Muslim Philosophies: A Critical Overviethey were prone to commit mistakes in arguments. They adopted...

OriginalpaperUDC1:28(045)doi:10.21464/sp31204

ReceivedJanuary5th,2016

Ali PayaUniversityofWestminster,SchoolofSocialSciences,HumanitiesandLanguages,

309RegentStreet,LondonW1B2HW,[email protected]

Muslim Philosophies: A Critical Overview1

AbstractThis paper aims to present a critical overview of the development of philosophical schools founded by Muslim thinkers in the context of Islamic civilisation. The emphasis of the paper is mostly on the reasons and causes of uneven development of this intellectual tradition in Muslim countries. I shall develop my arguments from within the philosophical framework of critical rationalism. While the views of various Muslim philosophers will be critically, though briefly, assessed, the role of other Muslim scholars such as theologians (mutakal-limun), mystics (‘urafa and Sufis) and jurists (fuqaha) in facilitating or hindering the har-monious growth of Muslims’ philosophical heritage will also be touched upon.

KeywordsMuslimphilosophies, criticalrationalism,Mashshaee (Peripatetic)School, theSchoolofShiraz,anti-philosophytrends

I. Introduction

Asacriticalrationalist,Iregardphilosophyasanintellectualpursuittoex-plore and understand those aspects of realitywhich empirical sciences, orotherhumancognitivetools,cannotinvestigate.2Theaboveviewofphiloso-phyis,therefore,incontrasttootherviews,whichregardphilosophytobea“languagegame”oranactivitywith“therapeuticpurposes”only,oratoolfor“dominationandsubjugation”. Inmyview,philosophiesaredevelopedinresponsetothechallengesintroducedtopeoplebyreality.Iftheculturalecosysteminwhichthosechallengeshavearisenisrichenough,itcanpavethewayfortheemergenceofsophisticatedphilosophicalsystems.Fortunately forMuslims, theQur’an and the tradition of the Prophet and,inthecaseoftheShi’iIslam,alsothetraditionsofShi’iImamsarefullof

1

Amuchlongerversionofthispaper,entitled“Islamic Philosophy: Past, Present, and Fu-ture”,hasappearedin:AnthonyO’Hear(ed.),Philosophical Traditions (Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplements,Vol.74),Cambrid-ge University Press, Cambridge 2014, pp.265–321.Thepresentpaper,apartfrombeingasomewhatcondensedversionof theabovepaper, differs slightly in certain juncturesfromit.

2

Forabriefaccountofthewaycriticalration-alistsviewphilosophycf.KarlPopper,“HowI See Philosophy”, in: In Search of a Bet-ter World: Lectures and Essays from Thirty Years,Routledge,London1994.Foramoredetailedexplanationofvarioustenetsofcriti-cal rationalismseeDavidMiller,Out of Er-ror,Ashgate,Surrey:2006.

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SYNTHESISPHILOSOPHICA62(2/2016)pp.(279–294)

A. Paya, Muslim Philosophies:A CriticalOverview280

instructionswhichareconduciveforconstructingarichintellectualenviron-ment.TherearemanyversesintheQur’aninwhichMuslimsareinstructedtousetheirreasonastheirguideinexploringreality,studyingnaturalphenom-ena,understandingvariousaspectsofreality,andenrichingtheirknowledgeofGod.TheQur’anhasalsoreservedsomeofitsharshestadmonitionsforthosewhodonotusetheirintellects.3

Theseinternalresources,however,asweshallseelater,werefurtherenriched,whenMuslims embarkedon amissionofdigesting and incorporating intotheirowninternalresources,wisdomsofothercultures.As for the challenges, perhaps, the first intellectual challenges presentedthemselvestotheearlyMuslimsintheshapeofpoliticaldisputesconcern-ingtheissueofthesuccessionoftheProphetwhodiedin632.ThequestionwhichdemandedasatisfactoryanswerwashowAllahwouldwantthebeliev-erstogoaboutthetaskofchoosingtheirpoliticalauthority.Intheireffortstorespondtothisquestion,earlyMuslimsweredividedalongdifferentdoctri-nallines;Sunnis,Shi’as,Kharijites,andMurji’ahwereamongthefirstsectswhichappearedinthenewlyestablishedMuslimsociety.4

The above political question soon gave rise to troubling theological ques-tions concerning the standardswhichwoulddemarcate a truebeliever andwoulddeterminetheafter-lifestationofthosewhowouldfallshortof(apartof)thosestandards.OutofthesedisputesandinthesecondhalfofthefirstcenturyHijri(accordingtoIslamiccalendar;7thcenturyCE)thefirstabstractproblem,whichwasabridgebetweentheologicalissuesandgenuinephilo-sophicalproblems,emerged.Theprobleminquestionwasthedilemmaofthefreewillandpre-destination(qadar)which,naturallyinthecontextofare-ligiousculture,wasrelatedtotheissuesofDivinejusticeandDivinepower.5

Two rival schools of kalam (theology) namely the Ash’arites and theMu’tazilitesweredevelopedinresponsetotheaboveproblem.TheAsh’aritesmaintainedthatGod’somnipotencemeansthatHedirectlyintervenesinallas-pectsofthewholerealmofbeing.TheMu’tazilites,ontheotherhand,arguedforman’s freewill.Theymaintained thatGodhas endowedhumanbeingswiththepowerofintellect,whichtheyregardedasman’sinnerprophet.Man,accordingtotheMu’tazilites,wasfreetochoosehispathandstationinlife.6

Foralmosttwocenturies,andbeforetheemergenceofsystematicphilosophi-calapproachesamongstMuslimsinthe9thcenturyCE,itwasthemutaka-llimun(theologians)whodealtwithissueswhichwerephilosophicalinna-ture.EarlyMuslim theologians,however,werenot in favourof importedphilo-sophical ideas. In particular they were against the Greeks’ philosophicalthoughts.TheyevenrejectedAristotelianlogicsincetheyregardedittobeananti-religiousknowledge,likeAristotelianphilosophy.Butlatergenerationsoftheologians(mutakallimun)realisedthatwithoutlogictheywerepronetocommitmistakesinarguments.TheyadoptedAristotelianlogicandappliedit totheologicalaswellasphilosophicalarguments.Thisapproachgraduallypaved theway foracloser relationshipbetweenkalamandphilosophy.

