ESSENTIAL OILS: ART, AGRICULTURE,

SCIENCE, INDUSTRY AND

ENTREPRENEURSHIP (A FOCUS ON

THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION)

ESSENTIAL OILS: ART, AGRICULTURE,

SCIENCE, INDUSTRY AND

ENTREPRENEURSHIP (A FOCUS ON

THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION)

MURRAY HUNTER SME UNIT

University Malaysia Perlis

Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

New York

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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

Hunter, Murray.

Essential oils art, agriculture, science, industry and entrepreneurship (a focus on the Asia-Pacific

region) / Murray Hunter.

p. cm.

Includes index.

ISBN 978-1-60741-865-8 (hardcover)

1. Essences and essential oils industry--Pacific Area. 2. Essences and essential oils--Pacific

Area. I. Title.

HD9999.E783P32 2009

338.4'7661806095--dc22

2009025482

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York

In memory

of

my grandfather

Leonard David Hunter

(1911-1973)

A self-made chemist

A pioneer of essential oil based products

in Australia

A great entrepreneur and mentor to all

Murray Hunter vi

Contents Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ........................................................ iv

Preface ............................................................................................................................. xiii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ 1 Introduction: The Development Issues ............................................................................... 3

Introduction .................................................................................................................... 3 The Size of the Essential Oil Industry ............................................................................ 4 Definitions of Essential Oils and Other Natural Aromatic Extracts .............................. 9 Product Strategy Choices ............................................................................................. 11 The Development Issues............................................................................................... 13

Global Warming, the Food and Financial Crisis .............................................................. 13 Market Turbulence .......................................................................................................... 15 Wild Collection and Threatened Plant Species ................................................................. 15 Bargaining Power of Producers ....................................................................................... 21 The Regulatory Environment............................................................................................ 22 The Rural Crisis .............................................................................................................. 24 Templating of Natural Aromatic Molecules ...................................................................... 24 Research ......................................................................................................................... 26 Sustainability ................................................................................................................... 27 Factors leading to Success and Failure ......................................................................... 28

Planning and Opportunity Assessment ............................................................................. 29 Management and Organisational Issues ........................................................................... 29 Financial Issues ............................................................................................................... 31 Technical Issues .............................................................................................................. 31 Land Issues...................................................................................................................... 32 Marketing Issues.............................................................................................................. 32 Strategic Environmental Issues ........................................................................................ 33 Issues of Fate and Nature ................................................................................................ 33 References .................................................................................................................... 39

The Nature of the Industry ............................................................................................... 43 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 43 The Flavour and Fragrance Industry ............................................................................ 43 Components of the Flavour and Fragrance Industry .................................................... 45 Essential Oil and Other Natural Product Producers ..................................................... 45 Wild Collection for Essential Oil Production ............................................................... 49 Small Holder Essential Oil Production ......................................................................... 49 Local Collectors ........................................................................................................... 52 Plantation Production of Essential Oils ........................................................................ 53 By-Product Production of Essential Oils ...................................................................... 53 Produce Brokers and Agents ........................................................................................ 56 Research Institutions and Universities ......................................................................... 57 Governments ................................................................................................................ 57 Producers of Animal Extracts ....................................................................................... 58 Essential Oil Producer Associations ............................................................................. 58 Chemical Feed-stock Manufacturers ............................................................................ 59 Aroma Chemical Manufacturers .................................................................................. 62 Specialty Fine/Aroma Chemical Manufacturers .......................................................... 63

Introduction: The Development Issues vii

Trader/Exporter............................................................................................................... 64 International Trader ........................................................................................................ 64 Flavour and Fragrance Houses ..................................................................................... 65 Flavour and Fragrance House Subsidiaries .................................................................. 67 Flavour and Fragrance House Agent ............................................................................ 68 National Regulatory Systems ....................................................................................... 68 Standards Associations ................................................................................................. 69 End Product Manufacturers .......................................................................................... 69 Wholesalers and Retailers ............................................................................................ 71 Consumers and Derived Industry Demand ................................................................... 71 Essential Oils in the Cosmetic Industry ........................................................................ 72 Essential Oils in the Pharmaceutical Industry .............................................................. 73 Essentials Oils and the Aromatherapy Industry ........................................................... 74 Essential Oils as Intermediates in the Production of other Compounds ...................... 75 Essential Oils in the Organic Agro-chemical Industry ................................................. 77 The Value-Chain for Essential Oils .............................................................................. 78 References .................................................................................................................... 79

The Phyto-chemistry of Essential Oils ........................................................................... 107 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 107 The Plant Metabolism ................................................................................................ 108

Carbohydrates ................................................................................................................ 110 Lipids ............................................................................................................................. 111 Amino Acids ................................................................................................................... 111 Nucleotides ..................................................................................................................... 112 The Metabolic Pathways ............................................................................................ 114

Secondary Metabolites and Plant Defence Systems .......................................................... 117 Aromatic Compounds Found in Plants ....................................................................... 118 Some Important Aromatic Chemicals ........................................................................ 128

Terpene Hydrocarbons ................................................................................................... 128 Phenols .......................................................................................................................... 131 Alcohols ......................................................................................................................... 132 Aldehydes ....................................................................................................................... 136 Lactones ......................................................................................................................... 148 Nitrogen Compounds ...................................................................................................... 149 Sulphur Compounds........................................................................................................ 150 Other Groups ................................................................................................................. 151 The Analysis of Essential Oils ................................................................................... 152

Chromatography ............................................................................................................ 155 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) ........................................................ 158 Other Methods of Analysis .............................................................................................. 158 Multidimensional Chromatography ................................................................................. 159 Gas Chromatograph and GC- Mass Spectrometry Headspace Analysis ........................... 160 Thin Layer Chromatography ........................................................................................... 160 Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy .............................................................................................. 161 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) .............................................................................. 161 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy ..................................................................................... 162 Ultra-Violet (UV) Spectroscopy ...................................................................................... 164 Electronic Nose (E-Nose) ................................................................................................ 164 References .................................................................................................................. 165

Murray Hunter viii

Developing Essential Oils .............................................................................................. 215 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 215 Exploring the Potential of Essential Oil Production ................................................... 216 The Level of Commitment ......................................................................................... 217 Challenges and Failure ............................................................................................... 220 Risk and Uncertainty .................................................................................................. 223 Some General Success Characteristics ....................................................................... 226 Strategy....................................................................................................................... 226

