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Nanocolloids

NanocolloidsA Meeting Point for Scientists and Technologists

Edited by

M. Sanchez-DomınguezCentro de Investigacion en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV, S.C.),

Unidad Monterrey, GENES-Group of Embedded Nanomaterials for EnergyScavenging, Apodaca, Nuevo Leon, Mexico

C. Rodrıguez-AbreuInternational Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory,

Braga, Portugal

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Contents

List of Contributors .......................................................................................... xv

Preface ........................................................................................................... xix

Chapter 1: Nanocolloids: Some Basic Concepts and Principles of TheirStabilization ...................................................................................................... 1C. Rodrıguez-Abreu

1.1 What Is a Nanocolloid? ......................................................................................... 11.2 Nanocolloids As Dynamic Systems ...................................................................... 21.3 There Are Different Kinds of Interactions in Nanocolloids................................. 3

1.3.1 Van der Waals Interactions ................................................................................ 41.3.2 Electrostatic Interaction ..................................................................................... 71.3.3 Elastic-Steric Interaction.................................................................................. 131.3.4 Hydrophobic Interaction (Lewis Acid-Base) .................................................. 151.3.5 Solvation or Hydration Interaction.................................................................. 161.3.6 Osmotic Repulsion........................................................................................... 181.3.7 Depletion Interaction ....................................................................................... 191.3.8 Magnetic Interaction ........................................................................................ 20

1.4 The Stability of Nanocolloids Can Be Forecasted ............................................. 201.5 Characterizing Nanocolloidal Stability: Common Experimental Methods........ 261.6 Summary and Outlook......................................................................................... 30Nomenclature.............................................................................................................. 31Subscripts.................................................................................................................... 32Greek Letters .............................................................................................................. 32Others.......................................................................................................................... 33References................................................................................................................... 33Other Bibliography on Colloids................................................................................. 36

Chapter 2: Nanocolloids of Noble Metals ........................................................... 37E. Carbo-Argibay, S. Mourdikoudis, I. Pastoriza-Santos, J. Perez-Juste

2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 372.2 Optical Properties of Plasmonic Nanoparticles .................................................. 372.3 Modeling Optical Properties................................................................................ 39

2.3.1 Analytical Methods .......................................................................................... 392.3.2 Numerical Methods.......................................................................................... 412.3.3 Plasmon Hybridization Model......................................................................... 43

vii

2.4 Synthesis of Plasmonic Nanoparticles with Morphology Control ..................... 452.4.1 Aqueous Medium............................................................................................. 452.4.2 Nonaqueous Medium ....................................................................................... 472.4.3 Biogenic Methods ............................................................................................ 492.4.4 CoreeShells and Alloys Between Plasmonic Noble Metals.......................... 50

2.5 Surface Modification............................................................................................ 522.5.1 Ligand Exchange Through Thiols................................................................... 532.5.2 Silica Coating................................................................................................... 542.5.3 Titania Coating................................................................................................. 552.5.4 Polymer Coating .............................................................................................. 562.5.5 Bioconjugation ................................................................................................. 58

2.6 Applications.......................................................................................................... 602.6.1 Sensing ............................................................................................................. 602.6.2 Imaging/Diagnostics......................................................................................... 632.6.3 Therapy............................................................................................................. 642.6.4 Theranostics...................................................................................................... 65

2.7 Conclusions and Outlook..................................................................................... 65References................................................................................................................... 66

Chapter 3: Magnetic Nanocolloids ..................................................................... 75J. Rivas, Y.V. Kolen’ko, M. Banobre-Lopez

3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 753.2 Properties of Magnetic Colloids.......................................................................... 76

3.2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 763.2.2 Magnetic Colloids: Single-Domain Particles.................................................. 763.2.3 Magnetization in Thermal Equilibrium: Superparamagnetism ...................... 783.2.4 Magnetization Under Thermal Nonequilibrium Conditions:

Magnetic Relaxation ........................................................................................ 813.2.5 Magnetic Viscosity........................................................................................... 823.2.6 Field-Cooled and Zero-Field-Cooled Magnetization Measurements

at a Low Field.................................................................................................. 823.2.7 Hysteresis Shift in Interfacial Exchange Anisotropy Systems....................... 83

