COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES

FOR MEASLES IMMUNISATION IN

RURAL UGANDA: THE CASE OF

BUGABULA COUNTY, KAMULI

DISTRICT.

ANTHONY MUGEERE

2002/ HD14/180U

SUPERVISOR: ASSOC. PROF. EDWARD KIRUMIRA

Signature…………………………………

Date………………………………………

A RESEARCH PROPOSAL SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS (SOCIOLOGY) OF

MAKERERE UNIVERSITY, KAMPALA.

MARCH 2004.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY: ......................................................................... 1

1.1 Statement of the Problem:.......................................................................................... 3

1.2 Objectives of the Study:............................................................................................. 3

1.2.1 General Objective: ................................................................................................... 3

1.2.2 Specific Objectives:.................................................................................................. 3

1.3 Scope of the Study:...................................................................................................... 4

1.4 Significance of the Study:........................................................................................... 4

1.5 Definition of key concepts: ......................................................................................... 4

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW: ......................................................................................... 6

2.1 Introduction: ............................................................................................................... 6

2.2 Perceived role of communication for healthcare: .................................................... 6

2.3 Communication networks in Rural Areas:............................................................... 7

2.4 Communication and the measles immunisation campaign: ................................... 9

2.5 Theoretical Framework: .......................................................................................... 11

2.6 Conceptual Framework: .......................................................................................... 14

3.0 METHODOLOGY: .................................................................................................. 16

3.1 Research Design:....................................................................................................... 16

3.2 Study Area:................................................................................................................ 16

3.3 Study Population:...................................................................................................... 17

3.4 Sampling Procedure: ................................................................................................ 17

3.5 Sample size: ............................................................................................................... 17

3.6 Data Collection Methods:......................................................................................... 19

3.7 Data Collection Procedure and Ethical issues: ...................................................... 19

3.8 Data Analysis:............................................................................................................ 19

3.9 Quality Control: ........................................................................................................ 20

3.10 Anticipated problems of the study: ....................................................................... 20

REFERENCES: .............................................................................................................. 21

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS CBOs Community Based Organisations COLs Community Opinion Leaders DEPI District Expanded Programme for Immunisation DDHS Director of District Health Services DISH Delivery of Improved Services for Health EPI Expanded Programme on Immunisation FGDs Focus Group Discussions HBS Household Budget Survey

HMIS Health Management Information System

KAP Knowledge Attitudes and Practices

LCs Local Councils

MOH Ministry of Health

NGOsNon- Governmental Organisations

NIDs National Immunisation Days

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Scientists

UBOS Uganda Bureau of Statistics

UDHS Uganda Demographic and Household Survey

UNEPI Uganda National Expanded Programme on Immunisation

UNICEF United Nations Children Emergency Fund

UTV Uganda Television

WHO World Health Organisation

1

1.0 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY:

Immunisation is one of the greatest medical achievements in human history (EPI,

1992:45). Since its introduction at the beginning of the 20th century, the rates of

preventable diseases such as polio, measles and meningitis have declined by 90% (WHO,

2001:12). Immunisation currently saves an estimated 3 million lives per year worldwide.

Every dollar spent on immunisation saves seven dollars in medical costs and 25 dollars in

overall costs related to vaccine-preventable diseases (WHO, 2002:66).

Measles is one of the leading causes of vaccine-preventable deaths in the world (WHO,

1999:21). In Sub-Saharan Africa, measles causes approximately 500,000 deaths each

year (WHO, 2002:69). For the last eight years, a total of seven countries with a

population of approximately 70 million and with a relatively high routine vaccination

coverage implemented measles elimination strategies. In addition to routine measles

immunisation at 9 months of age, these included nationwide catch-up campaigns among

children aged 9 months to 14 years (Cronin, 2000:10).

In all countries, appropriate communication strategies have been part of the measles

immunisation campaign. In Mali, a communication strategy that transcended language

barriers between healthcare providers and parents was singled out as one of the factors

that led to the successful measles immunisation campaign in the late 1990s (WHO,

2000). The dissemination of information about the immunisation process and its

frequency was done in such a way that there was no fear and distrust of the health

workers. There were also attempts to remove any suspicion, especially among rural

dwellers, of health workers due to misinformation about the immunisation exercise.

2

In Uganda, measles is an endemic disease. The number of measles cases reported

annually to the Ministry of Health since 1992 has ranged from 26,820 in 1996, to 66,908

in 1999. In 2001, 48,308 measles cases were reported in all the 56 districts (MOH,

2002:14).