II. First Muslim philosophers

Thetranslationofscientific,mathematical,technological,cultural,andphilo-sophicalachievementsofancientcivilisationsliketheGreeks,theIndiansand



thePersiansintoArabic,providedtheeducatedMuslimsoftheclassicperiodofIslam(9th–13thcenturiesCE)witharichintellectualheritage.Theysoonmanagedtodigestandinternalisewhattheyhadlearntthroughthesesourcesand embarkedondevelopingnew synthetic systemswhichwere novel in-novationsinformedbytheirnewlygainedknowledgethroughtranslatedma-terialsandintunewiththeteachingsoftheirreligion.TheavailabilityoftherichesofthewisdomsofothercivilisationsenabledMuslimphilosopherstoenterintoavirtualandfruitfuldialoguewiththeirnon-Muslimcounterpartsinothercultures.AllgreatMuslimphilosophersoftheclassicperiodwerenotonlyfirstratethinkerswithregardtoabstractphilosophicaltopics,theywerealsoexcellentnaturalscientistsormastertechnologists.EvenaquickglanceatthefieldsofexpertiseofMuslimphilosophersoftheclassicperiodrevealstheextenttowhichthesescholarshadcombinedphilo-sophicalthinkingwithotherdisciplines.Forexample,Al-Kindi(d.873),thefirstMuslimphilosopher,wasalsoanastronomer,aphysicist,amathemati-cianandacryptographer;Farabi(d.951),7whowasknownas“thesecondteacherafterAristotle”,wasa logician,philosopher,chemist,psychologist,physicist, political philosopher, and musicologist;Abu Rayhan Biruni (d.1048) was an astronomer, a historian, botanist, pharmacologist, geologist,philosopher,mathematician,andgeographer;IbnSina(d.1037)wasalogi-cian,philosopher,physician,chemist,geologist,psychologist,anastronomer,andaphilosopherofscience;IbnRushd(d.1198)wasaphilosopher,physi-cian,physicist,anastronomer,andapsychologist;Nasiral-DinTusi(d.1274)wasanastronomer,aphysicist,chemist,mathematician,andlogician.8

BeingathomewithrespecttobothphilosophyandsciencesofthedayhadenabledMuslimphilosopherstoapplytheirpowerofintellecttoawidevari-etyofrealproblemsindifferentintellectualandpracticalfields.

3

SeeMortezaMotahari,Ashnaei ba ‘ulum-e Eslami [An Introduction to the (Classical) “Islamic Sciences”],SadraPublications,Te-hran1979(newedition:ICASPress,London2016).

4

Thefirst twosectsgradually turned into thetwo largest sects in Islamwhichexist todayand each are divided into a number of sub-sects.The latter two sects didnot last long,though their ideasarestillpresent in the in-tellectualecosystemofIslamicdoctrine.TheKharijites advocated a very strict adherenceto their own literal reading of shari’a lawandwere intolerantand inflexible in impos-ingtheirdesiredorder.TheMurji’ah,ontheotherhand,wereoftheviewthat,oneshouldnotcondemneventhemostcorruptandcruelindividuals who regard themselves asMus-lim.OnlyGod can pass judgement on theirfate. Cf. Khalid Blankinship, “The EarlyCreed”, in: The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology,ed.byTimWin-ter,CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge2008,pp.33–54,doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/ccol9780521780582.003; Majid Fakhry, A

History of Islamic Philosophy, ColumbiaUniversity Press, New York – Chichester2004,Ch.2.

5

SeeMortezaMotahari, ‘Adl-e Elahi [Divine Justice], Sadra Publications, Tehran 1973;HarryAustrynWolfson, The Philosophy of the Kalam,HarvardUniversity Press,Cam-bridge, MA – London 1976; M. M. Sharif(ed.),A History of Muslim Philosophy,OttoHarrassowitz,Wiesbaden1963,BookThree,Part1,X&XI,pp.199–243.

6

SeeMortezaMotahari,Ashnaei ba ‘ulum-e Eslami.

7

I refrainfromusingthedefinitearticle, ‘al’,beforethenameofnon-Arabscholars.

8

SeeM.M.Sharif(ed.),A History of Muslim Philosophy; Seyyed Hossein Nasr, OliverLeaman (eds.), History of Islamic Philoso-phy,Routledge,London–NewYork1996.

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Muslimphilosophersdevelopedanapproachtolearningwhichcanbedubbed‘religious humanism’. It was based on the idea of cultivating individualsthroughteachingthemvarioussciencesandgoodhabitssothattheyacquireapersonalqualitywhichiscalledadab,aconceptveryclosetotheGreekno-tionofpaideia.Accordingtophilosophers,thepathtotrueeducation(adab haqiqi)wasonlythroughphilosophy(i.e.rationaldeliberation).TheoutcomeoftheintellectualeffortsofMuslimphilosophersandscholarsduringtheGoldenageofIslamwasnotonlygreatlybeneficialtotheflourish-ingofIslamiccivilisation,butalsoprovidedEuropeanscholarswitharichreservoiroffreshideas.ManyoftheworksofMuslimscholars,philosophers,scientists,andtheolo-giansweretranslatedintoLatin.TheircounterpartsinEuropegreatlybenefit-tedfromthefruitsoftheintellectuallabouroftheircolleaguesintheMuslimworld.ButwhiletheLatinWestwasbenefitingfromtheviewsofMuslimthinkersandfoundationsfortheRenaissanceweregraduallybeinglaid,adynamicsofadifferenttypewasatworkinthelandofIslam.

III. Decline of scientific spirit in Islamic civilisation

DespitealltheemphasisintheQur’anandthetraditionoftheProphetandImams(inthecaseofShi’iIslam)ontheimportanceofacquiringanddevel-opingknowledge,thescientificandphilosophicalspiritinIslamiccivilisationtookanosediveandexperiencedagradualdeclinefromthetwelfthcenturyonward.Thedominanceof theAsh’ari thoughtprovidedgrist for themillsof thosewhomaintainedthatIslamisaself-sufficientsystemineveryrespect,includ-ingknowledgeproduction.Thegradualbutconsistentandcontinuousascend-encyoffuqha(jurists),‘urafa(mystics),andtheologians(mutakallimun)ofAsh’aripersuasionhelpedtocreateanintellectualenvironmentinwhichra-tionalthinkingandscientificpursuitswereregardedaseithernon-IslamicornotsuitableforthebelieversandalientothespiritofIslam.By the time of the great PersianAsh’ari jurist, sufi-saint, and theologian(mutakallim),AbuHamedMohammadGhazzali(d.1111),theorthodoxywasfirmlyinplaceinallpartsofMuslimlandsinwhichoneofthefourSunnischoolsoffiqhwasbeingpracticed.Having declared philosophy as an unsuitable subject for study in the eco-systemof Islamicculture,Ghazzali, inhismagnum opus, Ihya al-ulum al-din(Revival of the Religious Sciences)whichisanencyclopaediaofIslamicsciencesofhisday,introducedanewclassificationofsciences.Hedividedsciencesintotwogeneralgroups,religiousandnon-religious,andmadeclearthatonlythefirstgrouphasanintrinsicvalue.9

Thetendencyofplacingreligioussciencesonahigherplanethannon-reli-giousscienceswasfurtheramplifiedintheworksofMuslimmystics(‘urfa)andSufis. In their teachings,non-religiousscienceswereregardedas toolsandinstrumentswhosepurposewastohelpMuslimsinthislifetodedicatethemselvestothestudyoftrulyworthwhilesciences,i.e.non-religious,andinparticular‘irfanisciences.Theclosingof thedoorof ijtihad among theSunniMuslimsdealtanothersevereblowtothespiritofcriticalthinkinginIslam.10



To the above intellectual trends, social and political upheavals inMuslimcountriesshouldbeadded.EachoneofthesetrendsdealtasevereblowtotheflourishingintellectualecosystemsinMuslimcountries.Theanimositybetween theAbbasiddynasty (750–1258) inBaghdadand theFatimiddy-nasty(909–1171)inEgypt,theCrusades(1095and1291),theinvasionoftheMoghuls,HulagoKhan(1218–1265)andlaterTaymour(Tamerlane,1336–1405)allhelpedthecreationofanenvironmentwhichwasnotamenabletofreeandcriticalthinking.TheresultwasthatphilosophyasadisciplineandatraditiondiedasuddendeathamongtheSunniMuslimsintheeasternflankof Islamic civilisation. Philosophical thinking, however, did not die awayamongMuslims.ItfollowedtwodifferentpathsintheEasternandWesternparts ofMuslim lands. In Spain,Muslimphilosophers such as IbnBajjah(1095–1143),IbnTufayl(1105–1185)andIbnRushd(1126–1198)continuedthe Mashsha’i (Peripatetic) tradition.However,with the collapse ofMus-lim dynasties in Spain in the late fifteen century, development of Islamicphilosophy11intheSunniIslamcametoanendandthephilosophicalspiritvanishedfromitsecosystem.IntheEasternflankofIslamdomphilosophysurvivedamongMuslimscholarsfromIran.Itistothisdevelopmentthatwenowturn.

