Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire  or Mogul Empire, self-designated as Gurkani , was a Persianate empire

extending over large parts of the Indian subcontinent and ruled by

a dynasty of Chagatai Turco-Mongol  origin.

The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the founder Babur's victory

over Ibrahim Lodi, the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate in the First Battle of Panipat.

The Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turco-Mongols belonging to the Timurid dynasty,

who claimed direct descent from both Genghis Khan (founder of the Mongol Empire, through

his son Chagatai Khan) and Timur(founder of the Timurid Empire in Persia and Central Asia).

During the reign of Humayun, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by

the Sur Empire. The "classic period" of the Mughal Empire started in 1556 with the ascension

of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his son Jahangir, India enjoyed

economic progress as well as religious harmony, and the monarchs were interested in local

religious and cultural traditions. Akbar was a successful warrior. He also forged alliances with

several Hindu Rajput kingdoms. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat

to Mughal dominance of northwestern India, but they were subdued by Akbar. All Mughal

emperors were Muslims, except Akbar in the latter part of his life followed a new religion

called Deen-i-Ilahi, as recorded in historical books like Ain-e-Akbari and Dabestan-e Mazaheb.

The Mughal Empire did not try to intervene in the local societies during most of its existence,

but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices and diverse and

inclusive ruling elites, leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule. Newly

coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajputs, and

theSikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through

collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.

The reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He

erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well

as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi, and theLahore Fort. The

Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of Aurangzeb and

also started its terminal decline in his reign due to Maratha military resurgence under Shivaji

Bhosale. During his lifetime, victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to more than

3.2 million square kilometres (1.2 million square miles), ruling over more than 150 million

subjects, nearly 1/4th of the world's population, with a combined GDP of over $90 billion.

By the mid-18th century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies, and won over several

Mughal provinces from the Punjab toBengal, and internal dissatisfaction arose due to the

weakness of the Mughal Empire's administrative and economic systems, leading to the break-

up of the empire and declaration of independence of its former provinces by the Nawabs

of Bengal, Oudh, the Nizam of Hyderabad, Shah of Afghanistan and other small states. In

1739, the Mughals were crushingly defeated in the Battle of Karnal by the forces of Nader

Shah, the founder of the Afsharid dynasty in Persia, and Delhi was sacked and looted,

drastically accelerating their decline. During the following century Mughal power had become

severely limited and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, had authority over only the city

of Shahjahanabad. He issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and following

the defeat was therefore tried by the British East India Company for treason, imprisoned,

exiled to Rangoon and the last remnants of the empire were taken over by the British.

Etymology

Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid empire, which

reflected the heritage of his dynasty, and was the term preferred by the Mughals

themselves. Another name was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, and

which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire. In the west, the

term "Mughal" was used for the emperor, and by extension, the empire as a whole. The use of

Mughal, deriving from the Arabic and Persian corruption of Mongol, and emphasising the

Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty, gained currency during the nineteenth century, but

remains disputed by Indologists. Similar terms had been used to refer to the empire, including

"Mogul" and "Moghul". Nevertheless, Babur's ancestors were sharply distinguished from the

classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than Turco-

Mongol culture.

Babur

Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur (14 February 1483 – 26 December 1530; sometimes also

spelt Baber or Babar) was a conqueror from Central Asia who, following a series of setbacks,

finally succeeded in laying the basis for the Mughal dynasty in the Indian subcontinent and

became the first Mughal emperor. He was a direct descendant of Turco-Mongol

conqueror Timur(Timurlane) from the Barlas clan, through his father, and also a descendant

of Genghis Khan through his mother. He was also influenced by the Persian culture and this

affected both his own actions and those of his successors, giving rise to a significant

expansion of the Persianateethos in the Indian subcontinent.

Though born as Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, he was commonly known as Babur. He was

the eldest son of Umar Sheikh Mirza. He ascended the throne of Fergana in 1495 at the age

of twelve and faced rebellion from his own relatives. He conquered Samarkandtwo years later,

only to lose the city of Fergana soon after. In his attempt to reconquer it, he lost control of

Samarkand. In 1501, his attempt to recapture both cities went in vain as he was defeated

by Muhammad Shaybani Khan. In 1504, he conquered Kabul, which was under the rule of the

infant heir of Ulugh Begh. Babur formed a partnership with Safavid ruler Ismail I and

reconquered parts of central Asia including Samarkand, only to loseagain to the Uzbeks.