3.3 Synthesis of Magnetic Nanocolloids ................................................................... 843.3.1 Coprecipitation ................................................................................................. 873.3.2 Thermal Decomposition................................................................................... 903.3.3 Hydrothermal Method...................................................................................... 99

3.4 Applications of Colloidal Magnetic Nanoparticles........................................... 1013.4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 1013.4.2 Technological Applications: Ferrofluids ....................................................... 1033.4.3 Biomedical Applications................................................................................ 106

3.4 Conclusions and Outlook................................................................................... 119Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... 120References................................................................................................................. 120

Contents

viii

Chapter 4: Quantum Dots.............................................................................. 131M.G.C. Pereira, E.S. Leite, G.A.L. Pereira, A. Fontes, B.S. Santos

4.1 Fundamentals of Quantum Dots........................................................................ 1314.2 Applications of Quantum Dots.......................................................................... 136

4.2.1 Biomedical Applications................................................................................ 1374.2.2 Analytical Applications of QDs: Sensing and Biosensing........................... 1434.2.3 Opto-electronic Applications ......................................................................... 146

4.3 Scaling-up the Synthesis of Quantum Dots ...................................................... 1474.4 Nanosafety Issues............................................................................................... 1484.5 Conclusions and Outlook................................................................................... 148Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... 149References................................................................................................................. 149

Chapter 5: Silica and Titania Nanodispersions.................................................. 159J. Nestor, J. Esquena

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1595.2 Synthesis Methods Based on SoleGel Processing in Solution........................ 160

5.2.1 Synthesis of Silica NPs by Hydrolysis of Alkoxides ................................... 1625.2.2 Synthesis of TiO2 NPs by Hydrolysis of Alkoxides .................................... 175

5.3 Preparation of Silica and TiO2 NP Hydrolyzing Alkoxidesin Nanostructured Liquids ................................................................................. 1805.3.1 Synthesis in Microemulsions......................................................................... 1805.3.2 Synthesis in Nano-emulsions......................................................................... 183

5.4 Preparation of Silica and Titania by Other Methods........................................ 1845.4.1 Preparation of NPs by Ion Exchange Methods ............................................ 1865.4.2 Preparation of SiO2 and TiO2 NPs by Vapor Phase Methods ..................... 1875.4.3 Preparation of SiO2 and TiO2 Particles by Mechanochemical

Methods .......................................................................................................... 1875.4.4 Preparation of SiO2 and TiO2 by Hydrothermal/Solvothermal

Methods .......................................................................................................... 1885.4.5 Preparation of SiO2 and TiO2 Particles by Aerosol Methods...................... 1895.4.6 Redispersion of NPs by Peptization.............................................................. 190

5.5 Properties and Applications ............................................................................... 1905.5.1 Silica NPs....................................................................................................... 1905.5.2 Titania NPs..................................................................................................... 192

5.6 Current Trends and Novel Tendencies .............................................................. 1955.6.1 Recent Tendencies on the Preparation of Silica NPs ................................... 1955.6.2 Recent Tendencies on TiO2 NPs ................................................................... 197

5.7 Concluding Remarks.......................................................................................... 199References................................................................................................................. 200

Contents

ix

Chapter 6: Nanocatalysts: Synthesis in Nanostructured Liquid Mediaand Their Application in Energy and Production of Chemicals ............................ 211M. Boutonnet, A. Marinas, V. Montes, R. Suarez-Paris, M. Sanchez-Domınguez

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 2116.2 Preparation Methods .......................................................................................... 212

6.2.1 Microemulsion Systems................................................................................. 2126.2.2 Microemulsion Technique ............................................................................. 2136.2.3 W/O Microemulsion Method......................................................................... 2136.2.4 O/W Microemulsion Method......................................................................... 2156.2.5 Bicontinuous Microemulsion Method ........................................................... 2176.2.6 Deposition of Catalyst NPs Onto Supports .................................................. 2186.2.7 Synthesis of Ordered Mesoporous Catalysts Using Templates.................... 220

6.3 Nanocatalysts for Various Applications ............................................................ 2226.3.1 Electrocatalysis: Fuel Cells ........................................................................... 2226.3.2 Production of Fuels and Catalytic Combustion ............................................ 2246.3.3 Production of Chemicals ............................................................................... 232