IV. Al-Hikmat al-Mashreqiyah and the emergence of novel systems of theosophy

AcloserlookatthedevelopmentofphilosophicalthoughtinIslammakesitclearthatkalamand‘irfanhavealwayshadsomesortofinfluenceonration-alapproachestophilosophisingandphilosophershavealwaysbeenacutelyawareoftheneedforaddressingtheconcernsofnotonlytheologians(mu-takallimun) andmystics(‘urafa),butalsojurists (fuqha).AcaseinpointisthePersianphilosopherIbnSina,whoisundoubtedlythegreatest Peripatetic philosopher in the tradition of Islamic philosophy, andyet,despiteallhispenchantsforrationalapproacheslaterinhislifeandinhislaterworks,helaiddownthefoundationsofanintellectuallegacywhichturnedintothedominanttrendofthoughtamongsubsequentgenerationsofMuslimphilosophers.IbnSina’sinfluentiallegacywasthedevelopmentofanentirelynewschoolofthoughtwhichhedubbedal-Hikmat al-Mashreqiyah (theEasternphiloso-phy).Themaincharacteristicofthisnewschoolwasitsemphasisonthepow-erof intuitionandmysticalexperiences,asagainst rational thinkingas themosteffectivetoolforexploringrealityandacquiringknowledgeaboutit.Al-Hikmat al-Mashreqiyah was further developed into a comprehensivephilosophical system by another great Persian philosopher, Shahb al-Din

9

See Ghazali, Revival of the Religious Sci-ences [Ihya’ulum al-din],Book1:“TheBookofKnowledge”,trans.byNabihAminFaris,IslamicBookService,NewDelhi1979,p.30.This text is available online at: http://www.ghazali.org/site/ihya.htm.

10

See Joseph Schacht, An Introduction to Is-lamic Law,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford1982.

11

Iusetheterm‘Islamicphilosophy’inaneu-tral way, meaning philosophical doctrinesproducedbythinkerswhohappentobeeitherMuslimorlivinginMuslimcountriesorboth.Thistermcanbeusedinterchangeablywithasimilar term,‘Muslimphilosophy’, through-outthispaper.

ttp://www.ghazali.org/site/ihya.htm



Suhrawardi(1158–1191),thefounderofMaktab-i Ishraq(theSchoolofIl-lumination).12

Suhrawardi’ssystemwasanovelsynthesisofvarioustrendsofthought,in-cludingPlatonicandneo-Platonic ideas,doctrines from thewisdomofan-cientPersiansages(Hukamaye-Pahlavi),doctrinesextractedfromtheQur’anandtheteachingsoftheProphet.13

InhiscaptivatingworksbothinPersianandArabic,Suhrawardidevelopedacompletemetaphysicalsystembasedonthenotionoflightanditscontrastwithdarkness.Godwasthe‘lightoflights’.Suhrawardinarratedanepicstoryonametaphysicalplanewhosemainherowasmanwhohadfallenfromtherealmoflightintotherealmofdarknessandwaslongingtogetbacktohisorigin.SuhrawardihadaprofundinfluenceonalmostallthesubsequentgenerationsofMuslimphilosophers.FromSuhrawardionward,Islamicphilosophy,inasystematicfashion,dedicatedallitsattentiontotheosophicalissues,i.e.issuesrelated to understandingGod andHismanifestations bymeans of rationalargumentation,intuitionandmysticalexperiences.Ittookasitsmainsourcesofexplorationand investigation, theholyQur’an,and the teachingsof theProphetandtheShi’iImams.TheteachingofSufisandmystics,especiallywithregardtonotionssuchasvali(friend,guardian,pl.ulia’)andvilayat(friendship,guardianship),topicswhichwerefrequentlydiscussedinSuhrawardi’sbooks,alsoheavilyinflu-encedthefuturedevelopmentofphilosophyinIran.ASufi-saintwhoseviewswasveryinfluentialinthisrespctwasIbnArabi(d.1240).14

V. Philosophical developments in the sixteen and seventeen centuries: Schools of Isfahan and Shiraz

The intellectual trend towards combining mystical, gnostic, and illumina-tionistinsightswithQur’anicandPropheticteachingsandrationalthinkingreacheditszenithintwoinfluentialphilosophicalschoolswithdistinctShi’iflavour,namelytheSchoolofIsfahanandtheSchoolofShiraz.Theemer-genceofbothoftheseschoolswasgreatlyfacilitated,ifnotbecamepossibleinthefirstplace,becauseofthecomingtopoweroftheSafavidsdynastyinPersia(1501–1736).ThefounderoftheSchoolofIsfahanwasMuhammadBaqirDamad(d.1631),betterknownasMirDamad.15

MirDamad’smainprojectwastodevelopasystemofphilosophybasedonthewisdomrevealedbyGodtotheprophets,knownastheYamaniwisdom(Hikmat-i Yamani)incontrasttotherationalistphilosophyoftheGreeks.ThetitleofMirDamad’ssystemwasapparentlyinspiredbyaProphetichadith (tradition),namely,“al-imanu al-Yamani va al-Hikmatu al-Yamaniyatu”(thetruefaithistheYamanifaithandthetruewisdomistheYamaniwisdom).16

InthedisputeamongMuslimphilosophersconcerningthestatusofexistence(wujud)andquiddity(mahiyyat)inthegrandschemeofthings,MirDamadargued against IbnSina (in hisPeripatetic phase) by endorsing the princi-palityofquiddity(mahiyyat)andtheaccidentalnatureofexistence(wujud).Amonghisphilosophicalinnovationsthenotionofhuduth-i dahri(atemporalcreationoremergence)–whichhecontrastswithtwoothernotions,namely,huduth-i zamani(temporalcreationoremergence)andhuduth-i dhati (essen-



tialcontingency)–deservestobementioned.Hemaintainedthatallentities,apartfromGod,i.e.allcontingentbeings,haveanunchangingexistenceinarealmwhichiscalleddahr(aeon). Godisoutsideofthisrealm,hisexistenceissarmadi (withoutbeginningandend).AccordingtoMirDamad,alltempo-ralbeings,inanymomentoftheirexistence,haveadahri counterpart.DahractsasacosmicmemoryinwhichwhateverisinGod’smindhasacopy.MirDamadwasabletoprovidesolutionsforanumberofphilosophicalaswellastheologicalissues,includingtheproblemof‘creatednessoftime’,‘re-jectionofthePlatonicrealmofIdeas’,theissueofGod’sforeknowledge,andthechangesHeeffectsinthegranddesignofthings(naskh va bada’).17