The Essential Oil development Process ........................................................................... 231 References .................................................................................................................. 233

The Screening and Regulatory Process .......................................................................... 235 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 235 Opportunities for Essential Oil Development ............................................................ 236 The Screening Process ................................................................................................ 238 Sources of Potential Plant Opportunity Identification ................................................ 240

Bio-Prospecting .............................................................................................................. 240 Desktop Studies .............................................................................................................. 241 Screening for Development Potential ......................................................................... 241 The Characteristics and Classification of Essential Oils ............................................ 245 Evaluating the Characteristic Strengths and Weaknesses of Essential Oils .............. 247 The Regulatory Environment ..................................................................................... 249

The European Market ..................................................................................................... 250 Food Additives and Flavour Materials ............................................................................ 250 The European Chemicals Agency (EHCA) ....................................................................... 251 Biocidal Products Directive ............................................................................................ 255 Scientific Committee on Consumer Products (SCCP) ...................................................... 259 The United States ............................................................................................................ 262 Flavours and Food Additives .......................................................................................... 262 Fragrance Ingredients and Cosmetics ............................................................................. 263 Pesticides and Biocidal Products .................................................................................... 265 FDA Globalization Act of 2008 ....................................................................................... 265 Japan ............................................................................................................................. 266 Food Additives and Flavours .......................................................................................... 266 Fragrance Ingredients and Cosmetics ............................................................................. 266 The Agricultural Chemicals Regulation Law ................................................................... 269 The Chemical Substances Control Law ........................................................................... 269 Australia and New Zealand ............................................................................................. 269 Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ)............................................................ 269 The National Industrial Chemicals Assessment Scheme (NICNAS) ................................... 271 The National Registration Scheme Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines

Authority ........................................................................................................................ 272 The ASEAN Region ......................................................................................................... 272 Indonesia ........................................................................................................................ 273 Malaysia ........................................................................................................................ 274 Thailand ......................................................................................................................... 274 Vietnam .......................................................................................................................... 276 The Philippines ............................................................................................................... 277 Consequences for Screening by the International Regulatory Framework ........................ 279 References .................................................................................................................. 280

The Development Planning Process ............................................................................... 289

Introduction: The Development Issues ix

Introduction ................................................................................................................ 289 Environmental Analysis ............................................................................................. 290

1. Rivalry Among Competitors ........................................................................................ 291 2. The Threat of New Entrants ........................................................................................ 292 3. Bargaining Power over Suppliers ................................................................................ 292 4. Bargaining Power over Buyers.................................................................................... 293 5. Substitutes .................................................................................................................. 294 Factoring in the Dynamic Evolution of the Industry .................................................. 295 Collating the Information into a Picture ..................................................................... 297 Developing a Basic Strategy ...................................................................................... 300 Essential Oil Trade Price Fluctuations ....................................................................... 307 Totally New Essential Oils ......................................................................................... 310 The Basic Principal Strategies of Essential Oil Development ................................... 311

Overall Cost Leadership ................................................................................................. 311 Differentiation ................................................................................................................ 312 Focus ............................................................................................................................. 312 Market Analysis ......................................................................................................... 314 Supply Chain .............................................................................................................. 318 Selection of Basic Market Strategies .......................................................................... 318 Planning Field and Technical Development ............................................................... 320 References .................................................................................................................. 329

The Field Development Process ..................................................................................... 332 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 332 An Agricultural Enterprise as a System ..................................................................... 332 Climate Change .......................................................................................................... 336 Project Preparation and Early Work ........................................................................... 338 Climate and Moisture ................................................................................................. 339 Plant Aromatic Material Composition and Pathways ................................................. 343 Selection and Acquisition of Genetic Material for Planting ...................................... 347

Seed Collection ............................................................................................................... 350 Improvement of Genetic Material through Recurrent Selection ........................................ 352 Land Selection ................................................................................................................ 353 The Socio-Economic Environment................................................................................... 355 Overall Land Topography-Ecology ................................................................................. 356 Altitude........................................................................................................................... 359 Soil ................................................................................................................................. 360 Infrastructure ................................................................................................................. 365 Potential Crop Cycles ..................................................................................................... 365 Procurement ................................................................................................................... 366 Economics ...................................................................................................................... 366 Environmental Assessment .............................................................................................. 366 Local and Governing Laws ............................................................................................. 366 Farm Design .................................................................................................................. 368 Propagation and Planting Material Development ....................................................... 368

Vegetative Propagation .................................................................................................. 375 Cuttings .......................................................................................................................... 376 Budding and Grafting ..................................................................................................... 377 Micro-propagation and Tissue Culture............................................................................ 377 Fertilisers ....................................................................................................................... 383

Murray Hunter x

Pest and Disease Control ................................................................................................ 383 Weed Control ................................................................................................................. 384 Field Development Preparation and Planting .......................................................... 384

Fire Breaks..................................................................................................................... 388 Planting ......................................................................................................................... 389 Plant Populations and Spacings ...................................................................................... 390 Determining the Optimum Cultivation Parameters through Research and Demonstration

Plots ............................................................................................................................... 391 Crop Field Maintenance ............................................................................................. 394

Fertilisers ....................................................................................................................... 395 Weed Control ................................................................................................................. 399 Pest and Disease Control ................................................................................................ 407 The Level of Farm Mechanisation ............................................................................. 413 The Size of Farm Machinery ...................................................................................... 418 Harvesting .................................................................................................................. 422 Selection and Design of Extraction System ............................................................... 426

Distillation Effluent ........................................................................................................ 436 Potential By-Products from the Distillation Process ........................................................ 436 Storage Facilities ........................................................................................................ 437 Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) ............................................................................. 439 Financial Modelling, Feasibility and Evaluation ........................................................ 442 References .................................................................................................................. 448

The Organic Production of Essential Oils ...................................................................... 460 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 460 Basic Organic Farming Concepts and Practices ......................................................... 470 Crop Rotation ............................................................................................................. 472 Cover Crops and Green Manures ............................................................................... 472 Animal Manures ......................................................................................................... 475 Intercropping .............................................................................................................. 476 Composting ................................................................................................................ 480 Mulching .................................................................................................................... 484 Crop Diversity ............................................................................................................ 486 Natural Fertilizers, Minerals and Supplements .......................................................... 487 Insect and Disease Control ......................................................................................... 490