The disease ranks third in frequency among those of epidemic potential reported in the

surveillance weekly reports, occurring throughout the year. The estimated number of

measles cases occurring annually in the country decreased by one third; from 110, 909 in

1997 to 74, 458 in 2001 (MOH, 2003:26). From 1997 to 2001, 64% of reported cases

were children under 5 years, while more than one third of the cases occurred outside the

upper age limit for the mass campaigns. The Northern and Southwestern Regions are

considered high-risk areas for measles transmission due to internally displaced

populations in the north and high population density in the southwest.

Between 1995 and 2002, government undertook a communication campaign to sensitise

parents and guardians on the need for immunisation. Using radio, television and

newspaper advertisements, messages specially packaged to reach out to all parts of the

country in more than five different languages (MOH Policy Statement, 2002). Despite

this media campaign coupled with the increased supply and distribution of vaccines to all

parts of the country however, the national immunisation coverage remains low. Uganda

has only attained 53% of overall national measles immunisation coverage, ranking it

153rd

among the 168 surveyed by the World Health Organisation in 2002 (MHO,

2003:28). It is therefore the intention of this study to collect data that documents the

appropriate communication strategies for measles immunisation and their contribution to

its success.

3

1.1 Statement of the Problem:

The success of the measles immunisation campaign has for long been assumed to be

mostly based on the supply, accessibility and utilisation of vaccines by children under the

age of 9 years. Efforts to eradicate the disease have however not been successful in

achieving the projected coverage particularly in the rural areas. Communication strategies

involving the print, electronic and visual components have been used to mobilise

communities in responding to WHO, government and NGO efforts to eradicate measles

through immunisation. As one of the most powerful tools in influencing people’s

behaviour and creating awareness, communication has proved a vital factor in attaining

the targeted measles immunisation coverage.

This study therefore seeks to explore the contribution of communication strategies or lack

of them in the efforts to eradicate measles by immunisation. It intends to establish the

place of communication in the immunisation against measles campaign and also

investigate the relationship between the nature and type of communication and achieving

targeted measles immunisation coverage.

1.2 Objectives of the Study:

1.2.1 General Objective:

This study aims to explore the appropriate communication strategies in measles

immunisation and their contribution to the successful implementation of the exercise in

rural Uganda.

1.2.2 Specific Objectives:

This study will specifically seek to:

(a) To establish the socio-cultural factors that influence the formulation of

communication strategies for measles immunisation in rural areas.

4

(b) To identify the community responses to the communication strategies for measles

immunization in rural areas.

(c) To analyse the impact of communication strategies on measles immunisation in rural

areas.

(d) To explore ways of enhancing communication strategies for measles immunisation in

rural Uganda.

1.3 Scope of the Study:

The study will investigate the contribution of communication strategies in measles

immunisation in rural areas, focusing on the village units. It will target parents and/or

guardians of children under 9 years of age; the target group for measles immunisation in

Uganda (MOH, 2003:16). In this study, the communication strategies will be categorised

under the print, electronic and visual components. The household will be the unit of

analysis of the study because it is the level at which decisions on whether or not to take

children for immunisation against measles are taken. The field study is expected to last 3

weeks.

1.4 Significance of the Study:

This study will be exploratory and will provide information to government especially on

the need for communication in the campaign against measles in rural areas. It will inform

theory and provide information to policy makers and health practitioners in government

and NGOs on the contribution of communication and its linkage to successful eradication

of measles. The findings will also provide up-todate literature for academicians and could

be used as a basis for further research.

1.5 Definition of key concepts:

Communication: Way of sending information between people and places.

5

Communication campaign: A group of connected actions aimed to send information

between people and places.

Communication strategy: A detailed plan for achieving success in sending information

between people and places.

Healthcare: A set of services provided by a country or an organisation for the treatment

of the physically and mentally ill.

Measles: An infectious disease, especially of children, which produces small red spots all

over the body.

Measles eradication: Interruption of measles transmission as a result of deliberate

efforts.

Immunisation: A process of giving protection against a particular disease by introducing

special substances into the body, especially using an injection.

6

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW:

2.1 Introduction:

This section presents a review of the literature that has been documented on

communication strategies for measles immunisation. It has been presented under the

following sub-sections: Perceived role of communication for healthcare, communication

networks in rural areas and communication and the measles immunisation campaigns.