Islamicphilosophyin the traditionofcombininggnostic, religious,andra-tional strands, reached its apex in the teachings of SadruddinMuhammadShirazi(1571–1640),betterknownasAkhundMullaSadraandalsoas“SadrAl-muti’allihin”(theforemostamongstthetheosophians).MullaSadrawascontemporaneouswithDescartes andwas as influential philosopher in Is-lamiccultureaswasDescartesinthecontextofEuropeanthought.However,theapproachesofthesetwointellectualgiantswerepolesapart.MullaSadradedicatedhiswholeintellectualenergytothedevelopmentof,perhaps, thefinest theosophical system ever introducedwithin the econiche of Islamicculture.He,likehispredecessorsinthegnostictradition,maintainedthattheonlyworthwhileknowledgeistheosophy.HeexplicitlycriticisedIbnSinaforwastinghistimeonPeripateticphilosophyandmedicine.MullaSadra’sexquisitesysteminwhichrationalthinkingwascombinedwithesotericapproachesandappliedtotheteachingsoftheQur’anandthetradi-tionof theProphetand theShi’i Imams,came tobeknownasHikmat al-Muti’aliyeh (theTranscendentTheosophy).LikeSuhrawardiandMirDamadbeforehim,MullaSadrapresentedacom-pletemetaphysical systemwhich provides explanation for every aspect ofreality,whetherGod,angels,man,afterlife,thedayofjudgement,andsoon.Hissystem,however,incontradistinctiontothesystemsdevelopedbyhistwoeminentpredecessorswasbasedonthenotionofexistentialprimacy(taqad-

12

For Suhrawadri’s life andwork see SeyyedHosseinNasr,Three Muslim Sages: Avicen-na, Suhrawardi, Ibn ‘Arabi, Harvard Uni-versity Press, Cambridge 1964. For a com-parisonbetweenSuhrawardi’sandIbnSina’sphilosophies see Mehdi Aminrazavi, “HowIbnSinianIsSuhrawardi’sTheoryofKnow-ledge?”,Philosophy East and West,Vol. 53(2003),No.2,pp.203–214,doi:https://doi.org/10.1353/pew.2003.0010.

13

SeeShahabuddinSuhrawardi,Philosophy of Illumination [Himkmat al-Ishraq], trans. byJohnWalbridge and Hossein Ziai, BrighamYoung University Press, Provo, UT 1999;ShahabuddinSuhrawardi,The Shape of Light [Hayakal al-Nur], trans. by Shaykh al-Hal-veti,FonsVitae,Louisville,KY1986.

14

ForIbnArabi’slifeandworkseeWilliamC.Chittick, Ibn ‘Arabi: Heir to the Prophets,OneWorld,Oxford2005.

15

ForMir Damad’s life and work see HamidDabashi, “Mir Damad and the Founding ofthe School of Isfahan”, in: S. H. Nasr, O.Leaman (eds.), History of Islamic Philoso-phy,Ch.34,pp.597–634.

16

SeeZahraMostafavi,“Dahr(theMeta-Time),theMainElementinHikmat Yamani(theMirDamad’sPhilosophy)”,Journal of Religious Thought,No.22,2007,pp.21–39.

17

SeeFazlurRahman,“MīrDāmād’sConceptofḤudūthDahrī:AContributiontotheStudyofGod-WorldRelationshipTheoriesinSafa-vid Iran”, Journal of Near Eastern Studies,Vol.39(1980),No.2,pp.139–151,doi:ht-tps://doi.org/10.1086/372791.

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dum rutbi)ofbeing(wujud)overquiddity(mahiyyat)ortheprincipality(i.e.reality)ofbeingandaccidentally(non-reality)ofquiddity.IntherealisticoutlookofMullaSadrathewholerealmofbeingconsistsofjustonereality,namelyGod.AlltherestareHismanifestationsand,there-fore, have no genuine reality on their own.God is the only necessary be-ing,alltherestarecontingententities.ForthisparticulartypeofcontingencyMullaSadracoinedanewterm,imakan-i faqri(contingencyduetoexistentialdependence)whichwasdifferent fromthecommonnotionofcontingency,namely, imkan-i mahuwi, contingency related to the quiddity or essence,whichwasusedbypreviousphilosophers.18

MullaSadraintroducedmanynovelthemesandtheoriesintoIslamicphiloso-phyandprovidedconvincingsolutionsformanyoutstandingproblemsinnotonlythefieldofphilosophy,butalsotheologyandmysticism.IwillnotbeabletodojusticetoMullaSadra’snumerousandrichachieve-ments. Perhaps a fewwords concerning his theory of ‘substantialmotion’mayprovide a flavour of his approach.ForMullaSadra, theprimacy andprincipalityofexistence,means,amongotherthings, thateachentityhasapersonalor individual identity.Existenceought tobecontrastedwithnon-existence.Themoreperfectanentitythericheritsexistence,inthesensethatitislesscontaminatedwithnon-existenceormixedwithit.Fornon-materialentities,theirimperfectionmanifestsitselfintheirabsolutedependenceuponGod for their existence.But in the sub-lunar realm,which is the abodeofmaterialentities,imperfectionobtainsanaddedfeature.Here,thedegreesofactualityandpotentialitydetermine thedegreeofperfectionofaparticularentitywithregardtoitsparticularidentity.Inthiscontext,changemeansturningpotentialityintoactuality.MullaSadraarguesthat individualbeingsinthesub-lunarrealm,whicheachhavetheirowndistinctidentities,experience,onacontinuousbasis,theprocessofactu-alisationoftheirpotentialities.Thisprocess,firstandforemost,happensintheindividual’sexistentialsubstanceand,asaresult,changesinothercategoriessuchasquantity(kamm),quality(kaif),andplace(makan)willbeeffected.Timeisalsoadimensionwhichdisplaystheabovesequenceofcontinuousandseamlessturningofpotentialityintoactuality.MullaSadrathusidentifiedtimeasthefourthdimensionofmaterialentities.19

Thehumansoulisatthebeginningmerelyapotentiality.Underfavourablecircumstances,itgraduallyemergesasaresultoftheinteractionofthebodyofthenewlyconceivedembryowiththeenvironment.Theprocessofactuali-sationofthepotentialsembeddedinthesoulcontinuesuntilthelastmomenttheindividualisaliveandactive.Sinceboththebodyandthesoulhavemanydifferentpotentials,actualisingparticularaspectsofsuchpotentialsbecomesamatterofinteractionbetweentheindividualanditsenvironment.Attheendofone’slifeinthisworld,one’ssoulleavesone’sbodyand,dependingonthedegreeofperfectionitmayhaveachievedwhilestillinthisworld,itenterstherealmofpurgatory,orhigherupinthechainofbeing.IntheperiodafterthedeathofMullaSadra,untilthetwentiethcentury,Is-lamicphilosophywasmostlyafootnotetotheSadraeansystem.

