Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
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Transcript of Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
Social Thinking
Social Psychology scientific study of how we think about,
influence, and relate to one another Attribution Theory
tendency to give a causal explanation for someone’s behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition
Social Thinking
Fundamental Attribution Error tendency for observers, when analyzing
another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
Attitude belief and feeling that predisposes one
to respond in a particular way to objects, people and events
Social Thinking How we explain someone’s behavior affects
how we react to it
Negative behavior
Situational attribution“Maybe that driver is ill.”
Dispositional attribution“Crazy driver!”
Tolerant reaction(proceed cautiously, allowdriver a wide berth)
Unfavorable reaction(speed up and race past theother driver, give a dirty look)
Social Thinking Our behavior is affected by our inner attitudes as
well as by external social influences
Internalattitudes
Externalinfluences
Behavior
Social Thinking
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon tendency for people who have first
agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
Role set of expectations about a social
position defines how those in the position
ought to behave
Social Thinking
Cognitive Dissonance Theory we act to reduce the discomfort
(dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent
example- when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes
Social Influence
Social influence can be seen in our conformity, our compliance, and our group behavior
Some things come in clusters such as suicides, bomb threats, hijackings, and UFO sightings
We act according to social norms, dissenters become rebels – all determined by pulls on the “social strings.”
Social Influence Behavior is contagious Chameleon effect – we are
natural mimics We feel happy when we are
around happy people and sad around depressed people
ConformityAdjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide
with a group standard Asch test
1 person arrives to study in time to sit at table where 5 people already are
Everyone is asked which of 3 lines is identical to standard line Repeated
3rd time, the first person that answers gives an incorrect answer; everyone else follows with the same wrong answer
You now get tense and question what to do. Everyone gave the wrong answer. What to do?
Strengthening Conformity
Conformity increases when: One is made to feel incompetent or insecure A group has at least 3 people The group in unanimous One admires the group’s status or
attractiveness One has made no commitments to any
response Others in the group observe one’s behavior One’s culture strongly encourages respect for
social standards
Why Conform?
Why do we do what others do?
Normative Social Influence! influence resulting from a person’s
desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
We are sensitive to social norms because price we pay to be different may be severe
Informational Social Influence
When we accept others’ opinions about reality
Assume others are right and follow their lead
Baron, et. al. demonstrated our openness to informational influence on tough, important judgments
End Day 2
Conformity assignment!Do something non-conformist!Don’t break any rules or lawsWrite a summary of what you did, how
people reacted, and how you feltExamples – stand backward in an
elevator, wear different colored shoes, etc.
Obedience
We comply with social pressureBut do we comply when we are
ordered to do something?What if they are commands?Milgram set out to test it (1963, 1974)One of the most famous and
controversial studies in psychology
Milgram
You are told the study is about the effect of punishment on learning
Draw from a hat to see who will be the “teacher” and who will be the “learner”
Your slip says you will be the teacherLerner placed in another room and attached
to electric shock machineYou sit in from of machine that has different
voltages labeled.What are you thinking???
Milgram ContinuedYou teach and then test the “learner” on word
pairsYou are to punish the learner for wrong answers
by delivering electric shocksStart with 15 volts which is labeled “slight shock”After each incorrect answer you are to move up
to the next voltageAfter 3rd, 4th, and 5th the learner gruntsAfter 8th the learner shouts about the painAfter 10th the learner cries to get him out of there
and demands to be let outYou are prodded to go onThoughts???
Even More Milgram
If you refuse, the experimenter insists that MUST go on
If you obey, the learner’s protests escalate to shrieks of agony
After 330 volts the learner refuses to answer and goes silent
You are ordered to go on, to the 450 volt switch, if no answer you are to shock the “learner”
How Far???
How far would you go when “ordered” to shock the learner for wrong answers?
Most people say they would have stopped at the first sign of pain and certainly before the shriek
Men age 20-5063% complied to the end
Later studies concluded that women’s compliance rates were similar.