2.2 Perceived role of communication for healthcare:

Several studies have been done on communication for healthcare but there is none on

communication strategies for measles immunisation. Koehler (2001) found evidence to

suggest that successful polio immunisation campaign among Australian Aborigines was

based on an elaborate media strategy. Similar findings have been made in Malawi by

Kalemba (1998) and Ghana (WHO, 2000). However, these studies were only based on

personal interviews of the parents and guardians who turned up at the immunisation

centres. As such, the results suggest that these parents and guardians had only responded

to their media campaign. The problem with these studies is that many of the respondents

had access to information particularly through the print and electronic media. In addition,

Kalemba’s study was based on samples of parents and guardians who reside on the

outskirts of Blantyre, the second biggest city of Malawi. It is also important to establish

how communication, particularly the media, can impact on the measles immunisation

campaign in rural areas.

Kagwa (1998) in a study covering 12 districts of Uganda also found evidence to suggest

that immunisation is given great attention by the media in rural areas. He argued that the

major problem faced during communication for immunisation is the language used in

designing messages. Some messages were found to be either too technical or difficult to

7

translate into the local languages. Whereas Kagwa’s findings provide useful information

for the formulation of policies for immunisation, it does not specify whether or not the

messages considered were for polio, measles, diphtheria or whooping cough. Secondly,

the data for this study was collected from newspaper and radio station news editors (key

respondents) with no input from parents or guardians.

Some studies have shown that there is a direct relationship between the success of any

health promotion campaign in the rural areas and the society’s socio-cultural beliefs and

practices. Ochero (1985) has indicated that gender and religion are important factors that

determine people’s uptake of healthcare services. He for instance, found that women and

Anglicans were more responsive to the Guinea Worm eradication campaign in northern

Uganda than the men and Catholics. His methodology was however not comprehensive.

First, he did not conduct extensive interviews (FGDs) to probe the gender and cultural

beliefs and how they impact on healthcare communication. Secondly, his conclusions

were only based on the statistical significance of the variables involved with no emphasis

on the influence of socio-cultural factors in the formulation of communication strategies

for measles immunisation.

2.3 Communication networks in Rural Areas:

A lot of literature exits to show that Uganda has a well-developed communication

network for information dissemination in rural areas. In addition to the formal

communication channels, many people still trust word-of-mouth information, and

whatever they can see with their own eyes (MOH, 1999).

8

A study of peasants in Uganda and Ghana found that 46% and 31% of people in the rural

areas trusted endogenous sources of information, such as word-of-mouth, experience and

observation more than exogenous sources such as radio and television (WHO, 2001).

Local institutions such as churches and community groups are also important for

communicating messages for healthcare. The findings of this study were however based

on quantitatively collected data. But as noted by Kirumira (1995), a common criticism of

quantitatively collected data is that in themselves they lack depth. Findings may attain

high levels of precision and statistical significance but still be very difficult to interprete

out a qualitative framework.

Kakooza (2000) in a study on the media campaigns for poverty eradication found that the

traditional media notably television and radio can reach a wider audience than any other

form of communication in rural areas. He argued that the private FM radio stations can be

utilised to mobilise rural communities for poverty eradication projects and other social

welfare campaigns. While recognising the fact that these FM stations are being used for

disseminating information, it is important to note that most of these stations are

commercial and tend to broadcast more music and entertainment than educational and

health sensitisation programmes.

There is a also evidence to show that the print and electronic media have been the main

components in the communication campaign against measles (MOH, 2001). Together

with visual images and community mobilisation, government and NGOs have attempted

to reach all rural communities in their efforts to improve measles immunisation coverage.

In one of its electronic campaigns, the (DISH) II Project designed the Centre 4 TV

9

Medical Drama aimed at communicating messages about how to lead a healthier life

including childhood immunisation (Hutchison, 2001). The show's 13 episodes consisted

of emotive images about measles immunisation to appeal to men and women aged 18 to

35. But since the drama show was aired on UTV which reaches only 25% of the country

and with an estimated viewership of only about one million people countrywide (many of

them in urban areas), it was in no way effective for communicating messages in rural

areas.

In addition, the print media component implemented using the New Vision and Monitor

newspapers cannot also be said to be effective. The combined readership for both

newspapers stands at less than 150,000 per day (UBOS, 2001) which makes it difficult to

deliver immunisation messages to the majority of the population who have no access to

newspapers in the rural areas.

