberal constitution peaceful foreign policy Allies declared him outlaw and went to crush him

Wellington with help of Prussians under Field Marshal von Bluecher, defeated Nap at Waterloo in Belgium

(June18,1815) Nap abdicated, sent to exile on Saint Helena,

died there in 1821

the Quadruple Alliance Alexander proposed Holy Alliance

monarchs promised to act with Christian ideals, Austria and Prussia signed Britain- Castlereagh didn’t

Quadruple Alliance renewed(Nov20,1815) New diplomacy in European affairs; determined to prevent

upheaval purpose of treaty to secure peace, Vienna Settlement, powers framed good relations

Congress of Vienna achieved goals France accepted situation/new legal framework

Criticized for failing to recognize/provide for nationalism/democracy (inappropriate) general desire was for peace

virtually unprecedented to produce settlement intact for 100 yrs

Changed Political Map of Europe

Holy Roman Empire Goes Austria now its own nation 300 German States reduced to 39.

More Catholic states than Protestant ones disappeared no Habsburg would again be elected emperor

France becomes less important for 30 years Britain's mastery of the seas now total

The Impact of the French Revolution: Liberty, Equality and Fraternity French revolutionary ideas stressed the rights of

the people. The people come to have their own significance as a unit.

Reaction to French Revolution French spread their ideals all over Europe.

dominated the other countries. Other countries took up the ideals of the French Rev.

and applied them to their own situation, especially in Germany. Never been a united German state, but Germans saw what

power a united France had achieved.

Nationalism The idea of a nation consisting of people unified by common

culture, language, and/or religion, who should all be ruled by one government

Reaction against Cosmopolitanism Enlightenment ideal that all human beings belong to one

family. Enlightenment culture had emphasized

A common language The universality of Reason. Common intellectual world of the educated middle class and

nobility. Opposition to the Congress of Vienna,

Principle of states based on monarchies and dynasties, Disregarding the ethnic makeup of countries as a factor for

boundaries

Meanings of Nationhood Some nationalists

Argued that uniting ethnicities into one group would help economic and administrative success

Thought that nationhood was imposed by God, or compared nationhood to divinity

Difficulties in classifying nations Which ethnic groups could be considered nations with

legitimacy to claim political and territorial independence? Would nationhood only be classified on which groups

managed to create a stable economy and culture? Would ethnic uprisings be viewed as legitimate grasps

for independence?

First phase (first half of the 1800s)

Small nationalist groups Intellectuals (historians, professors, teachers, and other

scholars) Imparted cultural history, bonds, and language on the

people

German Nationalism and History

German Romantics Glorification of the individual and culture

G. Fichte The world exists because of humans

Johann Gottfried Herder Rejection of French influences in Germany Promoted German folk cultures

Grimm Bros followed his example Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Created system of how ideas develop Thesis- set of ideas Antithesis- conflicting ideas Synthesis- Merging of ideas

Centers of European Nationalism Ireland

Ireland became directly governed by the British Crown after 1800, Irish people elected members to the Parliament Nationalists demanded either independence or

autonomy Nationalism would persist in Ireland well into the

20th century

Polish Nationalism Since the loss of Polish independence in the

Partitions, Polish nationalists,urged for armed struggle to regain independence from Austria, Prussia, and Russia

Most disturbances in the Russian portion of Poland November Insurrection of 1830-1831

January Insurrection of 1863-1864) Both doomed by bad military leadership or disunity

Nationalist groups survived in Poland, After 1864, no uprisings occurred All social classes and sectors of Polish economy must be

improved and equalized before independence

Hungarian Nationalism

Since Maria Theresa granted concessions to the Magyar nobility of Hungary Nobility persisted in gaining and retaining privileges

Hungary troubled the stability of the Habsburg Empire until its end in World War I Nationalists launched several uprisings, and participated

in the "Spring of Nations" in the Revolutions of 1848 Agitations led to the eventual Compromise of 1867

Austria and Hungary became virtually separate nations in a personal union under the Habsburgs

Threat of Nationalism to the Establishment

Nationalists, sought to redraw Europe along ethnic lines Would effectively dissolve the Ottoman, Austrian, and

Russian empires Nationalism and liberalism sometimes worked

together, adding to the concern of absolutists and ultraroyalists

Nationalism eventually succeeded, United the German and Italian states into unified,

strong countries, challenging French and Austrian ambitions