Ugh
Reliability? Validity? Ethics?Did “teachers” figure out it was a hoax?
Did they know no shock was being delivered? Did they think learners were faking it?
No! Teachers typically displayed genuine distress
Was it ethical?When participants were told truth they felt no
regret No emotional aftereffects
Does that make it okay?He wondered if they continued because the
“learners” were not convincing, repeated and changed variables (“slight heart condition”)no change!
Compliance
He repeated it later and changed variables (subtle details)
Determined that obedience is highest when:Person giving orders was close and perceived
to be a legitimate authority figureAuthority figure is supported by a prestigious
institutionThe victim was depersonalized or at a distanceThere were no role models for defiance (no one
else was seen disobeying the experimenter)
Lessons from Milgram and Asch
Strong social influences can make people conform
Great evils will make us succumb to lesser evils
Evil only requires ordinary people in evil situations
Group Influence
How do groups influence us?Study individuals in groupsHow are we influenced by the mere
presence of others?
Social Influence Social Facilitation
improved performance of tasks in the presence of others
occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered
Social Loafing tendency for people in a group to exert
less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
Social Influence
Deindividuation Being in a group can lead to
uninhibited behavior Abandon normal restraints to the
power of the group i.e. yelling at refs/officials during a
game Often occurs when participation in
the group makes people feel aroused and anonymous
Social Influence Interacting with others can similarly have
good and bad effects Group Polarization
enhancement of a group’s prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group
Over time differences b/w groups tends to grow
Groupthink mode of thinking that occurs when the desire
for harmony in a decision-making group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives
End Day 3
Using the definitions given in notes, with help from examples in text (pages 738-741), describe a situation that is an example of each (you can make it up): Social facilitation Social loafing Deindividuation Group polarization Groupthink
Culture and Behavior
Culture is the behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group and transmitted from one generation to the next
Not nationalities or ethnic groups but rather shared experiences
Humans differ but we all have a shared capacity for culture This accounts for striking group differences
Human nature manifests human diversity
Variations Across CulturesEach cultural group evolves their own norms
Rules for accepted/expected behaviorWhen cultures collide differing norms often
befuddle i.e. personal space - North Americans, British
and Scandinavians have more personal space demands than Latin Americans, French or Arabs
Cultures also vary in expressiveness and pace of life
Cultures evolve and change over time, Americans of 1700 would clash with Americans of today
Power of IndividualSocial control (power of situation) and
personal control (power of individual) interact
When we sway from the majority we can make social history
Minority influence: power of 1 or 2 individuals to sway majorities esp. when consistent (do not sway in their opinion)
When minority opinion is not visible it still may be forcing others to change the way they think – giving it power.
Social Relations
We have looked at how we thing and how we influence one another
Now we will look at how we relate to one another
Prejudice, aggression, attraction, altruism and peacemaking
Prejudice - DefinedPrejudgmentUnjustifiable and usually negativePrejudice is a mixture of beliefs that cause
stereotypes, emotions mixed with predisposition to action lead to action (discrimination) To believe that obese people are gluttonous,
to feel dislike for an obese person, to be hesitant to hire/date an obese person is to be prejudiced
Prejudice is a negative attitude; discrimination is a negative behavior
How People Are Prejudiced
Dramatic difference in the last half century in America
Overt prejudice waned, overt prejudice remains
Might say we are okay with interracial marriage, but would admit to feeling uncomfortable in an intimate setting with someone of a different race
Sometimes overt prejudice still surfaces
Overt Prejudice
After 9/11 and the Iraq war 4 in 10 Americans acknowledged some prejudice against Muslims
Also see it with homosexuals and also some gender prejudice/discrimination continues
In 2003, when asked if they could have only one child what gender would they prefer 2/3rds still said male
Not all bad news People feel more positively, in general,
about women compared to men
Roots of Prejudice Social inequities
“Haves” develop attitudes to justify things as they are tereotypes rationalize inequities Women have been perceived as unassertive but
sensitive and therefore suited for caretaking roles