2.4 Communication and the measles immunisation campaign:

Immunisation against measles in most Ugandan rural districts has seriously been

hampered by problems brought about by decentralisation (Hutchison, 2001). Because

decentralisation is still in an intermediate stage, there are several difficulties involved in

incorporating the formerly vertical programmes into a decentralised system. In addition,

UNICEF stopped paying for the measles vaccines in 1997 meaning that the individual

districts had to shift their resources to their exercise. Some of these districts were

however newly created with no funds and the required experiences to implement

programmes for immunisation against measles.

10

A study undertaken by the Ministry of Health in 1998 (the KAP Study) revealed that

most people in the rural areas are often quite skeptical about immunisation campaigns for

various reasons (MOH, 1998). It singled out the fact that most people do not only know

the diseases they are immunised against but also have varying perceptions as to why one

should be immunised. Rumours against measles immunisation were found to be slowly

building up in the communities; such as vaccines used are expired therefore useless;

vaccines are poisonous and kill children; measles vaccination is intended to kill the

children from regions that do not support the government (UDHS, 2000). Some people in

the rural areas reported that they had been discouraged by others to receive vaccination.

In its recommendations, the KAP study advocates for the introduction of mechanisms to

ensure that people in the rural areas appreciate the importance of immunisation against

measles. It also calls for the inclusion of the local communities in the implementation of

the measles immunisation campaigns. What the study does not however address is the

fact that sensitisation of the rural community about the immunisation exercise and the

involvement of the local communities cannot succeed without appropriate

communication strategies. It is only through communicating correct information about

measles immunisation in the way people in the rural areas understand that one can dispel

all the rumours and perceptions surrounding the campaign. The assessment of the

contribution of communication to the immunisation campaign against measles is one of

the areas being considered for this study.

From the above literature, it is evident that communicating to challenge beliefs about

immunisation purely with ‘science’ (by quantifying the large benefits and small risks of

11

measles immunisation) is not enough. Trust and credibility of the source of the

information on the vaccine to be used and the possible side effects are also important. But

perhaps more relevant to this study is the fact that the available literature on

communication for immunisation in rural areas in Uganda is too general with no

particular emphasis on measles immunisation. In addition, much of the literature is

supplied by the Ministry of Health and other government agencies. This therefore calls

for an independent study to explore the most appropriate communication strategies for

the measles immunisation campaign and how communication can contribute to its

success.

2.5 Theoretical Framework:

The theoretical framework used in this study is based on two of the main theoretical

approaches to communication for healthcare. The first is the Diffusion of Innovation

Theory as advanced by Everett Rogers. Rogers (1993) defines diffusion as the process by

which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the

members of a social system. Rogers' definition contains four elements that are present in

the

Diffusion of innovation process.

The four main elements are:

(1) Innovation - an idea, practices, or objects that is perceived as known by an individual

or other unit of adoption.

(2) Communication channels - the means by which messages get from one individual to

another.

12

(3) Time

(4) Social system - a set of inter-related units that are engaged in joint problem solving to

accomplish a common goal.

The diffusion of innovation theory suggests that healthcare innovations and changes can

be rapidly disseminated and adopted by identifying, enlisting, and training opinion

leaders within the affected community to endorse the desired behaviors. The Community

Opinion Leaders function as Agents of change by disseminating and personally endorsing

health promotion messages. They utilize their ability to influence other community

members and facilitate changes in social behaviour by sharing factual information and

expressing their concern for the prevention of disease within their social networks.

The theory argues that mass media, which is considered the most effective in creating

knowledge of health interventions is useful for “agenda-setting” purposes, while

interpersonal channels and opinion leaders are more effective in changing attitudes and

behaviors (Kelly et al.,1997; Puska et al., 1985).

Rogers (1995: 354) argues that mobilizing the support of opinion leaders significantly

improves the chances of successful innovation. He explores the complexity and

subjective nature of the process of influencing people in favor of change: information

about an innovation is often sought from near-peers, especially information about their

subjective evaluations of the innovation.

13

In applying this theory to the study, I will be interested in how communication strategies

can influence the level of involvement of social and community organisations. By so

doing, I will be examining the structural and/or content processes of communication for

measles immunisation. This will be done by exploring Rogers’ argument that people, as

dynamic communicators, participate in any healthcare intervention with a critical

approach to information.