Biorational Pesticides ..................................................................................................... 496 Particle Film Barriers .................................................................................................... 497 Insecticidal Soaps and Plant Oils .................................................................................... 497 Botanical Pesticides........................................................................................................ 498 Weed Control ............................................................................................................. 501 Tillage......................................................................................................................... 504 Farmscaping ............................................................................................................... 505 Planning and Site Selection ........................................................................................ 505 Certification ................................................................................................................ 507 Integrity and Record Keeping .................................................................................... 509 Organic Farming in the Asia-Pacific Region ............................................................. 509 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 510 References .................................................................................................................. 511

The Application of Essential Oils................................................................................... 524

Introduction: The Development Issues xi

Introduction ................................................................................................................ 524 The Classification of Odours ...................................................................................... 525

The Floral Family........................................................................................................... 528 The Woody Family .......................................................................................................... 529 The Animalic Family....................................................................................................... 530 The Balsamic Family ...................................................................................................... 530 The Agrestic Family ........................................................................................................ 531 The Coniferous Family ................................................................................................... 531 The Marine Family ......................................................................................................... 531 The Aldehydic Family ..................................................................................................... 532 The Medicated Family .................................................................................................... 532 The Fruity Family ........................................................................................................... 532 The Citrus Family ........................................................................................................... 533 The Green Family ........................................................................................................... 533 The Mint Family ............................................................................................................. 534 The Spicy Family ............................................................................................................ 534 The Herbaceous Family .................................................................................................. 535 The Classification of Flavours.................................................................................... 538 The Structure of a Fragrance ...................................................................................... 541 New Products and Fragrance Development ............................................................... 544

Flavours ......................................................................................................................... 552 The New Product Development Process .................................................................... 556 Types of New Products .............................................................................................. 561

Product Life Cycles ........................................................................................................ 565 Ideation ....................................................................................................................... 568 Idea Screening and Opportunity Identification .......................................................... 570

Concept Generation ........................................................................................................ 575 The Development and Launch Process ............................................................................ 590 Manufacturing Plant Design ........................................................................................... 590 A Case Example of Developing an In-cistern Blue Block Production System (Toilet

Blue Water Block) ............................................................................................................. 592 The Development of the Molding Process ........................................................................ 593 The Development of the Extrusion Process ............................................................... 597 The Final Aspects of the Development and Launch ................................................... 600

Intellectual Property ....................................................................................................... 600 Cosmetics and Personal Care Products ...................................................................... 606 The Case for Natural Fragrances ................................................................................ 614

Natural Fragrances as Multifunctional Ingredients ......................................................... 624 The Future Prospects of Supply....................................................................................... 624 Natural Perfumery ...................................................................................................... 626

Aromatherapy ................................................................................................................. 626 Household Products .................................................................................................... 634

Laundry Products ........................................................................................................... 634 Pine Oil Disinfectants ..................................................................................................... 638 Insecticides and Repellents ......................................................................................... 639 Mosquito and Incense Coils ............................................................................................ 642 Air Fresheners ................................................................................................................ 642 Orange Oil and d-Limonene Cleaners ............................................................................. 643 Agricultural Chemicals ............................................................................................... 644

Essential Oil Based Fungicides/Insecticides .................................................................... 646

Murray Hunter xii

Natural Anti-Stress Preparations from Betaines and Essential Oils ................................. 647 Essential Oils in Soap Bases ........................................................................................... 647 Plant Extracts: Pyrethrums ............................................................................................. 649 White Oils ...................................................................................................................... 649 Herbicides ...................................................................................................................... 650 Pharmaceutical Products ............................................................................................ 650 Natural Isolates and Aroma Chemicals ...................................................................... 653 Distribution Strategies ................................................................................................ 657

Agro-Tourism ................................................................................................................. 661 Fairtrade ........................................................................................................................ 663 Niche Products for Niche Markets................................................................................... 665 Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) ........................................................................ 666 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) ............................................. 671 Standards .................................................................................................................... 672

Organic and Ecological Product Certification ................................................................ 674 Halal and Kosher Certifications ...................................................................................... 678 Environmental Compliance ............................................................................................. 683 Occupational Health and Safety (OSHA) ......................................................................... 683 The Holistic and Focused Enterprise .......................................................................... 686 References .................................................................................................................. 690

Enterprise Viability and New Crop Potential ................................................................. 704 Introduction A Re-look at Opportunity and Personal Goals .................................. 704 Wild Collection .......................................................................................................... 707 Subsistence Farming................................................................................................... 708 Cooperatives ............................................................................................................... 710 Community Development Projects ............................................................................. 712 Small to Medium Family Farms ................................................................................. 714 Large Scale Farm/Plantation ...................................................................................... 715 Producing Essential Oils as a By-Product .................................................................. 715 New Essential Oil Crops ............................................................................................ 719 Some Interesting Crops .............................................................................................. 727 References .................................................................................................................. 749

PREFACE

The essential oil industry is under threat from numerous issues at present. Rising

agricultural input costs, particularly petrochemical based fertilizers and fuels are squeezing

farmers profit margins. Rising food prices and the increasing value of housing and industrial

land prices is creating competition for land, particularly around populated areas. Adverse

weather conditions and changing climate are creating both short and long term problems.

Poor crop yields are occurring much more regularly than before because of unusually heavy

rain, hail, floods, heat-waves and cold snaps. Climate change is affecting long term yields due

to increasing plant stress caused by warmer temperatures. As many temperate areas are

becoming drought affected, crop cultivation is becoming more difficult as irrigated water is

becoming extremely scarce. This is threatening the very survival of many enterprises and

industries in their present locations.

Industry change through takeovers is increasing buyer concentration, making it more

difficult for small firms to survive in the industry. Technology change requires continuous

learning and development of new techniques which change the way products are

manufactured. Increasing consumer scrutiny, changes in taste and increasing sophistication in

developing markets are creating shorter product lifecycles, requiring companies to spend

more on product development. Last but not least, a rapidly tightening regional regulatory

environment is increasing the costs of introducing new materials and products into the

marketplace.