After losing the city for the third time, Babur turned his attention to creating his empire in north

India. At that time, north India was ruled by Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty. In 1524, Daulat

Khan Lodi invited his nephew, Babur, to overthrow Ibrahim and become ruler. Babur defeated

Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 and so founded the Mughal empire.

However, he again had to face opposition, this time from Rana Sanga of Mewar who

considered Babur as a foreigner. The Rana was defeated at the Battle of Khanwa.

Babur married several times. Notable among his sons are Humayun, Kamran

Mirza and Hindal Mirza. He died in 1530 and was succeeded by Humayun. According to

Babur's wishes, he was buried in Bagh-e-Babur at Kabul in Afghanistan. Being a patrilineal

descendant of Timur, Babur considered himself as a Timurid and Turk, though Uzbek sources

claim him as an ethnic Uzbek. He is considered a national hero in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan.

Many of his poems also have become popular folk songs. He wrote his

autobiography, Baburnama, in Chaghatai Turkic and this was later translated

to Persian during Akbar's reign.

Humayun

Humayun (Persian:  همایون محمد الدین OS 7 March 1508 – OS 27 January 1556) was the ;نصیر

second Mughal Emperor who ruled over territory in what is now Afghanistan, Pakistan, and

parts of northern India from 1531–1540 and again from 1555–1556. Like his father,Babur, he

lost his kingdom early, but regained it with the aid of the Safavid dynasty of Persia, with

additional territory. At the time of his death in 1556, the Mughal empire spanned almost one

million square kilometers.

Humayun succeeded his father in 1531, as ruler of the Mughal territories in the Indian

subcontinent. At the age of 23, Humayun was an inexperienced ruler when he came to power.

His half-brother Kamran Mirza inherited Kabul and Lahore, the more northern parts of their

father's empire. Mirza was to become a bitter rival of Humayun.

Humayun lost Mughal territories to the Pashtun noble, Sher Shah Suri, and, with

Persian(Safavid) aid, regained them 15 years later. Humayun's return from Persia was

accompanied by a large retinue of Persian noblemen and signaled an important change in

Mughal court culture. The Central Asian origins of the dynasty were largely overshadowed by

the influences of Persian art,architecture, language and literature. There are many stone

carvings and thousands of Persian manuscripts in India dating from the time of Humayun.

Subsequently, in a very short time, Humayun was able to expand the Empire further, leaving a

substantial legacy for his son, Akbar. His peaceful personality, patience and non-provocative

methods of speech earned him the title ’Insān-i-Kamil (Perfect Man), among the Mughals.[1]

Akbar

Abu'l-Fath Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar, popularly known as Akbar I (IPA: [əkbər], literally

"the great"; 15 October 1542– 27 October 1605) and later Akbar the Great (Urdu: Akbar-e-

Azam; literally "Great the Great"), was Mughal Emperor from 1556 until his death. He was the

third and one of the greatest rulers of the Mughal Dynasty in India. Akbar succeeded his

father, Humayun, under a regent, Bairam Khan, who helped the young emperor expand and

consolidate Mughal domains in India. A strong personality and a successful general, Akbar

gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include nearly all of the Indian Subcontinent north of

the Godavari river. His power and influence, however, extended over the entire country

because of Mughal military, political, cultural, and economic dominance. To unify the vast

Mughal state, Akbar established a centralised system of administration throughout his empire

and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage and diplomacy. In

order to preserve peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, he adopted

policies that won him the support of his non-Muslim subjects. Eschewing tribal bonds and

Islamic state identity, Akbar strived to unite far-flung lands of his realm through loyalty,

expressed through a Persianised culture, to himself as an emperor who had near-divine

status.

Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and

greater patronage of culture. Akbar himself was a patron of art and culture. He was fond of

literature, and created a library of over 24,000 volumes written

in Sanskrit,Hindustani, Persian, Greek, Latin, Arabic and Kashmiri, staffed by many scholars,

translators, artists, calligraphers, scribes, bookbinders and readers. Holy men of many faiths,

poets, architects and artisans adorned his court from all over the world for study and

discussion. Akbar's courts at Delhi, Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri became centers of the arts,

letters, and learning. Perso-Islamic culture began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian

elements, and a distinct Indo-Persian culture emerged characterised by Mughal style

arts, painting, and architecture. Disillusioned with orthodox Islam and perhaps hoping to bring

about religious unity within his empire, Akbar promulgated Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic creed derived

from Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity. A simple, monotheistic cult, tolerant in

outlook, it centered on Akbar as a prophet, for which he drew the ire of the ulema and

orthodox Muslims.