The second theoretical orientation is based on the socio-psychological school of thought

for studying persuasion. Developed by William McGuire during the 1940s and 1950s, the

theory posits that the impact of a persuasive communication is mediated by three

message processing phases: attention to the message, comprehension of it propositions,

and acceptance of that content. Variations in communication sources, messages,

channels, receivers, and target behaviours impact the persuasion process by affecting

attention, comprehension, and/or message acceptance. Thus, if one wished to understand

the effects of variables such as communicator trustworthiness, side effects of a vaccine or

other medical intervention, one would need to explore how each of these variables affect,

for better or worse, attention, comprehension, and message acceptance.

This theory postulates that a campaign will fail if it is unable to succeed with the

audience at any one step. For instance, an extensive campaign that attracts the attention of

everyone will fail if the message is incomprehensible. A campaign that gains attention

and can be easily comprehended may still fail if the position advocated cannot be

attained.

14

In combining the socio-psychological and the Diffusion of Innovation theories, I will

attempt to combine the content (emphasised by the former) and the structural/process

components in designing a communication campaign in rural areas. Specifically, the

triangulation will serve to explore how messages should be adopted in terms of process,

content and language. The dual relationship between content and process affects

communication campaign for measles immunisation.

2.6 Conceptual Framework:

The conceptual framework for this study is built on the premises that the socio-

economic background, personality variables and communication behaviour determine the

level of knowledge, persuasion, decision making and participation in the immunisation

against measles campaign. But the parents/guardians’ knowledge and participation in the

campaign is mediated by a number of intervening variables notably knowledge of

communication channels (especially the mass media), interpersonal channels and

resources.

The relationship is however also influenced by a host of other factors like the

attention given to the messages communicated, comprehension of the propositions being

made in the messages and acceptance of the content. And as shown in Figure 1 below,

these factors also have a direct relationship with the communication channels, opinion

leaders and information exchange. In the end, they all have a direct bearing on improved

immunisation coverage against measles.

15

Figure 1:

• Sex

• Age

• Religion

• Occupation

• Level of education

• Type of residence

• No. of children

• Communication

channels

• Opinion leaders

• Resources

• Time

• Information

exchange

• Communication behaviour

• Persuasion

• Decision-making

• Participation

• Knowledge

Improved

Immunisation

coverage against

measles

• Attention to the

message

• Comprehension

of proposition

• Acceptance of

content

Background factors Expected Outcome Intervening variables

16

3.0 METHODOLOGY:

3.1 Research Design:

This study will be exploratory and will use both quantitative and qualitative techniques.

Secondary sources of data at the district and other NGOs will also be used to supplement

data collected from the field.

3.2 Study Area:

The study area will be Kamuli district, mid-eastern Uganda. This area has been chosen

because it is one of the districts with the lowest measles immunisation coverage in the

country (MOH, 2002:44). Kamuli district covers a total area of 4,348 sq. km (Mugisha,

2003:30). It is bordered by Soroti, Kaberamaido and Lira districts to the North, Iganga

and Pallisa districts to the East, Jinja district to the South and Kayunga district to the

West.

The district lies at an approximate altitude of between 914m and 1,101m above sea level

with heavy rainfall and moderate temperatures. Vegetation consists of woodland, thickets

and bushes. It comprises four counties namely Bugabula, Buzaaya, Bulamogi and

Budiope with a total of 23 sub-counties.

According to the 2002 Population Census, Kamuli’s population is 712,079 with 123,724

households. With an estimated 95 per cent of its population living by subsistence

agriculture, Kamuli is one of Uganda’s poorest districts. The HMIS shows that Kamuli

district is one of the 20 districts with the lowest measles immunisation in the country with

just 63% coverage (MOH, 2003:26). The main language spoken is Lusoga while the

major economic activity is peasant agriculture. Food crops grown include; sweet

17

potatoes, bananas, maize, finger millet, cassava, beans, peas, sorghum and rice. Coffee

and cotton are the major cash crops. Fishing is also an important income generating

activity in the areas surrounding Lake Kyoga and River Nile.

3.3 Study Population:

The study population will be male and female heads of households in the two parishes

that will be selected for the study. It will also include purposively selected health service

providers and other officials involved in the dissemination of information at the district

and community levels.

3.4 Sampling Procedure:

One of the four counties in Kamuli district will be randomly selected for the study.