However, notwithstanding the threats and challenges mentioned above, opportunities still

exist in the essential oil industry. In fact, the issues mentioned above can increase the

propensity of opportunities to evolve inside the industry, if one knows where to look and how

to evaluate their potential.

The essential oil industry is far from being monolithic. It can be seen more as a group of

overlapping segments of other industries, which are related by the nature of the product

natural aromatic compounds. Its agricultural component would include the collection of

biomass from the wild, the cultivation of selected flora in the field or the collection of by-

products from other activities like timber logging or citrus fruit production. Manufacturers in

the essential oil industry use essential oils and other natural aromatic materials to produce a

number of value added products which include flavours and fragrances, fine fragrance,

cosmetics, household, pharmaceutical, agro-chemical and aromatherapy products. These

products are promoted, marketed, sold, transferred, shipped and consumed through various

Murray Hunter xiv

levels of the supply and value chains. Finally, the public sector component plays a role in

both research and regulation at a local, national and international level, both on policy and

specific issues.

Yet with all the attention that has been given to essential oils in the past, the reality must

be stated essential oil production will never become a major crop or contributor to any

agricultural economy. It is a niche industry, an alternative crop to any mainstream agricultural

portfolio in any country. Also, in the flavour and fragrance, cosmetic, household product,

pharmaceutical (although nearly 70% of pharmaceuticalactive compounds have been

synthesized from the inspiration of natural compounds), and agro-chemical industries,

essential oils in an aggregate sense only play a minor part in the composition and formulary

of products in those industries. Only in aromatherapy are essential oils the main ingredient in

product formulatory. This scenario will never change. The importance of essential oils lies in

the role they play in linking industries, which makes their economic contribution substantial

as ingredients in flavours and fragrances, as ingredients in cosmetics and household products,

and as starting materials of prime active ingredients in pharmaceuticals and agro-chemicals

like pesticides and fungicides. There is no doubt however that essential oils lead to great

passion and take on a major role in the branding of many products.

This leads to another point. There is a vast amount of misleading and wrong information

about essential oils and the industry. This can be widely found in media articles, the internet,

papers presented to conferences and even books. There are a number of consultants around

that base their advice on sometime misinformed premises and old industry paradigms. Some

of the organizations involved in the essential oil industry, particularly those representing

traders, sometimes appear to be contributing to industry mythology and have encouraged an

elitist approach to those considered outsiders to the industry.

Many people who are attracted to some part of the essential oil industry, whether

production or application is based on passion, emotion and infatuation, rather than business

logic and sense. This can be a dangerous and delusional footing.

The failure rate of those setting up essential oil production ventures is outstandingly high.

It is also sad that many of these failures involve community groups, led by some consultants

advice. For far too long essential oil markets been analysed on an economic basis, rather than

a niche entrepreneurial opportunity.

Although business failure rates have been high among producers, a number of success

stories exist. These are usually about companies producing cosmetics and aromatherapy

ranges utilizing essential oils. Many new aromatherapy, cosmetic and agro-chemical pesticide

and fungicide products are being launched onto market. A number of companies within a

short space of time have grown into international suppliers of essential oil based products.

These companies have been at the innovative forefronts of their respective industries.

Thus innovation would appear a prerequisite of success, especially with changing

consumer tastes, lifestyles and product expectations. This certainly supports the argument that

the essential oil industry should be viewed in the entrepreneurial paradigm to see if more

sense and understanding can be gained which is what this book will try to do.

With the term technology taken simply to mean a way or means to do something, then

new technology means a new way or means to do something. In that light, it is certainly worth

examining how things are done at farm level to produce essential oils, i.e., propagation,

planting, crop maintenance, harvesting and extraction. Becoming competitive and developing

a source of competitive advantage in essential oil production may have more to do with new

Preface xv

technology introduction than with labour cost advantages. Many methods of propagation,

planting, maintenance, harvesting and extraction have been developed with knowledge built

more upon learning from trial and error on the part of entrepreneurial farmers than taking

stock solutions off a shelf somewhere. Through the observation of operational essential oil

ventures, successful technology would appear in many cases to be homegrown solutions in

response to specific farm level problems. Add to that the rapid growth of biotechnology and

the emphasis on the molecular level with nano-technology - technology issues are going to

continue in their importance. An entrepreneurial approach may help to understand and

manage this.

There have been many books written on essential oils which have placed the word art in

their titles. This has been in recognition of the creativity needed to construct a fragrance or

perfume, sometimes paralleled with the artist or the musician. However the concept of art can

be extended to the business of essential oils. Business commentators now tend to call business

an art, rather than a science. In business there are many ways to achieve an end or objective

and a multiplicity of strategies that can be used in any particular situation. The metaphor of

the art of strategy is maybe more applicable. Agriculture can also be an art form in that there

are also a number of ways to achieve an end. If we view landscapes, which are part of an eco-

system as art, then utilizing the land in a sustainable way may also be considered an art form.

Sustainable solutions to agricultural problems would seem to be much more important than

before. Hopefully this book will provide the reader some insights into the art of essential oils

in the wider, rather than the narrower sense.

The development of essential oils and related products requires some knowledge in

botany, natural product and phyto-chemistry, analytical chemistry, agronomy,

thermodynamics and chemical engineering, agricultural and mechanical engineering,

economics, supply chain management, accounting, finance, organization, marketing, new

product development, cosmetic, household product, and pesticide chemistry, farm and

industrial management, human resource and project management. In addition skills in the

areas of opportunity identification and evaluation, strategy selection, development and

enactment are required. An ability to negotiate and present ideas to various stakeholders is

also important. Thus developing essential oils or an essential oil related product requires a

true multi-disciplinary approach. The entrepreneur in this industry must be a jack of all

trades to understand and find solutions to the issues he or she will encounter. It is through

inter-disciplinary thinking that new products will come to the market.

At the product level where changing consumer tastes, expectations and lifestyles

influence what is required, coupled with more distribution channel avenues and a dramatic

increase in new regulation around the world, new product forms, branding linkages,

organizational form, and channel utilization requires new knowledge to be applied. These

changes require new thinking in the industry and this may not be based on the same

conventional thinking of the past. This would seem to be of advantage to small companies,

where the larger multinationals have tended to follow and take ideas onboard, once someone

else has proven them successful.

