Nano bioremediationSubmitted to-

Submitted by-

Shreya M. Modi.Student of M.phil/p.hD in nanoscience

ABSTRACT

Nanoscience, Nanotechnology and their applications have altered the face of Science and technology. Environmental hazards, Population and pollution is increasing day by day, and it is the great challenge to science and society to solve these problems. Till now, microorganisms are used widely in the process of remediation, but now a days application of nanotechnology and nanoparticals have become boon to solve all these problems. Nanoparticals have more advancement than microorganisms. In this term paper I have just tried to explain the advancement of Nano bioremediation. Using the nanoparticals and nanotechnological instruments it is possible to carry out genetic and protein engineering of microbial cells which can be used for bioremediation. Immobilization of microbial cells and enzymes with nanoparticals also enhance the process of remediation. Apart from this, some microorganisms have ability to synthesize the nanoparticals which are helpful to the process and also can be recovered for their application in other field. As well as Nanophytoremediation also enhance the remediation process.

Key Words- Nanotechnology, Nanoparticals, Bioremediation, Immobilization Nanophytoremediation

NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGYScience require measurement. Measurement is the language of science. Nanoscale implies a scale of measurement that exists at the level of the nanometer.Nanoscience is the study of atoms, molecules, and objects whose size is on the nanometer scale ( 1 - 100 nanometers ).Nanotechnology originates from the Greek word ‘dwarf’.[3]

By definition, nanotechnology is the science of microengineering. Microengineering is the science of engineering that deals with particle manipulation if those particles are smaller than 100 nanometers. [1]

Nanotechnology is a broad and interdisciplinary field dealing with structures and particles at the Nano scale. Nanotechnology can be defined as “Research and technology development at the atomic, molecular, or macromolecular levels using a length scale of approximately one to one hundred nanometers in any dimension; the creation and use of structures, devices and systems that have novel properties and functions because of their small size; and the ability to control or manipulate matter on an atomic scale” (US EPA 2007, p 5). [2]

The goal of nanotechnogy is to direct atoms and molecules to form desired structures or patterns with novel functionality at the nanoscale, the physical, chemical, and biological properties of materials differ in fundamental and valuable ways from the properties of individual's atoms and molecules or bulk matter.[3]

Nanoparticals have significant properties like--Higher Surface Area-Highly active surface bonds -Smaller size of nanoparticals etc… make them more reactive and more sensitive to the environment and other fields.Nanotechnology has ability to image, measure, model, and manipulate matter on the Nano scale to exploit those properties and functions and also has ability to integrate those properties and functions into systems spanning from nano- to macro-scopic scales.Nanotechnology has been contributing to commercial products for many years. For example, nanometer sized carbon improves the mechanical properties of fibers; nanometer silver particals initiates photographic film development.[3]

[4]Nanotechnology can be applied in so many fields.

Now a days the field of nanotechnology is going to become omnipresent as microorganisms, because it is applied in almost every field.

INTRODUCTION

The advancement of science and technology have altered our life completely. Both population and pollution is growing very fast. Sax(1974) stated that “The communal activities of man as asocial being have created a new order of by products which increased in volume at rate faster than population and has resulted in increasing contamination of the environment where natural purifying activities can no longer keep up with it.”[5] The remediation of contaminants by use of existing technologies is not effective and efficient to clean up the environment, but now a days the nanotechnology can be applied in the process of remediation. Nanotechnology itself and nanoparticals have potential property to solve the environmental problems. They also enhance bioremediation by modifying the activity of microorganisms. In this term paper I have only just tried to give something about Nano bioremediation.REMEDIATIONThe act or process of correcting fault or deficiency is known as remediation.ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATIONIt deals with the removal of pollution or contaminants from environmental media such as soil, groundwater, sediment or surface water for the protection of environment and living beings.BIOREMEDIATION

[6]