6.4 Concluding Remarks.......................................................................................... 238References................................................................................................................. 240

Chapter 7: Dispersion of Carbon Nanomaterials ............................................... 247M.A. Velasco-Soto, S.A. Perez-Garcıa, R. Rychwalski, L. Licea-Jimenez

7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 2477.2 Solubility ............................................................................................................ 2497.3 Surface Modification and Functionalization ..................................................... 253

7.3.1 Mechanical Technique ................................................................................... 2537.3.2 Covalent Functionalization ............................................................................ 2537.3.3 Noncovalent Functionalization ...................................................................... 2557.3.4 Irradiation ....................................................................................................... 2567.3.5 Special Cases.................................................................................................. 256

7.4 XPS: A Way to Understand the Chemical EnvironmentThat Enables Dispersion .................................................................................... 2577.4.1 Introduction to the XPS Technique............................................................... 2577.4.2 Surface Chemical Analysis by Means of XPS on Functionalized

Carbon Nanomaterials ................................................................................... 2587.5 Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 260References................................................................................................................. 260

Chapter 8: Carbon Polymer Nanocomposites .................................................... 265M.A. Velasco-Soto, J.A. Leon-Gil, J. Alvarez-Quintana, S.A. Perez-Garcıa, B. Laine,C. Mercader, S. Jestin, R. Rychwalski, L. Licea-Jimenez

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 2658.2 Carbon-Based Polymer Composite Preparation: Critical Issues ...................... 266

8.2.1 Nanotube De-agglomeration and Dispersion in a Polymer.......................... 2678.2.2 Load Transfer Across the NanotubeePolymer Interface ............................. 267

Contents

x

8.2.3 Nanotube Orientation..................................................................................... 2678.2.4 Preparation of Carbon PNCs ......................................................................... 268

8.3 Carbon PNC Fibers ............................................................................................ 2688.3.1 Melt-Spinning of Carbon PNC Fibers .......................................................... 2698.3.2 Case Studies of Melt-Spinning With Different Polymers ............................ 2718.3.3 Wet-Spinning of Carbon PNC Fibers............................................................ 2748.3.4 Wet-Spinning Studies: Different Polymers ................................................... 276

8.4 Surface and Interface Analysis of Carbon-Based Nanocomposites................. 2808.5 An Approach for Engineering Electrical Conductance in

Nanocomposites via Electron Tunneling........................................................... 2838.6 Carbon Polymer Nanocomposites: Industrial Applications.............................. 289

8.6.1 Most Promising Short-term Industrial Applications..................................... 2908.6.2 Industrial Application Case ........................................................................... 291

8.7 Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 292References................................................................................................................. 292

Chapter 9: Non-Invasive Characterization Methods for Nanocolloids................... 299M. Obiols-Rabasa

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 2999.2 Basics of Scattering ........................................................................................... 3009.3 Light Scattering.................................................................................................. 304

9.3.1 Dynamic Light Scattering.............................................................................. 3059.3.2 Static Light Scattering ................................................................................... 3109.3.3 Multiple Scattering......................................................................................... 314

9.4 Small-Angle X-ray Scattering ........................................................................... 3189.4.1 Model-Independent Analyses ........................................................................ 3209.4.2 Model-Dependent Analyses........................................................................... 3219.4.3 X-ray Photon Correlation Spectroscopy........................................................ 322

9.5 Small-Angle Neutron Scattering........................................................................ 3239.5.1 Neutron Spin-Echo Spectroscopy.................................................................. 326

9.6 Summary and Outlook....................................................................................... 326Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... 327References................................................................................................................. 327

Chapter 10: Polymerization in Nanocolloids and Derived Products ..................... 331Tania E. Lara-Ceniceros, V.M. Ovando-Medina, S. Carro, M. Rabelero-Velasco

10.1 The Concept of Microemulsion....................................................................... 33110.2 Polymerization in Oil-in-Water, Water-in-Oil, and

Bicontinuous Microemulsions ......................................................................... 33510.3 New Approaches for the Optimized Synthesis of Polymeric

Nanoparticles in Nanocolloids......................................................................... 34210.4 Reactive Surfactants in Heterophase Polymerization ..................................... 349

Contents

xi

10.5 Hybrid CoreeShell Nanoparticles: Oil-in-Water, Water-in-Oil,and Bicontinuous Microemulsions .................................................................. 352