I have been lucky and privileged to have had the opportunity to be involved in as so

many aspects of the essential oil industry as I have. Discovering new compounds in plants

was an exciting time, requiring a massive and focused effort with only a remote chance of

finding something that may be commercially interesting. Domesticating plants from the wild

presented a number of challenges as well researching the ability of selected aromatic crops in

Murray Hunter xvi

adapting to different geographical locations and climates. There was great excitement about

designing and developing harvest and distillation systems, especially when they are fully

commissioned in working condition. As equally challenging was designing suitable field

drainage and irrigation infrastructures for farms that can handle the quantity of water falling

during a tropical storm without carrying away the top soil or able to irrigate a field during the

dry months. One of the most important and satisfying challenges of late with the high cost of

diesel was designing and commissioning alternative fuel systems to power steam generation

for a distillation operation in a sustainable way. Learning how to construct a fragrance,

responding to fragrance brief and having my creation selected by a customer always brought a

great sense of pride and satisfaction. Developing new products for consumer markets through

the process of nurturing the concept, finding the materials, evaluating packaging concepts and

designing the method of production, and finally turning it into the reality was at the envelope

of excitement and satisfaction. The sell in and the drama of waiting for the consumer to give

their approval on the product through their purchases is something no one forgets. Traveling,

meeting people, attending conferences, visiting markets and walking around a farm are all

fulfilling activities for those involved in essential oils.

Having been in and around the essential oil and allied industries for many years and

knowing many of the legendary people within it encouraged me to write about the industry. I

recognize that this book will bring some criticisms from some quarters, but if criticism is

feared and prevents ideas being put forward, then there will be no advance in knowledge.

This book reflects much of these experiences and it is written as I understand the issues

sometimes as a layman and sometimes as an expert, but always within the theme of being a

jack of all trades, with an attempt to inject interdisciplinary insights into issues and

challenges that development, production, marketing and management bring forward. As such,

this book has attempted to look at product, market, industry and technical issues involved to

assist the reader in their situation overcome their specific barriers to entry, so that they can

create something of value to the industry a trait that is needed to survive in any sustainable

way in business today. Hopefully this book helps the reader make sense of things.

I hope that students undertaking subjects like business and entrepreneurship, agriculture,

bio-systems engineering and chemistry are able to benefit from this book. I hope that this

book can assist farmers and potential farmers make decisions about what aromatic crops they

invest in. I hope this book provides some insights to researchers in the natural product

chemistry and agronomic areas. I also hope this book can assist those wishing to develop

aromatherapy, cosmetic, household, pharmaceutical and agro-chemical pesticide and

herbicide products. I hope this book can assist the reader understand the industry better, the

business involved, the challenges that it brings and develop ideas to help solve some of these

problems.

The structure and content of this book is as follows:

Chapter One introduces the definitions relevant to crude products produced by the

industry. The size of the market is calculated and apportioned between each product/market

segment. The rest of the introduction sets the background of the industry and discusses some

of the contemporary problems and issues associated with it.

Chapter Two discusses the structure and interrelationships of the industry. This is

undertaken more from a macro point of view so that concepts like derived demand and the

influence of synthetic materials can be understood by the reader. This chapter also looks at

Preface xvii

world essential oil production centres and the various types of essential oil production. The

role of essential oils and flavour and fragrance materials in the market typology of consumer

products is also introduced. Finally the chapter looks at the essential oil value chain.

Chapter Three takes a closer look at essential oil production in the South-East Asia-

Pacific region, focusing on Australia, New Zealand and South-East Asia. Recent international

published research undertaken in each country is also outlined.

Chapter Four and Five are two technical chapters which introduce phyto-chemistry and

the theory behind the extraction of essential oils. These are important technical areas where

any potential practitioner should have some understanding of the basic principals. Chapter

Four explains the role of essential oils in plants as secondary metabolites. The various classes

of essential oils are explained with a number of examples of natural aroma chemicals found in

plants. Chapter Four also introduces the basic methods of essential oil analysis. Chapter Five

explains the basic theories of distillation, solvent and CO2 extraction and the traditional

method of enfluerage.

The next three chapters (Six, Seven and Eight) are concerned directly with the concepts

of screening potential essential oils for viability to develop commercially and create a

development plan. Chapter Six specifically looks at the issues involved in developing a new

crop to a farmer or potential farmer, emphasizing what specific information is required to

make decisions. The chapter also introduces the concept of risk and challenges. The potential

reasons for success and failure are outlined, as well as showing the range of possible

development strategies for a project to pursue. Finally this chapter looks at potential products

that can be developed for different levels in the value chain, with corresponding potential

entry strategies.

Chapter Seven is primarily concerned with the screening and evaluation process and

discusses the regulatory environment in detail. Chapter Eight returns to an industry analysis

to assist in the development of a strategic plan, using a number of tools. This chapter

integrates both the business and technical aspects of the project together so that a

comprehensive overall operational plan can be created.

Chapter Nine is concerned with the field issues of essential oil development. Agriculture

is first introduced as a system and the issue of climate change and the potential consequences

are discussed. The chapter then outlines the project preparation phase, the selection of genetic

material, seed collection, the improvement of genetic material, land selection, propagation

and planting, field development, crop maintenance, harvesting and extraction. The chapter

finishes off with a discussion about Good Agriculture Practice (GAP) and financial modeling

of the project.

Chapter Ten examines the organic production of essential oils. The size and growth of the

organic industry is examined and the various continuum of farming are discussed. The rest of

the chapter looks at the basic organic farming concepts and practices including crop rotation,

cover crops and green manures, animal manures, intercropping, composting, mulching, crop

diversity, natural fertilizers, minerals and supplements, insect and disease control, weed

control, tillage and farmscaping. The planning and site selection issues are looked at before

briefly examining the certification process and extent of organic farming in the Asia-Pacific

region.