Akbar's reign significantly influenced the course of Indian history. During his rule, the Mughal

empire tripled in size and wealth. He created a powerful military system and instituted effective

political and social reforms. By abolishing the sectarian tax on non-Muslims and appointing

them to high civil and military posts, he was the first Mughal ruler to win the trust and loyalty of

the native subjects. He had Sanskrit literature translated, participated in native festivals,

realizing that a stable empire depended on the co-operation and good-will of his subjects.

Thus, the foundations for a multicultural empire under Mughal rule was laid during his reign.

Akbar was succeeded as emperor by his son, Jahangir.

Jahangir

Nur-ud-din Mohammad Salim, known by his imperial name Jahangir (30 August 1569 – 7

November 1627), was the fourth Mughal Emperor who ruled from 1605 until his death in 1627.

He is considered to be one of the greatest Indian Emperors and the fourth of the Grand

Mughals in Indian historiography. Much romance has gathered around his name, and the tale

of his illicit relationship with the Mughal courtesan, Anarkali, has been widely adapted into the

literature, art and cinema of India.

Jahangir was the eldest surviving son of Mughal Emperor Akbar and was declared successor

to his father from an early age. Impatient for power, however, he revolted in 1599 while Akbar

was engaged in the Deccan. Jahangir was defeated, but ultimately succeeded his father as

Emperor in 1605 because of the immense support and efforts of the ladies in Akbar's harem

like Ruqaiya Sultan Begum, Salima Sultan Begum and his grandmother Maryam Makani. The

ladies wielded considerable influence over Akbar and favoured Jahangir as his successor. The

first year of Jahangir's reign saw a rebellion organized by his eldest son Khusrau Mirza. The

rebellion was soon put down; Khusrau was brought before his father in chains. After subduing

and executing nearly 2000 members of the rebellion, Jahangir blinded his renegade son.

Jahangir built on his father's foundations of excellent administration, and his reign was

characterized by political stability, a strong economy and impressive cultural achievements.

The imperial frontiers continued to move forward—in Bengal, Mewar, Ahmadnagarand the

Deccan. The only major reversal to the expansion came in 1622 when Shah Abbas,

the Safavid Emperor of Iran (Persia), captured Kandahar while Jahangir was battling his

rebellious son, Khusrau in Hindustan. The rebellion of Khurram absorbed Jahangir's attention,

so in the spring of 1623 he negotiated a diplomatic end to the conflict. Much of India was

politically pacified; Jahangir's dealings with the Hindu rulers of Rajputana were particularly

successful, and he settled the conflicts inherited from his father. The Hindu rulers all

accepted Mughal supremacy and in return were given high ranks in the Mughal aristocracy.

Jahangir was fascinated with art, science and architecture. From a young age he showed a

leaning towards painting and had anatelier of his own. His interest in portraiture led to much

development in this artform. The art of Mughal painting reached great heights under Jahangir's

reign. His interest in painting also served his scientific interests in nature. The painter Ustad

Mansur became one of the best artists to document the animals and plants which Jahangir

either encountered on his military exhibitions or received as donations from emissaries of

other countries. Jahangir maintained a huge aviary and a large zoo, kept a record of every

specimen and organised experiments. Jahangir patronized the European and Persian arts. He

promoted Persian culture throughout his empire. This was especially so during the period

when he came under the influence of his Persian Empress, Nur Jahan, and her relatives, who

from 1611 had dominated Mughal politics. Amongst the most highly regarded Mughal

architecture dating from Jahangir's reign is the famous Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir. The

world's first seamless celestial globe was built by Mughal scientistsunder the patronage of

Jahangir.

Jahangir, like his father, was a proper Sunni Muslim with tolerance; he allowed, for example,

the continuation of his father's tradition of public debate between different religions.

The Jesuits were allowed to dispute publicly with Muslim ulema (theologians) and to preach

the Gospel. Jahangir specifically warned his nobles that they "should not force Islam on

anyone”. Jizya was not imposed by Jahangir. Edward Terry, an English chaplain in India at the

time, saw a ruler under which "all Religions are tolerated and their Priests [held] in good

esteem." Jahangir enjoyed debating theological subtleties with Brahmins, especially about the

possible existence ofavatars. Both Sunnis and Shias were welcome at court, and members of

both sects gained high office. Sir Thomas Roe, England's first ambassador to the Mughal

court, went as far as labelling Jahangir, who was sympathetic to Christianity, an atheist.