10.6 Concluding Remarks........................................................................................ 355References................................................................................................................. 356

Chapter 11: Nano-emulsions for Pharmaceutical Applications ............................ 365M.J. Garcıa-Celma, M. Homs, D. Morales, C. Solans

11.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 36511.2 Preparation Methods of Nano-emulsions ........................................................ 366

11.2.1 High-Energy Methods................................................................................ 36611.2.2 Low-Energy Methods................................................................................. 367

11.3 Nano-emulsion Properties and Characterization............................................. 37311.3.1 Basic Properties of Nano-emulsion........................................................... 37311.3.2 Functional Properties of Nano-emulsions ................................................. 375

11.4 Recent Applications of Nano-emulsions in Drug Delivery............................ 37811.4.1 Oral Delivery.............................................................................................. 37911.4.2 Parenteral Delivery..................................................................................... 38111.4.3 Ocular Delivery.......................................................................................... 38111.4.4 Dermal and Transdermal Delivery ............................................................ 38211.4.5 Nano-emulsions as Templates for Nanoparticle Preparation ................... 383

References................................................................................................................. 384

Chapter 12: Smart and Stimuli-Responsive Colloids .......................................... 389P. Brown, H.B. Eral

12.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 38912.2 Conventional Responses: Temperature, pH, and Electrolyte ....................... 39012.3 CO2 Response ................................................................................................ 39012.4 Light Response............................................................................................... 39712.5 Magnetic Response ........................................................................................ 40412.6 Electric Response........................................................................................... 40812.7 Enzyme Response .......................................................................................... 41212.8 Redox Response ............................................................................................. 41312.9 Ultrasound Response...................................................................................... 41612.10 Shear Response .............................................................................................. 41612.11 Confinement ................................................................................................... 41712.12 Conclusions .................................................................................................... 418References................................................................................................................. 418

Chapter 13: Current Challenges in the Commercialization of Nanocolloids:Toxicology and Environmental Issues................................................................ 427J. Cancino-Bernardi, I.M.M. Paino, J.P. Souza, V.S. Marangoni,P.F.M. Nogueira, V. Zucolotto

13.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 42713.2 Safety Testing: From the Bench to Commercialized Nanoproducts.............. 429

Contents

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13.3 Toxicity of Nanomaterials ............................................................................... 43113.3.1 Toxicology in Human Health .................................................................... 431

13.4 Environmental Issues Concerning the ToxicologicalEffects of Nanomaterials ................................................................................. 44313.4.1 Toxicology Aspects of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials

in the Environment .................................................................................... 44413.4.2 Metallic-Based Nanomaterials in the Ecosystem ..................................... 44713.4.3 The Ecotoxicity of Quantum Dots ............................................................ 44913.4.4 Ecotoxicological Concerns of Polymeric Nanoparticles .......................... 453

13.5 Overview .......................................................................................................... 455References................................................................................................................. 455

Author Index ................................................................................................. 465

Subject Index................................................................................................. 501

Contents

xiii

List of Contributors

J. Alvarez-Quintana Centro de Investigacion en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV, S.C.), Unidad

Monterrey, GENES-Group of Embedded Nanomaterials for Energy Scavenging, Apodaca, Nuevo

Leon, Mexico

M. Banobre-Lopez International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal

M. Boutonnet Kungliga Tekniska Hogskolan (KTH), School of Chemical Science and Engineering,

Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Stockholm, Sweden

P. Brown Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering,

Cambridge, MA, United States

J. Cancino-Bernardi University of Sao Paulo, Physics Institute of Sao Carlos, Nanomedicine and

Nanotoxicology Group, Sao Carlos, Sao Paulo, Brazil

E. Carbo-Argibay International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal

S. Carro Universidad Autonoma de Tlaxcala, Facultad de Ciencias Basicas, Ingenierıa y Tecnologıa,

Apizaco, Tlaxcala, Mexico

H.B. Eral Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering, Cambridge,

MA, United States

J. Esquena Institute of Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular

Nanotechnology, Spanish National Research Council (IQAC-CSIC) and CIBER on Bioengineering,

Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Barcelona, Spain

A. Fontes Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Biophysics and Radiobiology Department,

Recife, Brazil

M.J. Garcıa-Celma University of Barcelona, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacy and