VI. A brief account of two major developments in Islamic philosophy in the 20th century

Intheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury,Iranianleft-wingintellectuals,liketheircounterpartsinotherpartsoftheworldwhowereinspiredbythe



BolshevikrevolutioninRussia,embarkedonanideologicalcrusadetopro-motevariousaspectsofMarxism-Leninism,andinparticulardialecticalma-terialisminIran.Theseeffortsreceivedagreatboostin1941withtheforma-tionoftheSovietbackedTudehParty.Inreplytothisideologicalonslaught,oneofthegreatestmastersofIslamicphilosophyinmoderntimes,AllamehSeyyedMuhammadHusseinTabata-baee (1904–1981),decided toexpose theshortcomingsof theMarxist ide-ologyby critically assessing its philosophical doctrines. In themid-1950s,Allamehbeganteachingacourseofphilosophytoaselectedgroupofclericschosen fromamonghis best students.This course, basedon twice-weeklysessions,lastedforaboutthreeyears.Duringthisperiodmanyphilosophicalaspects ofMarxism and dialecticalmaterialismwere discussed.Allameh’slecturenoteswereeditedandheavilyannotatedbyhisbestdisciple,AyatollahMortezaMotahari(1920–1979),arenownedphilosopherinthetraditionofIslamicphilosophy,andpublishedinfivevolumes,underthegeneraltitleofThe Principles and Method of the Philosophy of Realism.Thiswork,whosecontentIamgoingtobriefly,thoughcritically,discussinthissection,markedawatershed, thoughunfortunatelynota turningpoint,in the long-standing traditionof Islamicphilosophy. Itwas awatershed inthesensethataftercenturiesofinward-looking,MuslimphilosophersappliedtheirtalentsandalsothemachineryofIslamicphilosophytoaproblemout-sidetheusualsetoftheosophicalproblems.Itdidnot,however,turnintoaturning-point, in that it remainedas,moreor less, aone-offproject. ItdidnotgiverisetosystematicapplicationofIslamicphilosophytoothernewlyemergedissuesintheIslamiccommunities.The Principles and Method of the Philosophy of Realism consists of four-teen “articles”, each dealing with one important philosophical topic. Thetwoayatollahs,TabatabaeeandMotahari,didathoroughjobinexposingtheepistemological shortcomings ofMarxism and dialecticalmaterialism. Forexample,theyarguedthattheMarxists’theoryofknowledgeleadstorelativ-ismand,therefore,failstoprovideuniversalknowledgeofreality.Dialecticalmaterialismisalsoproblematicinthatacceptingonlyonecontradictionleadstoanuntenableepistemicpositioninwhichallsortsofbizarreclaimscanbemadewithoutanywaytoexaminethem.Inaddition,forthefirsttimeinthehistoryofIslamicphilosophyandalmosttwodecadesbeforeDavidLewis’Convention: A Philosophical Study (1969)andfourdecadesbeforeJohnSearle’sConstruction of Social Reality(1995)thiswork discussed the idea of knowledge about e’tebariyat, conventions,andthosesociallyconstructedrealitieswhosefunctionistorespondtoman’snon-cognitiveneeds,asagainsthiscognitiveneedswhicharetakencareof

18

MullaSadrapresentedhismetaphysicalsys-teminitsdevelopedforminhismagnumopus,al-Asfar al-Araba’a [The Four Journeys],Entesharat-e Bonyad Hikmat Islami Sadra,9vols.,Tehran.Partialtranslationsofthisworkare available. For example, Latimah-ParvinPeerwanihastranslatedthefourthintellectualjourney:Mulla Sadra,Spiritual Psychology,ICASPress,London2008.

19

SeeMullaSadra,al-Asfar al-Araba’a,First,Third and Fourth Journey. Mulla Sadra’s

theory of the human soul allows him to of-feranovelsolutionforthevexedissueofthemind-bodyproblem.Since thesoulemergesfromthebodyandremainsintouchwiththebodyuntiltheendofanindividual’slife,theusual difficulties which beset a Cartesianmodeldonotaffecthismodel.ForamodernreconstructionofMullaSadra’stheory of sub-stantive motionseeAbdolkarimSoroush,Na-had-e Na Aram-e Jahan [The Never-resting Nature of the Cosmos],MuassessehFarhangiSerat,Tehran1999.



byscience/knowledge.Allamehintroducedahighlyoriginalanddetailedac-countofthestructureofknowledgeofconventionsofallsorts.Hedividedthee’tebariyat intopre-socialandpost-social.Thefirstgroupwere, inSearle’sparlance,productsofindividualvolitiveintentionalities,whereasthesecondgroupwereproductsofcollectivevolitiveintentionalities.20

TheaimofAllamehTabatabaeewastorefutetheepistemicdoctrinesofMarx-istswhotendedtopresenttheirviewsas“scientific”andobjectiveanddidnotseemtobeawareofthefactthat,bylinkingtheindividual’sknowledgeofrealitytosocialclasses,theirtheoryofknowledgelosesallitsobjectivecred-ibility.HealsointendedtoexposetheMarxistfallacyofpresentingsociallyconstructedentities and theknowledge thereof as absoluteand indubitabletruthaboutmaterialreality.However,Allamehdidnot limithiscriticismonly toMarxistdoctrines;healsochallengedtheapproachesoffuqha (Muslimjurists)who,accordingtoAllameh,hadnot differentiatedbetween thenormative statusof theviewstheyhaddiscussedintheirlegaldiscussionsandfactualclaimsaboutreality.AnotherimportantdevelopmentinthefieldofIslamicphilosophyinthetwen-tiethcenturywasduetoayoungIraqimujtahid,MohammadBaqirSadr,whohadbeentrainedintheSadraeanschoolofthoughtandwaswellfamiliarwithAllamehTabatabaee’sviews,andintended,likeAllameh,tomakeuseofthemachineryofusul al-fiqh21 indevelopingnewvistasinIslamicphilosophy.AyatollahSadr,whowasexecutedalongwithhissisterbytheBaathregimeinBaghdad,reportedlybySaddamHussein’sdirectorder,inApril1980,likeAyatollahMutahariwasconcernedaboutdevelopingaproperphilosophicalresponsetothechallengespresentedbyMarxismandotherforeignideologiesorphilosophicalsystems.LikeAyatollahMotahari,healsomaintainedthattheintellectualfacilitiesavailableinIslamicculturecouldhelpresearcherstodevelopsystemsofthoughtwhicharefreefromthedefectsofWesternphilo-sophicalschools.Also,likeAyatollahMotahari,heproducedmanybooksinresponsetomodernchallenges.However,hismasterpiecewaspublishedin1977.Inatrailblazingandinflu-entialbook,al-Ussus al-Mantaqiyah li’l Istiqra’ (The Logical Foundations of Induction),hetookuponhimselftodevelopanepistemologicalsystembasedontheresourcesavailableintheIslamicintellectualmilieuinordertosug-gestasolutiontothevexedproblemofinduction.22Thetitleofthebookwas,however,amisnomer,sincetheauthorhadnointentionofprovidinglogicalfoundations for induction andmaintained that no such foundations can befound.Fordevelopinghisnovelandcriticalassessmentoftheproblemofinduction,AyatollahSadr,ontheonehand,reliedontheArabictranslationofBertrandRussell’sHuman Knowledge,and,ontheotherhand,madeuseofhisdetailedknowledgeofusulal-fiqh andofIslamicphilosophy.Hecriticisedthesolu-tionproposedbyAristotleandalsoMashsha’iphilosophersfortheproblemof induction,arguing that theprincipleofuniformityofnature,or itsvari-ancesusedbyAristotelianstojustifyinduction,isnotself-evident.Itreliesoninduction.23

AyatollahSadrthencriticisedHume’sandMill’sarguments.HerejectedHu-me’s claim that causality cannot be establishedby empirical evidence andalsorejectedhispessimismconcerningtheimpossibilityoffindingasolutionfortheproblemofinduction.AsforMill’sview,henotedthat,whileMillwasrightinthinkingthatcausalitycanbeestablishedbyinductivemeans,hewaswronginlinkingthevalidityofinductivegeneralisationtocausality.