Chapter Eleven looks at the application of essential oils. The chapter begins with an

overview of the classification of odours and flavours. The structure of a fragrance and the

development of perfumes are described. The process of developing flavours is briefly

Murray Hunter xviii

discussed. The chapter then goes into the new product development process in detail,

exploring the concepts of a systems approach to product development, creativity, innovation

and opportunity required in ideation, the development of the product concept and prototype,

market and product planning, the development of the formulation and manufacturing system

and the eventual product launch. The chapter then looks at each product/industry segment

utilizing essential oils including cosmetic and personal care products, natural perfumery,

household products, agricultural products, pharmaceuticals and natural aroma chemicals and

other isolates. The next part of the chapter examines potential distribution strategies, Good

Manufacturing Practice (GMP), HACCP, Standards, Occupational Health and Safety

(OSHA), environmental compliance and certification schemes. Finally the concept of the

holistic and focused enterprise is introduced.

Chapter Twelve integrates enterprise viability with new crop potential, arguing that the

type of production organisation will influence what type of crop is viable to select. The

concept of opportunity within the framework of personal goals is re-examined. The remainder

of this chapter and book looks at criteria to examine new essential oils and finishes with a

number of mini-monographs on plants of interest to the author.

Most books tell the reader how to cultivate essential oil crops. This book attempts to help

the reader select what crops to develop.

I would have liked to elaborate and explore a number of issues in more detail than I had,

but size of the manuscript led to making choices and my own research into these issues is still

in its infancy. These issues include exploring alternative energy sources for extraction of

natural materials from plants, including solar distillation, boiler design and fabrication, the

modification of existing farm equipment to perform new roles particularly in the harvesting

area, the development of low cost micro-propagation facilities, and the utilization of enzymes

in agronomy, extraction and transformations. I hope sometime in the future further

contributions can be made by the writer.

I hope this book leads to a better understanding of the issues involved in developing new

essential oil ventures. Certainly I have tried to emphasize the need for innovation at both the

technical and business model level to assist in creating product differentiation for the

potential practitioner.

Please note the author has not followed strict botanical nomenclature where names

familiar to the industry have been used. For any incorrect and misleading material in this

book I do sincerely apologize and welcome correction. I also apologize for any grammatical

errors in the manuscript.

Murray Hunter

Hat Yai

Songkhla

Thailand

10th

February 2009

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Life is often considered a journey, where knowledge, experience and insights are gained

through where you are, what you are doing and who you meet up with. I have been lucky to

have a long fulfilling journey, which has made it possible to complete this book.

I was born into an entrepreneurial family in Melbourne Australia late in 1958. My

grandfather, Mr. Len Hunter Senior was a self made chemist, inventor and entrepreneur

extraordinaire. He invented the product Pine O Clean, a pine oil based disinfectant in the

1930s and was given an exemption to import American pine oil during the Second World

War to supply the US troops stationed in Australia at the time. Len sold Pine O Clean,

along with Oxford Shoe Polish to Reckitt and Colman in 1956 for the sum of One Million

Pounds. This was an extremely large figure at the time for the family and part of this money

was invested to form Hunters Products Pty Ltd, which manufactured household cleaning,

personal care, gardening, pool care and institutional products up until the 1980s when again

the company, a household name in Australian cleaning, was sold again to Reckitt-Benkaiser.

During the height of the family era, the household division of the group was run by my

father Mr. Alan Hunter, who had great influence upon me. My father took me under his wing,

always taking me to the factory during the weekends and in latter years during my teens to

sales calls all over the country. It was with my father I first came into contact with top

executives and even owners of companies like Dragoco, Drom, Monsanto, ICI, Haarman &

Reimer, Kao, The Andrew Jergens Company, Kiwi and many others. This was a period of

great excitement for me, which opened up many different aspects of the industry.

Two of the people I very fondly remember from that time were Mr. Eric Floyd, the

Southern Sales Manager of Dragoco and Mr. Hans de Jong, the Victorian Sales Manager of

Haarman & Reimer. Both of them gave me very firm ideas about essential oils and

fragrances.

With Hunters household division going to Reckitt-Benkaiser I went out on my own

forming a company called New Approach Products Pty Ltd in Melbourne during 1988. This

company manufactured toilet cleaners, soaps, garden insecticide and air fresheners. In seeking

to create greater competitive advantage for our air freshener range, mainly sold under generic

supermarket brands, the concept of blending our own fragrances came to mind and we were

in the flavour and fragrance business. At that time I met with Mr. Brian Brennan of Brennan

Aromatics and developed a close relationship with him as a shareholder of his company. It

was with Brian I picked up some of the practicalities of creating fragrances.

It was around the same time that my interest of producing essential oils developed. I

learnt a lot from Fred Bienvenu of the Ovens Research Station, Victorian Department of

Murray Hunter 2

Agriculture during our time together developing Polygonum odoratum as a new essential oil

crop. I also thank Professor Glywn Jones of the Department of Food and Nutrition, Deakin

University, Geelong, Victoria for inviting me to join their research group on basil oils at the

time.

During the early 1990s, not only did I see South East Asia as a potential market, but a

source of essential oils. It was Dr. Erich Lassak who encouraged me to be bold in introducing

new crops to South East Asia. John Reece took me under his wing and we travelled all over

Australia and South East Asia together visiting plantations, attending conferences and trying

to set up projects in Malaysia. I also thank the late Djohan Napati, President of PT Djsula

Wangi in Jakarta for opening up his plantations and business to me. I also thank the Late Mr.

Karim Yaacob for the time we spent together travelling around Malaysia looking at potential

new essential oil crops.

I would like to greatly thank Tan Sri Dr. Yusof, the former Director General of the

Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) and Tan Sri Dr.

Hamid Bin Pawan Teh, the former Chief Minister of Perlis (now President of the Malaysian

Senate) for giving me an opportunity to develop a tea tree plantation in the Northern part of

Malaysia during the early 1990s. I also remember the time Mr. Mansor Puteh and myself

spent on convincing people to try tea tree as a serious crop in Malaysia. I am also indebted to

other members of the team including Mr. Malik and Tunku Kassim of MARDI and Mr.

Hasnan Abdul Kudus of the Perlis State Economic Development Corporation.

Other people I would like to thank for ideas and insights are Professor Chia Hock Hwa, a

former director of Kao Singapore, Mr Steven S. F. Yeow also of Singapore, and Professor

Zuriati Zakaria of the Faculty of Science, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia for her suggestions

on Chapter Four. My UniMAP colleagues Professor Mohd. Nor Bin Ahmed and Associate

Professor Mahmad Bin Jaafar, who both made always great contributions to my thoughts. Mr.