Pharmaceutical Technology, and CIBER on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine

(CIBER-BBN), Barcelona, Spain

M. Homs Institute of Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular



S. Jestin CANOE, Pessac, France

Y.V. Kolen’ko International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal

B. Laine JTT Composite, Merignac, France

Tania E. Lara-Ceniceros Centro de Investigacion en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV, S.C.), Unidad

Monterrey, Polymer Science and Nanotechnology Lab, Apodaca, Nuevo Leon, Mexico

xv

E.S. Leite Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Department of Chemical Engineering, Recife,

Brazil

J.A. Leon-Gil Centro de Investigacion en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV, S.C.), Unidad Monterrey,

GENES-Group of Embedded Nanomaterials for Energy Scavenging, Apodaca, Nuevo Leon, Mexico

L. Licea-Jimenez Centro de Investigacion en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV, S.C.), Unidad


Leon, Mexico

V.S. Marangoni University of Sao Paulo, Physics Institute of Sao Carlos, Nanomedicine and


A. Marinas University of Cordoba, Organic Chemistry Department, Cordoba, Spain

C. Mercader CANOE, Pessac, France

V. Montes University of Cordoba, Organic Chemistry Department, Cordoba, Spain

D. Morales Institute of Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular

Nanotechnology, Spanish National Research Council (IQAC-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain

S. Mourdikoudis Universidade de Vigo, Facultade de Quımica, Departamento de Quımica Fısica,

Vigo, Spain

J. Nestor Institute of Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular



P.F.M. Nogueira University of Sao Paulo, Physics Institute of Sao Carlos, Nanomedicine and


M. Obiols-Rabasa Lund University, Department of Chemistry, Division of Physical Chemistry,

Lund, Sweden; CR Competence AB, Lund, Sweden

V.M. Ovando-Medina Universidad Autonoma de San Luis Potosı, Coordinacion Academica

Region Altiplano (COARA), Departamento de Ingenierıa Quımica, Matehuala, San Luis Potosı,

Mexico

I.M.M. Paino University of Sao Paulo, Physics Institute of Sao Carlos, Nanomedicine and


I. Pastoriza-Santos Universidade de Vigo, Facultade de Quımica, Departamento de Quımica

Fısica, Vigo, Spain

M.G.C. Pereira Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences,

Recife, Brazil

G.A.L. Pereira Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Department of Fundamental Chemistry,

Recife, Brazil

S.A. Perez-Garcıa Centro de Investigacion en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV, S.C.), Unidad


Leon, Mexico

J. Perez-Juste Universidade de Vigo, Facultade de Quımica, Departamento de Quımica Fısica,

Vigo, Spain


xvi

M. Rabelero-Velasco Universidad de Guadalajara, Centro Universitario de Ciencias Exactas e

Ingenierıa, Departamento de Ingenierıa Quımica, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico

J. Rivas Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Department of Applied Physics, Technological

Research Institute, Nanotechnology and Magnetism Lab, Santiago de Compostela, Galicia,

Spain; International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal

C. Rodrıguez-Abreu International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal

R. Rychwalski Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Materials and Manufacturing

Technology, Goteborg, Sweden

M. Sanchez-Domınguez Centro de Investigacion en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV, S.C.), Unidad


Leon, Mexico

B.S. Santos Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences,

Recife, Brazil

C. Solans Institute of Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular



J.P. Souza University of Sao Paulo, Physics Institute of Sao Carlos, Nanomedicine and


R. Suarez-Paris Kungliga Tekniska Hogskolan (KTH), School of Chemical Science and

Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Stockholm, Sweden

M.A. Velasco-Soto Centro de Investigacion en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV, S.C.), Unidad


Leon, Mexico

V. Zucolotto University of Sao Paulo, Physics Institute of Sao Carlos, Nanomedicine and



xvii

Preface

Over the last 30 years, there has been an increasing growth in valuable research dedicated to

nanoscience and nanotechnology on one hand. The study of colloids, on the other hand, has a

strong tradition dating back to centuries ago, and it continues to be of interest for both scienti-

fic and technological development. It has been recognized that colloid science provides a

strong foundation for the advancement of nanotechnology and nanoscience. The area at which

nanotechnology and colloid science overlap is the field of nanocolloids, which includes all

kinds of hard colloids, such as inorganic nanoparticles, as well as soft colloids, such as

nanoemulsions.