Havingexplained thefailureofsomeof thewell-knownapproaches to theproblem of induction,Ayatollah Sadr introduced his own epistemologicalapproach which he maintained could solve the problem once and for all.AyatollahhaddubbedhisnoveltheoryAl-Naẓariyah al-Tavalud al-Dhati fi al-Ma’refat al-Bashariyah (The Theory of Inherent Proliferation in Human Knowledge).Thisnoveltheoryisbasedontwopillars;namely,particularnotionsofcer-taintyandaparticularinterpretationofprobabilitydevelopedinthelightofanusuli concept.AccordingtoAyatollahSadrtherearethreetypesofcertainties,namely:logicalcertainty,inherentcertainty(al-yaqin al-dhati),andobjectivecertainty(al-yaqin al-mawduee).Logicalcertaintypertainstothenecessaryrelationsbetween theconclusionofavalidsyllogismand itspremisesandalsonecessaryrelationsbetweensubjectsandpredicatesoftautologies.Inher-entcertaintyreferstoasubjective,psychologicaltypeofcertainty.Butthelasttypeofcertaintyisachievedonthebasisofaccumulationofexternalevidenceandthestrengthofthisevidence.Asforhisparticular interpretationofprobability,he introducedamodel inwhichawell-knownnotionfromusul al-fiqh,namely,al-‘ilmal-ijmali,whichliterallymeans‘un-detailedknowledge’,wascarefullycraftedwithsomeas-pects of the classic (Laplacian) and the frequency (vonMises) theories ofprobability without incorporating their weaknesses. TheAyatollah definedal-‘ilmal-ijmali in thecontextofhisowntheoryofprobabilityas“certainknowledgeaboutanunidentifiedmemberofacertainset”.The Theory of Inherent Proliferation in Human Knowledge,whichisinitselfextremely interesting,since it showshowa traditionalmujtahidandphilo-sopherisgrapplingwithanimmenselyimportantphilosophicalissue,boilsdowntothefollowingclaimsforeachofwhichtheauthorprovidesdetailedarguments:(1) Onebeginsone’sknowledgepursuitaboutaparticularsubject-matteron

the basis of a degree ofal-‘ilm al-ijmali about it.This is our openinghunchor conjecture.Some sort of relationof entailment exists amongvariouspartsofone’ssubjectiveknowledgewhichistherealmofsubjec-tivecertainty.Thisknowledgecanbeexpandedinapiecemealmannerbygradualincreaseinone’sdegreeofrationalbelief.

(2) One’s degree of rational belief concerning a particular subject-matter,basedonal-‘ilmal-ijmaliaboutthatsubject-matter,canbeincreasedbytheapplicationofinduction.Atthisstage,duetoaccumulationofrelevant

20

I critically assess Allameh’s views one’tebariyat in “A Critical Comparative As-sessmentofAllamehTabatabaee’sTheoryofe’tebariyat, David Lewis’s Convention andJohnSearle’sConstruction of Social Reality”(2016forthcoming).

21

Usul al-fiqh (the principles of fiqh) is a se-mantic and hermeneutical machinery whichassists fuqha (jurists) in their dealings withsemantic entailments of the verses of theQur’anandthetraditionsoftheProphetandImams. Its relation to fiqh (Islamic jurispru-dence)issomewhatliketherelationoflogictophilosophy.

22

S. M. B. Sadr, al-Ussus al-Mantaqiyah li’l Istiqra,Dar alTa’aruf li’lMatbu’at,Beirut,fourthimprint,1977/1982.

23

The firstMuslimphilosopherwho criticallyand thoroughly discussed Ayatollah Sadr’stheoryofinductionwasAbulkarimSoroush,“MabniMantiqi Istiqra’azNazr-eAyatollahSadr”[TheLogicalFoundationsofInductionfromAyatollahSadr’sPointofView],Nashr-i Danish,No.15,1983,pp.22–43.Ihaveheav-ilyreliedonhisarticleindevelopingthispartofthepresentpaper.



evidence,one’sobjectivecertaintyconcerningthesubject-matterunderstudyalsoincreases.Thisstageiscalledthe‘stageofobjectiveprolifera-tionofknowledge’(al-tawalud al-mudu’i).

(3) In the last stage,which iscalled the ‘stageof inherentproliferationofknowledge’(al-tawalud al- dhati),increaseinthedegreeofprobabilityandinobjectivecertaintycombinedwithcertainrulesofentailmentleadstothetransformationofourinitialconjectureinto‘inherentcertainty’(al-yaqin al-dhati) concerningthesubject-matterofourresearch.

Ayatollah’s Sadr’s new subjective theory of induction, of course, as someMuslimphilosophershaveargued,24likeallothersuggestedsolutionsforthisproblem,failstoachieveitsgoal.Nevertheless,hisboldeffortsindevelop-ing,perhapsforthefirsttimeinthemodernhistoryofIslamicphilosophy,anovelapproachwhichradicallyenlargesthehorizonoftraditionalthinkingisworthyofpraise.

VII. Some of the major shortcomings of traditional Islamic philosophy

In the light of developments inmodern epistemology andmetaphysics, itseems the traditional Islamic philosophy, as taught in religious seminariesandsomemodernuniversities inMuslimcountries, suffers fromanumberofshortcomings.ThefollowingisabriefcriticalassessmentoftheseweakerpointsintheapproachesoftraditionalMuslimphilosophers.Inthefirstplaceandfromamethodologicalpointofview,itseemsthattheintellectualactivitiesofmanyofthepractitionersintraditionalIslamicphi-losophy are less problem-oriented andmoredirected towards transmissionandexpositionof theviewsofpastmasters.Meeting thechallengesposedbynewly-emergedproblemsisnothighonthelistofintellectualprioritiesofmanyofthetraditionalpractitionersofIslamicphilosophy.Threeother evident shortcomingsof traditional approaches to Islamicphi-losophyare:adherencetoself-evidenttruthsasthejustificatorybasisofallknowledgeclaims;strongemphasisonattainmentofcertaintyastheendgoalofepistemicpursuits;andinsistenceontheso-called‘ilm-I huduri’ (know-ledge-by-presence)astheultimateandmostvaluabletypeofknowledge.However,subscriptiontotheabovethreetheses,asIbrieflyarguehere,de-privesIslamicphilosophyfromriddingitselffromtheshacklesofadogmaticoutlook.Of the three theses introducedabove,perhaps thesecondone, i.e.anemphasisonattainingcertainty,isthemostimportantone.Itseemssuchanemphasisontheroleofcertaintyanditsplaceinphilosophicalinvestiga-tionsisnotunrelatedtoreligiousteachingsinwhichthestrengthofbelievers’faithisgaugedbytheirdegreeofcertaintyinGodandinthetruthofIslamicteachings.Thenotionofcertainty,yaqin, isalsoemphasisedinmanyof theQur’anicverses.Tomakethingsevenmorecomplicated,theQur’anintroducesthreedifferentnotionsofyaqin,whichimplyahierarchyorvariousdegreesofcer-tainty.Theseareknownasilm al-yaqin (theknowledgeofcertainty=certain-tyduetoacquiredknowledge),‘ain al-yaqin (theeyeofcertainty=certaintyobtainedthroughdirectencounter/direct‘visual’evidence),andhaq al-yaqin (thetruthofcertainty=absolute,indubitablecertainty).25