Bioremediation comes from two words bios means life and remediate means to decipher an issue. The degradation of noxious waste from the environment using microorganisms is called as bioremediation. Microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, algae etc take part in bioremediation. There are many forms of bioremediation they are given as bioleaching, bio-venting, phyto- remediation, land-farming, composting, rhizo-filtration, bio-absorption, bio-augmentation, myco-remediation and bio-reacting. There may be natural or intrinsic bioremediation.[7,8]

NANOBIOREMEDIATIONNano + Bio + RemediationThe use of nanoscience, nanoparticles and nanotechnology to enhance the microbial activity to remove pollutants, they also enhance Nanobioremediation.Nanobioremediation has the potential not only to reduce the overall coasts of cleaning up large-scale contaminated sites, but it can also reduce clean up time.GENETIC MODIFICATION OF MICROBESMicroorganisms have so many advantages for this purpose because they possess many important properties like-Reproduce very rapidly, can be grown in small or vast quantities, easily broken down capacity, etc......[9]

Bionanotechnology can be observed as "Nanotechnology through Biotechnology" [10] that is, the bio-fabrication of nano-objects, or bi-functional macromolecules usable as tools to construct or manipulate nano-objects. Because of their wide physiological diversity, small size, genetic manipulability and controlled culturability, microbial cells ar e ideal producers of a diversity of nanostructures, materials and instruments for Nano sciences, ranging from fully natural products such as viruses, polymers and magnetosomes, to engineered proteins or protein constructs such as virus-like particles (VLPs), and peptide-displaying phages or cells and tailored metal particles Nanotechnology play very important role in the genetic engineering of microbial gene to enhance its capacity for multipurpose use. Deinococcus radiodurans. This bacterium is currently the most radioactive-resistant organism known on Earth. Its tremendous ability to withstand high doses of radiation well beyond any naturally-occurring levels on the planet have caused it to become the focus of a radioactive waste clean-up initiative funded by the US Department of Energy (DOE)[11,12,13,15]

D. radiodurans shows remarkable genome plasticity. It is able to maintain, replicate and express extremely large segments of foreign DNA inserted into its genome by tandem duplication [13,14]. This capability has been exploited recently to show that it can accommodate and functionally express highly amplified DNA duplication insertions encoding bioremediation functions

While incapable of degrading actual radioactive elements, genetic engineering of this organism to include genes from other organisms for the degradation or immobilization of major heavy metal and organic solvent contaminants found in radioactive dumpsites could aid the clean-up effort of these sites at a significantly reduced cost[15]

For example, the highly characterized merA locus from Escherichia coli has been cloned into D. radiodurans [ 11]. merA encodes mercuric ion reductase (MerA), which reduces highly toxic, thiol-reactive mercuric ion, Hg(II), to much less toxic and nearly inert elemental and volatile Hg(0). Four different D. radiodurans expression systems were developed and used to regulate merA expression by varying its cellular gene dosage. [16]

Engineered D. radiodurans strains expressing mer functions could resist andreduce toxic Hg(II) to volatile elemental Hg(0) in the presence of high-levelchronic radiation. Hg(II)-reducing and toluene-metabolizing D. radioduransstrain is also reported.[15]

Other metal reducing/resistance functions that have been cloned into D. radiodurans and are being studied include genes from the following organisms that are specific for the indicated metal ions: Desulfovibrio vulgaris (cytc3), U(VI); Ralstonia eutrophus CH34 (czc), Cd(II), Zn(II), and Co(II); andBacillus thuringiensis, Cr(VI).for introducing into a single D. radiodurans host the many different bioremediating gene systems that will be necessary for cleanup of heterogenous radioactive waste environments. These type of genetic engineering of microorganisms are very beneficial because if we use different organisms for different waste clean up, we must have to add some nutrients, growth factors etc... to fulfill their growth requirements. But here, by applying nanobioremediation single type of organism can carry out clean up of many waste products.

NANOSCALE BIOPOLYMERS WITH CUSTOMIZABLE PROPERTIES FOR HEAVY METAL REMEDIATION Metal chelating polymers require toxic solvents for synthesis and require ultrafiltration for their separation from the solution.