Jahangir was not without his vices. He set the precedent for sons rebelling against their

emperor fathers and was much criticised for his addiction to alcohol, opium, and women. He

was thought of allowing his wife, Nur Jahan, too much power and her continuous plotting at

court is considered to have destabilized the imperium in the final years of his rule. The

situation developed into open crisis when Jahangir's son, Khurram, fearing to be excluded

from the throne, rebelled in 1622. Jahangir's forces chased Khurram and his troops

from Fatehpur Sikri to the Deccan, to Bengal and back to the Deccan, until Khurram

surrendered unconditionally in 1626. The rebellion and court intrigues that followed took a

heavy toll on Jahangir's health. He died in 1627 and was succeeded by Khurram, who took the

imperial throne of Hindustan as the Emperor Shah Jahan.

Shah Jahan

Shahabuddin Muhammad Shah Jahan (5 January 1592 – 22 January 1666) was the

fifth Mughal Emperor of India from 1628 to 1658. Born Prince Khurram, he was the son of

Emperor Jahangir and his Hindu Rajput wife, Taj Bibi Bilqis Makani (13 May 1573 – 18 April

1619).

He was chosen as successor to the throne after the death of his father in 1627. He was

considered one of the greatest Mughals. Like Akbar, he was eager to expand his vast empire.

In 1658, he fell ill and was confined by his son and successor Aurangzeb in Agra Fortuntil his

death in 1666.

Shah Jahan was a more Orthodox Muslim than his father and grandfather. His policies

towards non-Muslims were less liberal than Jahangir and Akbar.

The period of his reign was considered the golden age of Mughal architecture. Shah Jahan

erected many monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, built in 1632–

1654 as a tomb for his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal.

Aurangzeb

Abul Muzaffar Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb (14 October 1618 – 20 February 1707),

commonly known as Aurangzeb Alamgir and by his imperial title Alamgir ("world-seizer" or

"universe-seizer"), was the sixth Mughal Emperor and ruled over most of the Indian

subcontinent. His reign lasted for 49 years from 1658 until his death in 1707.

Aurangzeb was a notable expansionist and during his reign, the Mughal Empire reached its

greatest extent. During his lifetime, victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to more

than 3.2   million square kilometres  and he ruled over a population estimated as being in the

range of 100–150 million subjects, with an annual yearly tribute of £38,624,680 in 1690 (the

highest in the world at that time).

Aurangzeb's policies partly abandoned the legacy of pluralism, which remains a very

controversial aspect of his reign. Rebellions and wars led to the exhaustion of the imperial

Mughal treasury and army. He was a strong and effective ruler, but following his death the

expansionary period of the Mughal Empire came to an end, and centralized control of the

empire declined rapidly.

Explanations for the decline

Historians have offered numerous explanations for the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire

between 1707 and 1720, after a century of growth and prosperity. In fiscal terms the throne

lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers, the emirs (nobles) and their entourages. The

emperor lost authority, as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in the central

authorities, and made their own deals with local men of influence. The imperial army, bogged

down in long, futile wars against the more aggressive Marathas, lost its fighting spirit. Finally

came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne. After the execution of

emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1719, local Mughal successor states took power in region after

region.

Contemporary chroniclers bewailed the decay they witnessed, a theme picked up by the first

British historians who wanted to underscore the need for a British-led rejuvenation.

Since the 1970s historians have taken multiple approaches to the decline, with little consensus

on which factor was dominant. The psychological interpretations emphasize depravity in high

places, excessive luxury, and increasingly narrow views that left the rulers unprepared for an

external challenge. A Marxist school (led by Irfan Habib and based at Aligarh Muslim

University) emphasizes excessive exploitation of the peasantry by the rich, which stripped

away the will and the means to support the regime. Karen Leonard has focused on the failure

of the regime to work with Hindu bankers, whose financial support was increasingly needed;

the bankers then helped the Maratha and the British. In a religious interpretation, some

scholars argue that the Hindu Rajputs revolted against Muslim rule. Finally other scholars

argue that the very prosperity of the Empire inspired the provinces to achieve a high degree of

independence, thus weakening the imperial court.