Nowitseemsthesedegreesofcertaintyarecontrastedtoepistemicconceptssuchasshakk (doubt),ẓann whichis translatedinto‘surmise’and‘conjec-ture’,andwahm (phantasm).PerhapspriortotheintroductionoftheviewsofcriticalrationalistssuchasKarlPopperandDavidMiller,almostallMuslimscholarswere,andthema-jorityof themstill are,of theview that certainty is anepistemic stateandfailingtoobtainitimpliesnotonlyaseriousdefectinone’sepistemologicalapproach,butmoreworryinglyweaknessinone’sfaithinGod.ItseemsthemajorityofMuslimscholars,includingmost,ifnotall,Muslimphilosophers,neverconsideredthecasethatcertaintyisnotanepistemicstatebutapsy-chologicalone,andthatknowledgecanbeattainedbymeansofconstructingconjecturesandprojectingthemintoreality.26

ApartfromageneralunderstandingofthemeaningoftheconceptofyaqininthecontextofIslamiccultureanditsvalueandworthintheeyesofMuslims,itseemsthatMuslimphilosophers,whohavealwaysbeenaccusedbytheirfellowtheologians,jurists,andmysticsofintroducingideasandviewswhicharealientogenuineIslamicteachings,havebeenextracarefultoemphasisetheimportanceofyaqinandalsothefactthattheirphilosophicalsystemsarecapableofachievingit.However, theemphasisofvariousschoolsof Islamicphilosophyon theirabilitytoattaincertaintyastheendgoaloftheirepistemicpursuithasnothelpedthepositionoftheseschoolsintheeyesoftheiropponents.Theseopponents,eachintheirownway,maintainthatcertaintycanbeobtainedwithmuchmoreeffectivenessandgreatereasethroughtheirownwayratherthanmoving along the torturous path of incomprehensible philosophicalreasoning.Theliteralists,ofdifferenttypesandorientationsamongboththeSunnisandtheShi’as,representonesuchopponentgroup.Theyclaimthatcertaintycanbeattainedbycloselyfollowing theSharia law.Thesecondgroup,alsooflargevariety,aretheSufiswhoadvocatemysticalpractices, inplaceofra-tionalarguments,asthebestwayofacquiringcertainty.Intheirpursuitofachievingcertainty,itseemsthatMuslimphilosophershavefallen into the trap of yet another categorymistake: they havemistakenlyupheldthenotionofilm-i huduri, ‘knowledgebypresence’,asanepistemicnotion.Thisnotionisalsoreferredtoastheoutcomeofaprocessknownasitihad-i ‘aqil va ma’qul (theunitybetweentheintellectandtheintelligible)oritihad-i ‘alim va ma’lum(theunitybetweentheknowerandtheknown).Thisprocessanditsendresultrefertoanexistentialexperienceandastateofbeingandbecomingandnotanepistemicstateinwhichweuselanguageandconcepttoreconstructourlivedexperiences.The insistenceofMuslimphilosophersonbasing theirphilosophieson thefoundationofself-evidenttruthandseekingjustificationfortheirknowledge-claimsbyresortingtothisnotionhasalsomadetheirsystemsvulnerableto

24

SeeSoroush’spaperintroducedintheprevi-ous footnote. Some other Muslim philoso-phershavealsoproducedcriticalassessmentsofAyatollahSadr’sviewsoninduction.

25

SeetheQur’an,102:5&7,56:95,69:51.

26

Ihavediscussedthisissueinanumberofpa-persincluding“ACriticalAssessmentoftheProgrammes of Producing ‘IslamicScience’and ‘Islamisation of Science/Knowledge’”,International Studies in the Philosophy of Science,Vol.30(2016),No.1,pp.311–335,doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/02698595.2015.1179043.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02698595.2015.1179043



allcriticismslevelledatthevalidityofself-evidentnotionsandtheprocessofjustification.27

VIII. The future of Islamic philosophy

HavingswiftlyandbrieflydiscussedsomeofthedevelopmentsinthefieldofIslamicphilosophy,weshould,perhaps,alsosaysomethingaboutpossiblescenarioswhichonecanenvisageforthefutureofthistradition.Ofcourse,talkingaboutfuturetrendsisalwaysariskybusiness.Predictionofthefuture,asweallknow,isnotpossible.Iamnot,therefore,goingtoattempttheim-possiblehere.ThebestIcandoistosuggestoneortwoplausiblescenariosforthefuturedevelopmentofIslamicphilosophy.ThescenariosIenvisageforthefuturearebasedonmydiscussioninthispa-per.Inmyview,forIslamicphilosophytobeabletoplayanefficientroleintacklingreal-lifeissues,itneedstoreconnectwithscienceandtechnology.Itshouldregardscienceasagenuinecompanioninitsknowledgepursuit,andnotasameremeansforfutilejustificatorypurposes.Italsoneedstorealisethat‘certainty’doesnotbelongtotherealmofknowledgeinvestigation.Thespiritofcriticalandrationalthinking,opennesstoideasandviewsdevelopedinotherculturesandcivilisation,andtolerancewhichwasoncestrongamongMuslimthinkersmustbeencouragedandenhancedoncegain.Itschoiceofproblemsshouldalsobeconsiderablyaugmentedandenrichedbyanattitudeforcombiningabstractthinkingwithappliedreasoning.Now,asfaras thephilosophicalandculturalmilieuinIranisconcerned,Ican say,with some degree of optimism, that in recent decades, and espe-ciallyaftertheIslamicrevolution,seedsforarevolutionarychangeinintel-lectualandphilosophicalendeavourshavebeensowninthecountry.Whileinthepast,themajorityofthoseyoungsoulswhowouldstudyphilosophy,whetherinseminariesorinuniversities,were,byandlarge,notacademicallywell-equippedandnotparticularlyaptforthisfield,buthadoptedforitoutofnecessityandnotchoice,intheyearsleadingtotherevolutionandafterthatmanytalentedstudentswithgoodbackgroundsinscience,mathematics,andengineeringenrolledinphilosophycourses.Theintroductionofmoderntrendsofphilosophicalthoughthasalsoopenedupnewopportunitiesforphi-losophystudents,whetherinseminariesor inuniversities, tomovebeyondthetraditionalteachingswhichhavebeenincirculationforalongtime.Itwillbenoexaggerationtoclaimthatthenumberofphilosophygraduates,againwhetherfromseminariesoruniversities,whoaregainingconfidence,outofrespectfortruthandgenuineloveofknowledge,tocombinetraditionalreverencetowardstheirelders(especiallyteachers)withcriticalassessmentoftheirviews,isontheincrease.It isalsoafact thatIranianstudentsofphilosophyarebecomingmoreandmore aware of the importance of relatively newly emerged philosophicalfieldssuchasappliedphilosophy.Thisawarenesshashelpedthemtobetterappreciatetheneedforadoptingproblem-orientedapproachesintheirphilo-sophicalendeavours.The fact that the fuqha (jurists), despite enjoying a privileged status, havecomeunderincreasingpressurewithregardtotheirmonopolyover“repre-senting”theofficialfaceofIslam,hasprovidedfurtherbreathingspacefortheemergenceofnew,criticaltrendsofthinkinginthecountry.28