• One way of solving this problem to develop metal binding materials that can be recovered by changing the environment

like- pH, Temperature etc.. Around them.One such material is nanoscale modified biopolymers which can be manufactured by genetic and protein engineering of microorganisms which can control the size and arrangement at the molecular level.[17]

This table contain some examples of modified microorganisms using nanotechnology instrument.[18]

Microorganisms Modification Contaminants ReferencesPseudomonas sp. B13

Pathway mono/dichlorobenzoates

REINEKE andKNACKMUSS,

1979, 1980P. putida Pathway 4-ethylbenzoate RAMOS et al.,

1987 P. putida KT2442 Pathway RAMOS et al., 1987 PANKE et al.,

1998PANKE et al., 1998 Pathway chloro-,

methylbenzoatesROJO et al., 1987

C. testosteroni VP44 SubstrateSpecificity

o-, p-monochlorobiphenyls

HRYWNA et al., 1999

Pseudomonas sp. LB400

SubstrateSpecificity

PCB ERICKSON and MONDELLO, 1993

E. coli JM109(pSHF1003)

S ubstrateSpecificity

PCB, benzene, toluene KUMAMMRU et al., 1998

E. coli FM5/pKY287

Regulation TCE, toluene WINTER et al., 1989

DECOLORIZATION OF THE DYE CONGORED BY Aspergillus niger SILVER NANOPARTICALS Removal of dyes from industrial waste waters is of global concern because dyes cause many problems in aqueous environments. Dyes may significantly affect photosynthetic activity in aquatic life because of reduced light penetration and may also be toxic to some aquatic life due to the presence of aromatics, metals, chlorides, etc. [19]

The A.niger is allowed to grow in the presence of AgNO3 and incubated in dark, it will form silver nanoparticals within 48 hours which enhance the degradation process of Congo red dye.[20]

A significant decolorization rate was observed for the dye Congo red. The Aspergillus niger silver nanoparticle effectively decolorized 85.8% of dye within 24 hour incubation and   the dye was fully decolorized within 48 hour of incubation. Whereas the plain culture (Aspergillus niger) was able to degrade only 76% of dye at the same incubation conditions and complete decolorization was observed after 48 hour incubation.(Graph.1) 

Graph.1. % of decolorization of the dye Congo red  by Aspergillus niger silver nanoparticle and Aspergillus niger (plain culture)

REMOVAL OF PHENOLIC POLLUTANTS FROM MUNICIPAL WASTE WATER IMMOBILIZED LACCASE ENZYMES USING NANOP ARTICALS4

Laccase is generally found in higher plants and fungi but recently it was found in some bacteria such as S.lavendulae, S.cyaneus, and Marinomonas mediterranea[21,22,23]

Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) can cause adverse health effects like developmental disorders, birth defects or cancer.One major pathway for EDCs to be released into the environment is through wastewater treatment plant effluents. Consequently, removal of EDCs from wastewater is of concern. Many EDCs in wastewater are phenolics e.g. bisphenol A (BPA). It has been proposed that laccase–an enzyme using molecular oxygen as substrate to oxidize phenolic moieties–could be utilized for the removal of phenolic contaminants from wastewater. In the present work laccase of a Thielavia genus has been immobilized on fumed silica nanoparticles. The stability and activity of the resulting biocatalysts regarding the removal of bisphenol A from biologically treated wastewater was assessed and compared to the activity and stability of free laccase enzymes. Stability of the immobilized laccase was considerably higher than that of the free enzyme.   Approximately 75% of the initialBPA was transformed within 2 hours. The ability to significantly eliminate BPA at environmentally relevant concentrations as well as the increased stability of the immobilized over the free enzymes shows the large potential for laccase-nanoparticleconjugates in municipal wastewater treatment for the elimination of phenolic contaminants.[24]

Apart from this,

Mesoporous carbon materials, with their properties such as a large specific surface area, a high pore volume, a porosity made up of uniformed mesopores with tunable sizes and higher hydrothermal resistance compared with mesoporous silica materials and other materials, have been considered as highly suitable candidates for laccase enzyme isolated from Trametes versicolor and molecule immobilization [25]

Magnetic bio-separation technology is a promising technology in the support systems for enzyme immobilization, since on the basis of magnetic properties, compared with conventional filtering separation, rapid separation and easy recovery could be reached in external magnetic field, and the capital and operation costs could also be reduced [26]

The use of laccase enzyme instead of whole organism is very much beneficial process because enzyme can be harvested and reused after the process and no need to remove microbial cells.