Jim Gobert of Unifect Foods, Sydney for his ideas about the industry and Mr. Anas Ahmad

Nasarudin of Marditech Corporation Sdn. Bhd. for his assistance over the years. Thank you

to Mr. Stuart Mason Parker of the Faculty of Law, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai,

Thailand for reading parts of the manuscript. Associate Professor Mohariff Bin Shariffs help

on writing style was invaluable in helping me working through parts of this monograph. I

would also like to thank my wife Kittirat Yothangrong for what she taught me about herbs,

the soil and sustainable farming, which had a big influence on chapter 10.

I would like to thank the Vice Chancellor of University Malaysia Perlis Brig. General

Professor Dato Dr. Kamaruddin Hussin, who had faith in me to become an academic and

supported my activities and writing this book. Finally, thanks to Ms. Suraya Binti Mat Ros,

my secretary, who ran the SME Unit while I spent countless weeks and months writing this

manuscript.

Introduction: The Development Issues 3

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION: THE DEVELOPMENT ISSUES

Chapter one presents a basic introduction to the issues of essential oil development. The

chapter begins with a discussion about the difficulties of estimating the aggregate farm-gate

value of global essential oil production. The various types of natural aromatic materials are

defined. The chapter then goes onto a discussion of some of the major issues facing essential

oils, including global warming, the food, rural and financial crisis, market turbulence, wild

collection and threatened plant species, the bargaining power of producers, the regulatory

environment, and the templating of natural molecules for synthesis rather than for cultivation

and extraction. The chapter then turns to outlining the factors that contribute to success or

failure in essential oil development and the importance of making accurate project

assumptions and estimates. These include planning and opportunity issues, management and

organizational issues, financial issues, technical issues, marketing issues, fate and nature.

Finally, a model outlining the potential strategic success factors is presented.

INTRODUCTION

Good Essential oil cultivation is based on a knowledge intensive production system. The

essential oil sector within any countrys agricultural base will never become a major industry

in value terms, but it is one of the most complex ones. Although the essential oil industry is

very small in aggregate terms, its influence stretches far beyond the agricultural sector.

Essential oils are materials used in a number of dynamic consumer and niche industrial

markets. The industry is undergoing rapid structural transformation from a craft orientated

base to a modern multi-national orientated industry with very sophisticated supply chains.

Essential oil usage has also widened into a number of smaller fragmented applications, which

include natural perfumery, aromatherapy and bio-active agricultural chemicals. Both

production geography and operational practices are changing, influenced by a number of

factors that will be explained in this chapter.

Today, new essential oil based ventures usually start in one of two major ways. The first

case is where private entrepreneurs find and respond to market opportunities. Their responses

to these opportunities can be quite complex and very different from traditional producers.

Private entrepreneurs may not be satisfied just producing a crude oil. They may involve

themselves in the higher value product/market activities along the supply chain. The second

case is where the government through an agency may initiate research and development of an

essential oil crop for the purposes of disseminating technology, planting stock, operational

methods and market connections to local farmers to exploit. A variation on this could be a

community development project funded by an NGO. In both cases, the initiator will promote

the formation of farmer alliances and/or cooperatives to improve the chances of success.

Unfortunately, many community projects fail to develop their full potential or even

collapse. This occurs for a number of reasons. Reasons outside the farmers control include

Murray Hunter 4

competition, weather and collapses in prices. Other causes of failure may develop because of

structural faults, i.e., issues not properly considered when the project was conceptualised.

These may include failure to continue production in a sustainable manner once external

assistance has ceased, reliance on external people for motivation with no local champion to

continue momentum in the farmer group, failure in dealing adequately with external

competition, or failure to maintain collaborative links with other stakeholders such as

research institutions. Reasons for failure within farmers control include poor management or

diverging objectives and agendas by stakeholders.

Agriculture is traditionally considered an activity undertaken within a static system that is

very slow and resistant to change. The reality is that agriculture is in a state of flux and

transformation like many other industries. Agriculture is transforming itself from a

commodity driven to a consumer and market driven activity. A recent World Bank report on

agricultural innovation identified six areas of change that will drive agriculture in the coming

decades. The report cites;

1. That future development will rely on market and not production orientated

approaches to the agricultural sector,

2. Changes in production methods are now rapid and unpredictable, due to changing

technologies and ease of technology transfer,

3. Agricultural supply chains are now very dynamic, where there is a greater propensity

to create direct producer- retailer or producer-user relationships,

4. The private sector is the driving force of new knowledge and technology into the

sector,

5. Information and communications technologies are having profound affects upon

communities taking advantage of knowledge generated in other places, technology

transfer and producer-customer relationships, and

6. Agricultural venture development is being increasingly undertaken with globalised,

rather than local orientations [1].

This implies that selecting essential oil crops can be better undertaken through a market

driven crop selection process, based on product development and customer driven

management, rather than a commodity approach.

THE SIZE OF THE ESSENTIAL OIL INDUSTRY

Any accurate assessment of the aggregate size of the international essential oil industry is

extremely difficult. World production of essential oils is very fragmented, much of it in

tropical equatorial regions that are not easily accessible to transport. Communications

infrastructure is weak or even non-existent. A large quantity of essential oils are produced at

subsistence level and collected from farms by individuals who sell the oil onto wholesalers.

Producers are remote from the major towns and cities of Government administrations, where

organization is poor. Language is yet another barrier to communication, where all the above

factors combined hinder any accurate measurement of essential oil production.

Introduction: The Development Issues 5

The difficulty in measuring essential oil production is further complicated by the

differing statistical classification systems various countries use to tabulate production. The

harmonized system of customs codes only identifies around half a dozen individual essential

oils. Where essential oils are small, production figures may be grouped together with other

miscellaneous activities, thus not showing up directly in statistics. Essential oil production

will most likely be aggregated with herb and other natural product production.

Accurate counting is also difficult because of the unstable nature of production, where

production figures may differ greatly from year to year. This occurs from poor weather,

natural disasters, insurgencies, wars, and other national disturbances, crop disease and

droughts, which only make the accounting of aggregate supply figures more difficult.

Essential oil traders hold stocks and can distort the market through the selling of their

inventories in times of shortage and buying up extra product in times of production surpluses.

Most agreements between producers and traders at farm-gate level are confidential and

undisclosed.