Random selection will be used in choosing the county because it will eliminate any

personal bias of the researcher and would give all the counties in the district an equal

chance of being represented in this study (Mbaaga, 2000:10). Multi-stage cluster

sampling will then be used to select two sub-counties from the selected county. Simple

random sampling will then be used to select one parish from each sub-county. A

sampling frame consisting of heads of households (both male and female) in the selected

parishes will be constructed with the assistance of the Local Council heads. Systematic

random sampling will then be used to select the heads of households in each of the

parishes. This method will be used because it is ordinarily less time-consuming and easier

to implement (Fisher, 1998:41).

3.5 Sample size:

Data will be collected from 200 respondents. This sample size has been determined on

the basis of the availability of financial resources required to undertake the study (Fisher,

18

1998:43). A total of 120 male and 80 female heads of households in each of the parishes

will be selected using systematic random sampling. Another 15 key informants will be

purposely selected for interviewing. These will include; 2 secretaries for health for the

two sub-counties, 2 chairpersons of the Local Councils (LC3) for the two sub-counties, 2

secretaries for health for the two parishes selected and 2 chairpersons of LCII for the two

parishes selected. The other key informants will include 4 opinion leaders (2 from each of

the sub-counties selected), the DDHS, the DEPI and the District Local Council (LCV)

secretary for health. All these key informants have been chosen because they are main

actors in the measles immunisation campaign and can provide the required insight into

the activities of the programme.

Four FGDs will also be held (two in each sub-county). The FGDs will be adopted for this

study as a way of reducing the amount of time and personnel required for conducting and

analysing in-depth interviews and yet getting qualitative information from a relatively

large number of respondents (Sarantakos, 1997:98). One of the FGDs in each of the sub-

counties will be exclusively for women while the other will be for men. The aim is to

create an atmosphere that allows free expression by the participants during the

discussions. The FGDs will comprise parents and/or guardians, Local Councillors and

representatives of Non-Governmental Organisations involved in the delivery of health

services, particularly immunisation. Each FGD is expected to comprise at least eight

participants and not more than 12.

19

3.6 Data Collection Methods:

Three categories of research instruments will be used for this study: A semi-structured

questionnaire will be used to collect data from the 200 survey respondents. Secondly,

interview guides will be used for collecting data from key informants. A Focus Group

Discussion Guide will then be used to facilitate Focus Group Discussions.

3.7 Data Collection Procedure and Ethical issues:

Before embarking on the data collection process, the researcher will obtain an

introductory letter from Makerere University. This letter will then be presented to the

DDHS, Kamuli who will in turn introduce the researcher to the respective sub-counties.

The LC chairpersons of the respective Sub-counties will then introduce him to the Local

Council LCII chairpersons. With the assistance of LCII chairpersons, appointments will

be made with the selected respondents. The interviews will be conducted in the homes or

offices of the respondents and/or key informants. The structured interviews will be

expected to last for about 30 minutes while the FGDs will be expected to last for about

one hour. Each key informant interviews will also be expected to last an hour.

Respondents’ names will not be recorded unless they agree to it and the questionnaires

and cassette recordings will be kept under key and lock.

3.8 Data Analysis:

Qualitative data from in-depth interviews and FGDs will be transcribed and analysed

during and after the fieldwork. The analysis will be based on the themes and sub-themes

of the study. Code categories will be identified which will then form the basis of making

conclusions about the study. Where necessary, direct quotes from the respondents will be

used.

20

3.9 Quality Control:

All the research instruments that will be used for the study will be pre-tested among 20

parents/guardians and one Local Council official in one sub-county before the final

research instruments are developed.

Quantitative data from interview schedules will be edited before leaving each respondent

for uniformity and accuracy, among other things. The data will then be coded and entered

into a computer using the SPSS program. The analysis will then be made and findings

will be presented and described by tables, graphs and charts where appropriate.

3.10 Anticipated problems of the study:

A number of limitations are expected to be encountered by the researcher during this

study. Some of the respondents will most likely expect financial or material enticement

before offering information, which will not only be unethical but also create bias in the

study. Transport is also likely to be a problem during the study as some parts of the

district have a poor road network.

The researcher however intends to overcome the problem of illiteracy by explaining the

main purpose of the study to the selected respondents in the local language (Lusoga) to

convince them that the study has no ill intentions and how it will benefit the society.

Knowledge of the local language is expected to be a major advantage in dispelling any

fears about the intentions of the researcher. Hiring a motor cycle (boda boda) which is not

only a relatively cheaper means of transport but can also reach every part of the district

will solve the problem of transport.

21

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