NANOTECH COATING CAN ENHANCE ELECTRICITY OUTPUT FROM WASTE WATEREngineers at Oregon State University have discovered that the proper nanotech coating could increase the electricity output of wastewater-to-energy production by more than 20 times.

. In producing power from wastewater, bacteria are placed in an anode chamber – where they form a biofilm, consume nutrients and grow – to release electrons

The researchers then experimented with the use of new coatings on the anodes of microbial electrochemical cells to generate more electricity from sewage. They found that coating graphite anodes with a nanoparticle layer of gold can increase electricity production by 20 times, while coatings with palladium produced an increase as well, but not nearly as much.[27]

Use of silver nanoparticles to control biofilm formation in aqueous environment and UF membrane apparatus.Due to increasing tolerance of the biofilm community to antibiotics, biocides and mechanical stress, it has become just as difficult to completely eradicate mature biofilms as it is to completely avoid the presence of planktonic cells, the origin of the biofilm in the water. Common treatments to prevent or remove bio fouling include using disinfection, minimizing nutrients in the feed or altering surface materials to prevent bacterial attachment, or clean-in-place (CIP) to remove mature biofilm by chemical orMechanical shear.Nanoparticles are collection in aggregate of atoms in the range of 1-100 nm with unique structure and properties, which are widely used in an increase amount of applications. Silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) in particular, provide effective growth inhibition of various microorganisms in suspension and on solid medium.In addition, a few types of filtration membranes and devices like catheter incorporating silver nanoparticles have demonstrated anti-biofouling properties.[28]

NANOBIOREMEDIATION TO CLEAN UP OIL SPILL

Immobilization cells of Ps. mendocina H3, Ps. pseudoalcaligenes H7, Ps. stutzeri H10, Ps.alcaligenes H15, Ps. pseudoalcaligenes H16, Ps. mallei 36K and Micrococcus luteus 37 was demonstrated high sorbtional activity carriers. The degrees of attached microbial cells were reached 80-90%.

In depend from strain of microorganisms attached to carbonized nanoparticles new nanobiopreparates possesses important properties and may be sorbents of different metals, oxidizer oil, aromatic carbohydrates, toluene, herbicide, pesticide and other. For bioremediation of oil contaminated soil is important that carbonizated sorbents itself may sorbs oil drops for further oxidation carbohydrates of oil by microbial cells, to be source of mineral compounds and improve condition of soils.

Us were investigated oil-oxidative activity nanobiopreparates receiving by immobilization specific microorganism’s cells on particles carbonizated rice hunk with nanosize. According results were received different physical and chemical methods ex-situ bioremediation of oil-contamination soil by new nanobioprepates was discovered that their destructive activity marked above than free microbial cells.[29]

DEGRADATION OF HYDROPHOBIC COMPOUND ENHANCED BY NANOPARTICALS.

Nanoparticals are also being used to increase the bioavailability of hydrophobic ogranic compounds for their enhanced bioremediation. Polymeric nanoparticals prepared from a poly(ethylene) glycol Modified Urethane Acrylite(PMUA) precursor was applied to enhance the bioavailability of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons(PAHs) in soil and aqueous solutions. Due to the hydrophobicity of interior regions of PMUA there is increased affinity between PAHs and released into the aqueous phase and enhances the rate of Mineralization.Subsequently the released PAHs can be treated by natural attenuation or pump and treat process in which polymeric nanoparticals can be recovered and recycled after microbial degradation of PAHs.[30]

IMMOBILIZATION OF MICROBIAL CELLS USING NANOPARTICLES

Immobilized microbial cells are frequently used in bioconversions, biotransformation, and biosynthesis processes due to their better operational stability, easier separation from products for possible reuse, and satisfactory efficiency in catalysis compared to free cells.[31]

• Further nanoparticles can also be used to immobilize bacterial cells which are capable of degrading specific toxic compounds or to biorecover certain compounds.