The aim of this book is to offer a multidisciplinary overview on several aspects of nano-

colloids in a way that is attractive for both scientists and technologists. The book has been

organized into 13 chapters.

Chapter 1 introduces basic concepts on nanocolloids. The dynamic behavior of nano-

colloids is discussed, and the different types of interactions involved are described; equa-

tions to estimate the interaction potentials are presented. The most used parameters and

methods to characterize colloidal stability are summarized.

Chapter 2 presents an overview on nanocolloidal noble metals. The main optical properties

of these nanomaterials are described, and modeling of those properties is explained.

Synthesis and preparation methods to obtain controlled morphology, shape, and surface

functionalization are summarized. Finally, the main applications of nanocolloidal noble

metals are discussed.

Chapter 3 is dedicated to magnetic nanocolloids. The principles of size-dependent

nanoscale magnetism (nanomagnetism) are first explained. Synthesis and preparation pro-

tocols of magnetic nanocolloids with controlled morphology and shape by chemical

methods are reviewed. Diverse applications of magnetic nanocolloids are presented.

Chapter 4 introduces the main properties of colloidal quantum dots. Wet chemistry-based

synthesis methods are discussed. Applications of these systems in biomedicine and other

technological fields are reviewed.

xix

Chapter 5 deals with silica and titania nanocolloids. Preparation methods are reviewed with

special attention to sol-gel chemistry and processing. The properties of silica and titania

nanocolloids and their relationship with several applications are addressed.

Chapter 6 provides an overview about the synthesis of nanocatalysts from surfactant-assisted

preparation methods and their potential applications in the energy and chemical production

industries. Preparation methods include the synthesis of nanoparticles in microemulsions, as

well as the use of templates for the preparation of metal oxides with structured pores.

Furthermore, strategies for the optimum deposition of catalysts onto supports are also

discussed.

Chapter 7 examines the chemical and physical methods to achieve dispersion of carbon

nanomaterials. Different approaches such as mechanical dispersion as well as surface

modification are presented. In addition, the role of X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy

(XPS) technique for understanding the relationship between structure-property-functionality

of the modified carbon nanostructures is discussed.

Chapter 8 is focused on carbon polymer nanocomposites. Methods of preparation including

different types of polymers and carbon nanostructures, surface and interface analysis on

carbon nanocomposites, and examples of the most promising industrial applications are

discussed.

Chapter 9 gives an introduction to scattering methods based on light, X-rays and neutrons,

and their application for noninvasive characterization of nanocolloids. The chapter is

focused on Dynamic and Static Light scattering, Small-Angle X-ray Scattering and Small-

Angle Neutron Scattering.

Chapter 10 gives an overview about polymerization using nanocolloids as reaction media.

The most important advances concerning polymerization in O/W, W/O and bicontinuous

microemulsions are discussed. Different approaches resulting in well-stabilized polymeric

nanoparticles, high polymer content, as well as the use of water as continuous phase are

presented, demonstrating an important advancement towards cost-effective industrial

processes.

Chapter 11 is dedicated to nano-emulsions as a class of soft nanocolloids. Nano-emulsion

preparation is discussed, with emphasis in low-energy methods. Nano-emulsion properties

and the methods to characterize them are described. Finally, relevant applications of nano-

emulsions in the pharmaceutical field are reviewed.

Chapter 12 reviews recent progress in smart and stimuli-responsive colloids. Colloidal con-

trol and manipulation over interfacial and bulk properties may be achieved predictably and

selectively using these systems. Common triggers such as pH, temperature and electrolyte

concentration, as well as more sophisticated stimuli, such as magnetic and electric fields,

Preface

xx

light, CO2, sonication and enzymes are discussed. A particular emphasis on future

directions and applications is also given.

Last but not least, chapter 13 deals with one of the biggest challenges to the commerciali-

zation of nanoproducts, which is related to the development of safety testing guidelines for

evaluating their toxicity, aiming at standardizing the process. Thus, the last chapter brings

a discussion on the potential toxic effects of nanocolloids, as well as on the actual state

and perspectives regarding regulatory procedures.

Preface

xxi

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