Ingroup v. Outgroup We are a group-minded species Safety in solidarity – divide world into “us” and “them” Causes communal solidarity but also racism and war Most intense dislike for other groups like us Ingroup bias – we favor our group
Emotions and Prejudice
Prejudice can also be increased by passions of the heart
Can also express as angerScapegoat theory – finding someone to
blame when things go wrong Target for one’s anger Post 9/11 and elimination of Hussein
Cognitive Roots of StereotypesPrejudice comes from the mind’s natural
workings too We cognitively simplify the world
Categorization: We naturally categorize things, including people which creates biases because we oversimplify similarities Other-race effect = own-race bias
Vivid cases: we judge by the frequency that things come to mind
Cognitive Roots Continued Just World: Justify prejudice by blaming its victims
“People get what they deserve” Good is rewarded and evil is punished Short leap to the idea that those who succeed
must be good and those who suffer must be bad
German civilian remarked after visiting a concentration camp, “what terrible criminals these prisoners must have been to receive such treatment
Hindsight bias also at work hereBlame the victim, did something to deserve it
Aggression
Most destructive force in social relationsAny physical or verbal behavior
INTENDED to hurt or destroy, whether done reactively or proactively
Research shows it emerges from a combo of biology and experience
Biology of Aggression Considered to be an unlearned instinct Genetic influences Natural influences
Neural system that when stimulated to inhibit or produce aggressive behaviorNo one spot in the brain controls aggressionNeural system will facilitate aggression with
provocation Biochemical influences
Hormones, alcohol and other substances in the blood can influence neural systems that control aggression
More on Biochemical…Testosterone is indicated with higher
aggression levels It heightens dominance and aggressiveness But dominating behavior also boosts testosterone
– so it is a 2-way street
Alcohol Aggressive people are more likely to drink Aggressive people are more likely to become
violent when drinking
Humans are less sensitive to hormonal changes than other animals
Psychology of Aggression
What are the biological factors that pull the trigger on aggression?
Aversive effects: suffering, those made miserable make others miserable
Frustration-aggression principle: frustration creates anger which can generate aggression
Physical pain, personal insults, rejection/ostracism, foul odors, hot temperatures, violent crime, abuse (esp. in presence of aggressive trigger) can generate aggression (fight or flight)
Learning and Aggression Learning and conditioning can have effect on
aggression Aggression when experience has taught us that
aggression pays Social and cultural factors also play a role
More crime when from single family home Once established, aggressive patterns are hard
to change Aggression-replacement programs – positive
rather than negative – replace the aggression “When you are done you can play” rather than
“do this now or you can’t go play” Do we learn aggression through modeling (TV,
video games, etc.)?
Conflict
Seeming incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
Elements of conflict are the same no matter the size of the conflict (war to spat with friend)
Why? Why does conflict exist? What causes it?
Social Relations Social Trap: a situation in which the
conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior Well being of self v. well being of all or group We reconcile our right to pursue things that
might negatively impact the greater good NIMBY
Enemy Perceptions: Conflict allows us to create diabolical images of each other Each demonizes the other
Attraction3 ingredients in our liking of one another:
proximity, physical attractiveness, and similarityMere exposure effect: the phenomena that
repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them Advertisers abuse this! Even applies to ourselves! We like the image we see in
the mirror while friends and loved one like what they seeAttractiveness increases opportunities for proximity
Judgments vary by cultureSimilarity make people more attractive on first
impressionWe tend to like people who reward us in some way,
more rewards than costs
Social Relations- Attractiveness Mere Exposure Effect
repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
Conceptions of attractiveness vary by culture
Social Relations
Passionate Love an aroused state of intense
positive absorption in another usually present at the beginning of
a love relationship Companionate Love
deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
Social Relations Equity
a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it
Self-Disclosure revealing intimate aspects of oneself to
others Altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
Social Relations
Bystander Effect tendency for
any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
Social Relations
Social Exchange Theory the theory that our social
behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
Superordinate Goals shared goals that override
differences among people and require their cooperation