• In one of the study,

• Magnetic nanoparticles (Fe3O4) were functionalized with ammonium oleate and coated on the surface of Pseudomonas delafieldii.

• On application of external magnetic field to the microbial cells, the nanopartical coated cells concentrate on particular site of the reactor wall separating them from the whole solution and enabling recycling of the cells for the treatment of the same compound.

• These coated cells were applied for the desulfurization of organic sulfur from the fossil fuel.[i.e.-dibenzothiophene] in a bioreactor and were observed to be as efficient as the non-nanoparticle coated microbial cells

• Apart from this,

• Biodesulfurization (BDS) of dibenzothiophene (DBT) was carried out by Rhodococcus erythropolis IGST8 decorated with magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles, synthesized in-house by a chemical method, with an average size of 45–50 nm, in order to facilitate the post-reaction separation of the bacteria from the reaction mixture.[32]

• Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that the magnetic nanoparticles substantially coated the surfaces of the bacteria. It was found that the decorated cells had a 56% higher DBT desulfurization activity in basic salt medium (BSM) compared to the nondecorated cells.

• We propose that this is due to permeabilization of the bacterial membrane, facilitating the entry and exit of reactant and product respectively. Model experiments with black lipid membranes (BLM) demonstrated that the nanoparticles indeed enhance membrane permeability.

PHYTOREMEDIATIONPhytoremediation, so called phytotechnology, is a relatively new technology involved the plants which play a role in remediation of contaminated environment. It is a green technology and environmental friendly.There are several types of plants to remedy and take up contaminants from soil, surface water, ground water, and sediment. Phytoremediation has been used to take up heavy metals, organic compounds and toxic chemicals such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), trichloroethylene, benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, xylene, lead, mercury, arsenic and radionuclides from contaminated environment. Nano-phytoremediation for degradation and removal of TNT-contaminated soil has obviously more effective than either nanoremediation or phytoremediation.[33,34] Regarding the time points of the complete TNT remediation and half life of TNT, the highest removal efficiency of nano-phytoremediation was found in soil with the TNT/nZVI ratio of 1/10 (100 mg/kg initial TNT concentration) in treated potting soil by Panicum maximum.[35]

MICROBIAL PRODUCTION OF SELENIUM NANOPARTICLES USED FOR WASTE WATER TREATMENT AND OHER APPLICATIONSpecialized microorganisms, so called dissimilatory metal reducers, can indeed be used to convert water soluble, toxic selenium compounds (selenite, selenate) to water insoluble, non-toxic elemental selenium. However, the separation of this solid produced from the aqueous phase is challenging due to the fact that the solid products formed are–although pure elemental selenium- of nanoparticle size. So far, this circumvented recovery by simple (and thus cheap) gravitational settling. Here we show that the Nano particulate size and the poor settle ability of the solid products formed is due to an organic polymer fraction associated. We used capillary liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) to identify proteins associated. We could demonstrate that these proteins strongly associated to selenium surfaces, not only microbially produced but also by chemical synthesis. Furthermore, we studied the influence of the organic polymers associated on the colloidal stability of the Nano particulate suspensions by means of electrophoretic measurements (i.e. zeta –potential). The results gained can be directly used to enable selenium nanoparticle recovery by cheap gravitational settling. This represents and vital way point towards the recovery of nanoparticle elemental selenium from industrial "WASTE" water.[36]

These selenium nanoparticles are used to cure Selenium deficiency in several

CONCLUSION

According to above all application of Nanobioremediation it can be definitely concluded that, Nanoparticals, Nanotechnological instrument play efficient role in the process of Nanobioremediation. By applying the nanobioremediation to environment hazards, it can clean them Faster and Safer than other methods and technology. We can say that, Nanobioremediation Maintain all three criteria.