Doubt exists whether essential oil sales through the internet are statistically recorded.

Most oils sold and sent through the postal system are high value/low volume oils, which will

only have nominal values attached to customs forms. For example, one kilogram of rose Otto

may be sold for a few thousand US Dollars, but the nominal value recorded may only be a

few US Dollars.

Finally, currency values will also distort production values due to fluctuating exchange

rates and parities between different producing countries. As most essential oil production

occurs outside of the United States, currency conversions have to be made, where the final

figure will be greatly influenced by the exchange rate at the time. For example, if aggregate

essential oil farm-gate production in Australia is valued at AUD 25.0 million in June 2008 at

an exchange rate of 1.04, Australian aggregate farm-gate production would be valued at USD

24 million at that time. However if the conversion was made at the end of November 2008 at

a rate of 1.55, Australian aggregate farm-gate production would be valued at USD 16.20

million, almost one-third less than June in the same year, even though physical production is

the same.

The authors estimate of the farm-gate aggregate value (in USD) of World essential oil

production was USD 1,480 in 2008. Essential oil usage can be divided into a) flavour and

fragrance, b) aromatherapy, c) pharmaceutical, d) intermediates, e) agrochemicals and f)

cosmetics. This is shown in Figure 1.1. Aggregate essential oil production is increasing, but

each sector is growing at different rates. Aggregate growth is around 8-10.0% per annum.

Even with major consumer product manufacturers espousing natural products in their

marketing campaigns, the use of essential oils in fragrance compounds, as a percentage of the

formula, has declined over the last several decades [2]. This is partly the result of US

manufacturers being allowed to call synthetic aroma chemicals nature identical, if they are

chemically the same to those found in nature. This is a factor preventing more essential oil

usage in flavour formulations. However, there is still growth in the aggregate volume of

essential oils supplied to the flavour and fragrance sector because of overall growth in

worldwide demand for perfumed and flavoured products.

Murray Hunter 6

Cosmetics,

USD 90 M, 6%

Agrochemicals,

USD 150 M, 10%

Intermediates, USD

120 M, 8%

Pharmaceuticals,

USD 220 M 15%

Aromatherapy

USD 250 M 17%

Flavour &

Fragrance, USD

650 M, 44%

Figure 1.1. Estimate of the World Farm-gate Value of Essential Oil Production (USD) in 2008.

The aromatherapy market had enjoyed rapid growth until it stalled in the beginning of the

1990s. Aromatherapy has become much more closely aligned with cosmetics, natural

perfumery and other traditional medicines, which has brought this sector into growth again.

Some cosmetic categories, including cosmoceuticals and organic products are enjoying very

high growth rates. Some pharmaceutical products now fit into cosmetic categories, as

pharmaceutical and cosmetic companies regularly compete against each other. It is now much

harder to distinguish the differences between many cosmetics and pharmaceuticals as both

types of products provide the same consumer benefits. Another sector enjoying very high

growth is the agricultural chemical market, where new companies are developing fungicides,

pesticides and herbicides using essential oils as active ingredients.

Although the essential oil production is increasing, the growth of individual oils may bare

little relationship to the overall trend. Within a given year some essential oils will drastically

decline in production because of adverse weather conditions, natural disasters or political

events, only to return to production levels a season or two later. Other essential oils will

slowly decline in production over a long number of years because of the availability of

cheaper substitutes, the exhaustion of supply from wild collection and restriction of use

through increasing regulation.

As supply patterns change and materials become unavailable, users are forced to make

compensatory changes to the oils they use, thereby changing demand patterns. Shortages will

force users to switch to substitutes. When a shortage is overcome users may be very hesitant

to return to the original oil, due to the effort involved in changing back product formulations.

Demand also changes as the relative prices of substitutes move in relation to each other.

Verlet pointed out that production tends to cluster in areas because of three basic reasons.

Firstly some production centres have a long history of production with a supportive social

structure. This is the case in Morocco, Turkey and Egypt in the production of rose, jasmine

Introduction: The Development Issues 7

and cumin oils. Secondly, large multi-national companies have intervened and promoted the

development of an industry. This was the case with patchouli production in Brazil. Thirdly,

production serves a large domestic market, which enables it to sustain itself. This is the case

of some essential oil production in China, India and the US [3].

A large number of essential oils are produced by a) small-holder farmers usually at a

subsistence level, b) the gathering and processing of wild plants by subsistence farmers, c)

small scale plantations, and d) large scale plantations. Other essential oils are produced as by-

products of other primary products. Examples include eucalyptus and pine oils from the

timber industry, and citrus oils from the processing of fruit juices in the citrus industry. Other

small farms and plantations may incorporate activities like agro-tourism into their sites to

improve profitability [4]. Long periods of low prices can bring volatility to the global

industry, encouraging countries like China, India and Vietnam to increase production at the

expense of less competitive countries like Tanzania, Ivory Coast and Madagascar.

Some companies may move up the supply chain and scale down their farm operations to

focus on higher value products. For example, Thursday Plantations in Northern NSW ceased

tea tree production to focus on agro-tourism and the marketing of tea tree oil based personal

care products. Today Thursday Plantation became a major buyer of tea tree oil and now sells

their products in over 40 countries [5].

Differing sources of competitive advantage underlie production in different regions,

which enables industry viability.

Countries like Brazil, China, India and Indonesia have large domestic markets. Their

competitive position is supported by a low production cost regime based on low cost labour

and/or high levels of mechanization to make them efficient. These countries control more

than half the worlds production in some of the oils they produce. Long established logistic

and trading infrastructure assists in maintaining a strong market position.

Producers in countries with a small domestic market are forced to focus on exports.

Production is limited to a small number of oils. Small existing industries develop with

financial and research support. Effective research allows them to develop optimum methods

of production to develop market competitiveness. These industries are usually located in ideal

physical and climatic conditions for the chosen crops.

Some producing countries have been able to maintain their position as a preferred

producer by producing exceptional quality oils. These oils become benchmarks in the

Flavour & Fragrance industry, such as Haiti Vetiver or Comoros Basil. This is reinforced long

term links with major trading companies or International flavour & fragrance houses.

Many distinct trends are occurring at the same time in the essential oil industry supply

chain. Ownership and management of flavour and fragrance houses is becoming very

concentrated. This has changed the craft or