AnotherfactorwhichcouldhelpthedevelopmentofamorerationalapproachtoIslamicphilosophyinIranand,perhaps,thoseotherMuslimcountries,in



whichphilosophyisgraduallytakingroot,istheactivitiesofscholars(espe-ciallyWesternscholars)outsideIslamiccountries.Papersandbooksproducedbythesescholars,inaway,setsomestandardswithwhichMuslimphilosophersmaycompareandcontrasttheirownlevelof scholarship. Itmust be emphasised that in recent years, and as a resultof strong institutional support for scholarly activities in seminaries in Iranandsimilarsupportforthepromotionofreligioussciences,thenumberandqualityofscholarlyjournalsandpublicationswhicharededicatedtotheelu-cidationofvariousaspectsofIslamicphilosophyhasreceivedaconsiderableboostinIran.Giventhefactthatneitherphilosophicalnorscientificknowledgeclaims,asagainst technological techniques andknow-how, couldbe regardedas cul-ture-specific,suchanewlydevelopedphilosophycouldonlyberegardedas‘Islamicphilosophy’ in thesenseIexplicatedearlier in thispaper,namely,theoutcomeofintellectualendeavoursofindividualswhohappentobeMus-limor live inMuslim landsor both, andmakeuseof, amongmanyotherresources,theintellectualmachinerydevelopedinIslamiccivilisation.Thisphilosophy,provideditupholdsitscriticalandrationalapproach,couldjoinforceswithother schoolsdevelopedelsewhere in tacklingproblemswhichareregardedaschallengesformodernmenwherevertheyhappentobeandtowhateversourcesofinspirationtheyhappentobeattached.Ofcourse,theaboveoptimistictrendsshouldnotbeover-emphasised.Thereare,astherehavealwaysbeen,anti-rationalandanti-philosophicaltendenciesinIslamicsocieties,ingeneral,andintheircentresoflearninginparticular.Acaseinpointisarelativelynewanti-philosophicalschool,knownasmakatb-i tafkik (theSeparationistSchool)basedontheviewsofSayyidMūsāZarābādī(d. 1934), MīrzāMahdī Gharavī Iṣfahānī (d. 1946), and ShaykhMujtabáQazvīnīKhurāsānī(d.1966).This trendhaspowerfulbases inmanytradi-tionalseminariesinsideandoutsideIranandespeciallyinMashhad.Tafkikisstronglyopposephilosophyinallitsshapesandforms,eveninthesanitisedformofMullaSadra’sHikmat al-Muti’aliah. Intheirview,eventheQur’anshouldbeunderstoodbytheteachingsoftheShi’aImams.29

Nevertheless, it seems to me that new critical trends, within the generalframework of ‘Islamic philosophy’, are slowly but surelymoving towardsacquiringthecriticalmassrequiredformakingtheirpresencefelt.Asforanapproximatetime-scaleforreachingsuchathreshold,Ibetternothazardmak-inganyguessandendmyfuturegazinghere.

27

For futility of the ‘justificationist’ approachseeDavidMiller,“OvercomingtheJustifica-tionistAddiction”(2011),availableat:http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/philosophy/people/associates/miller/wroclaw2b.pdf.

28

Inarecentpaperentitled“FaqihasEngineer:ACriticalAssessmentoftheEpistemologicalStatusofFiqh”,American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences,Vol.33(2016),No.1,pp.25–51, doi: https://doi.org/10.12816/0037416,I have demonstrated that contrary to a pre-vailingview, fuqhaarenot‘ulama (scholars

whoseaimtoacquireknowledgeaboutreal-ity). They are engineers and technologists,i.e.professionalswhoseexpertiserespondstopeople’snon-cognitiveneedsorfacilitate,astools, their knowledge pursuit. But they arenotproducersoftheoreticalknowledge.

29

Icriticallydiscussedtheviewsof tafkikis inthepaper“TheDisenchantmentofReason:AnAnti-rationalTrendinModernShi’iThought– Tafkikis”, presented at the Third AnnualConferenceoftheBritishIslamicStudiesAs-sociation,London,April11–12,2016.

http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/philosophy/people/associates/miller/wroclaw2b.pdf

https://doi.org/10.12816/0037416



Ali Paya

Muslimanske filozofije: kritički osvrt

SažetakCilj je ovog rada kritički se osvrnuti na razvitak filozofskih škola koje su utemeljili muslimanski mislitelji u kontekstu islamske civilizacije. Naglasak je rada uglavnom na razlozima i uzrocima promjenjivih razvitaka ove intelektualne tradicije u muslimanskim zemljama. Razvijam svoje argumente unutar filozofskog okvira kritičkog racionalizma. Dok se stajališta raznih musli-manskih filozofa ocjenjuju kritički, premda ukratko, spominje se i uloga drugih muslimanskih učenjaka kao što su teolozi(mutakallimun), mistici (‘urafai sufije) te pravnici (fuqaha) u olak-šavanju ili priječenju harmoničnog rasta muslimanskog filozofskog nasljeđa.

Ključne riječimuslimanskefilozofije,kritičkiracionalizam,mashsha’i(peripatetička)škola,širaskaškola,antifi-lozofskitrendovi

Ali Paya

Muslimische Philosophien: eine kritische Übersicht

ZusammenfassungDiese Abhandlung ist bestrebt, einen kritischen Überblick über die Entwicklung von philoso-phischen Schulen zu präsentieren, die von muslimischen Denkern im Kontext der islamischen Zivilisation gegründet wurden. Der Schwerpunkt der Arbeit liegt hauptsächlich auf den Grün-den und Ursachen der ungleichmäßigen Entwicklung dieser intellektuellen Tradition in musli-mischen Ländern. Ich werde meine Argumente aus dem philosophischen Rahmen des kritischen Rationalismus heraus vorbringen. Während die Ansichten diverser muslimischer Philosophen – wenn auch nur kurz – kritisch beurteilt werden, wird ebenso die Rolle anderer muslimischer Gelehrter wie Theologen (mutakallimun), Mystiker (‘urafa und Sufis) und Juristen (fuqaha) in der Erleichterung bzw. Beeinträchtigung des harmonischen Wachstums des muslimischen philosophischen Erbes angeschnitten.

Schlüsselwörtermuslimische Philosophien, kritischer Rationalismus,mashsha’i (peripatetische) Schule, SchiraserSchule,antiphilosophischeTrends

Ali Paya

Philosophies musulmanes : compte rendu critique

RésuméLe but de ce travail est de présenter un compte rendu critique sur l’essor des écoles philo-sophiques fondées par des penseurs musulmans dans le contexte de la civilisation islamique. L’accent est principalement mis sur les raisons et les causes du développement irrégulier de cette tradition intellectuelle dans les pays musulmans. Mes arguments seront développés dans le cadre du rationalisme critique. Alors que les perspectives de nombreux philosophes musulmans seront évaluées de manière critique, quoique brièvement, d’autres savants seront également abordés tels que les théologues (mutakallimun), les mystiques (‘urafaetlessoufis) et les juristes (fuqaha) afin de comprendre s’ils ont joué un rôle en faveur ou contre le développement harmo-nieux de l’héritage philosophique musulman.

Mots-clésphilosophiesmusulmanes,rationalismecritique,école(péripatéticienne)mashsha’i,écoledeShiraz,tendancesantiphilosophiques

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