REFERENCES1) http://www.biotecharticles.com/Environmental-Biotechnology-Article/Introduction-and-Applications-of- Bioremediation-1078.html

2) US EPA (2007) Nanotechnology White Paper. Available at www.epa.gov/os pdfs/nanotech/epa-nanotechnology white paper-0207.pdf.

3) M. H. Fulekar, Nanotechnoly Importance & Applications, chapter-1,11.

4) http://lib.bioinfo.pl/files/reports/materials/1739/Figure%25203.%2520Diverse%2520applicatio

5) Sax, I.N(1974),'Industrial Pollution' published by Von Nostrand Reinhold Company, Newyork,USA.

6) http://www.bestechcorp.com/images/sce/oval1.gif & imgrefurl

7) "Terra Nova's Environmental Remediation Resuources". Terranovabiosystems.com. 2009-08-31. Retrieved 2011-03-22.

8) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioremediation

9) Michael J, Pelczar, JR., E.C.S. Chan, Noal R. Kring, Microbiology, 5th edition, page no-33-34.

10) Sarikaya M, Tamerler C, Jen AK, Schulten K, Baneyx F: Molecular biomimetics: nanotechnology through biology. Nat Mater 2003, 2:577-585

11) Smith MD, Lennon E, McNeil LB, Minton KW: Duplication insertion of drug resistance determinants

in the radioresistant bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans. J Bacteriol 1988,170:2126-2135.

12) Brim H, McFarlan SC, Fredrickson JK, Minton KW, Zhai M, Wackett LP, Daly MJ.

Engineering Deinococcus radiodurans for metal remediation in radioactive mixed

waste environments. Nat Biotechnol 2000 Jan;18(1):85-90.

13) Daly MJ Engineering radiation-resistant bacteria for environmental

biotechnology.Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2000 Jun;11(3):280-5. Review.

14) Lange CC, Wackett LP, Minton KW, Daly MJ. Engineering a recombinant Deinococcus radiodurans for organopollutant degradation in radioactive mixed waste environments. Nat Biotechnol 1998 Oct;16(10):929-33

15) Brim H, McFarlan SC, Fredrickson JK, Minton KW, Zhai M, •• Wackett LP, Daly MJ: Engineering Deinococcus radiodurans for metal remediation in radioactive mixed waste environments. Nat Biotechnology 2000, 18:85-90.

16) Summers AO: Organization, expression, and evolution of genes for mercury resistance. Annu Rev Microbiol 1986, 40:607-634

17) B.Vishvnathan, Nano Materials, Copyright 2009, Narosa Publishing House Pvt.ltd.

18) FU-MIN MENN,JAMES P. EASTER,GARY S. SAYLER,21 Genetically Engineered Microorganisms and Bioremediation,Knoxville, TN 37996-1605, USA.

19) Daneshvar N, Ayazloo M, Khatae AR, Pourhassan M: Biological decolorization of dye solution containing malachite green by microalgae Cosmarium sp. Bioresour. Technol. 98: 1-7(2007).

20)R.Nithya1 and R.Ragunathan*,Decolorization of the Dye Congored by Aspergillus niger silver nanoparticals

21) M. E. Arias, M. Arenas, J. Rodíguez, J. Soliveri, A. S. Ball, and M. Hernández, “Kraft pulp biobleaching and mediated oxidation of a nonphenolic substrate by laccase from Streptomyces cyaneus CECT 3335,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 69, no. 4, pp. 1953–1958, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar

22) N. Jimenez-Juarez, R. Roman-Miranda, A. Baeza, A. Sánchez-Amat, R. Vazquez-Duhalt, and B. Valderrama, “Alkali and halide-resistant catalysis by the multipotent oxidase from Marinomonas mediterranea,” Journal of Biotechnology, vol. 117, no. 1, pp. 73–82, 2005.

23). G. D. Thakker, C. S. Evans, and K. Koteswara Rao, “Purification and characterization of laccase from Monocillium indicum Saxena,” Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 321–323, 1992. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar

24) Christoph A. Gasser1, Gregor Hommes1, Philippe F. X. Corvini1,2, REMOVAL OF PHENOLIC POLLUTANTS FROM MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER

THROUGH IMMOBILIZED LACCASE ENZYMES, March 2012, Vol.11, No. 3, Supplement, S123

25) Lee, D., Lee, J., Kim, J., Kim, J., Na, H.B., Kim, B., 2005. Simple fabrication of a highly sensitive and fast glucose biosensor using enzymes immobilized in mesocellular carbon foam. Adv. Mater. 17, 2828–2833.

26) Zhang, Y., Zeng, G.M., Tang, L., Huang, D.L., Jiang, X.Y., Chen, Y.N., 2007. Ahydroquinone biosensor using modified core-shell magnetic nanoparticlessupported on carbon paste electrode. Biosens. Bioelectron. 22, 2121–2126.

27)Katrice R. Jalbuena, / Nanotech coatings can enhance electricity output from wastewater, Wednesday, 28 July 2010 22:01

28) Avital Dror-Ehre,Use of silver nanoparticles to control biofilm formation in

aqueous environment and UF membrane apparatus

29) A.A.ZHUBANOVA, Z.A.MANSUROV THE CREATION NEW NANOBIOPREPARATES ON BASE NANOPARTICLES OF CARBONIZATED RICE HUSK AND MICROORGANISM’S CELLS FOR BIOREMEDIATION OIL-CONTAMINATION.

30) Gill, I. S., and A. Ballesteros. 2000. Bioencapsulation within synthetic polymers (part 1): sol-gel encapsulation of biologicals. Trends Biotechnol. 18:282-296. [PubMed]

31) Pakula, R., and A. Freeman. 1996. A new continuous biofilm bioreactor for immobilized, oil degrading filamentous fungi. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 49:20-25.35) Naito M, Kawamoto T, Fujino K, Kobayashi M, Maruhashi K, Tanaka A. 2001. Long-term repeated biodesulfurization by immobilized Rhodococcus erythropolis KA2-5-1 cells. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 55:374-378.

32) Farahnaz Ansari1*, Pavel Grigoriev2, Susan Libor1, Ibtisam E. Tothill3 andJeremy J. Ramsden, DBT degradation enhancement by decorating Rhodococcus erythropolis IGST8 with magnetic Fe3O4nanoparticles, Biotechnology and Bioengineering, April 2009, Vol-102,Issue 5, Pages 1505-1512.

[33] R.T. Williams, P.S. Zeigenfuss and W.E. Sisk. Composting of explosives and propellant contaminated soils under termophilic and mesophilic conditions. J. Indust. Microbiol. 1992, 9:137-144.

[34] R.L. Crawford. Biodegradation of nitrated munitions compounds and herbicides by obligately anaerobic bacteria;Biodegradation of nitroaromatic compounds. In J.C. Spain, vol.49. Plenum Press, New York, 1995: 87-98.86

35) Waraporn Jiamjitrpanich 1, Preeda Parkpian 2, Chongrak Polprasert 3 and Rachain Kosanlavit 4+,Enhanced Phytoremediation Efficiency of TNT-Contaminated Soil byNanoscale Zero Valent Iron,2012 2nd International Conference on Environment and Industrial InnovationIPCBEE vol.35 (2012) © (2012) IACSIT Press, Singapore

36) Markus Lenz*1,2, Benjamin Buchs1, Michael W.H. Evangelou 3, Philippe F.X.Corvini1,4,MICROBIAL PRODUCTION OF SELENIUM NANOPARTICLES: ROADMAP TO RECOVERY AND REUSE,March 2012, Vol.11, No. 3, Supplement, S117