Mr. Hunter Ch. 1
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Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(7th Ed)
Chapter 1 Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
James A. McCubbin, PhDClemson University
Worth Publishers
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The Need for Psychological Science
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to
construct theories that organize observations and imply testable hypotheses
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The Need for Psychological Science
Hindsight Bias we tend to believe, after learning an
outcome, that we would have foreseen it
the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon Overconfidence
we tend to think we know more than we do
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The Need for Psychological Science
Critical Thinking thinking that does
not blindly accept arguments and conclusions examines
assumptions discerns hidden
values evaluates evidence
The Amazing Randi--Skeptic
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The Need for Psychological Science
Theory an explanation using an integrated
set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
Hypothesis a testable prediction often implied by a theory
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The Need for Psychological Science
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The Need for Psychological Science
Operational Definition a statement of procedures
(operations) used to define research variables
Example- intelligence may be operationally defined
as what an intelligence test measures
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The Need for Psychological Science
Replication repeating the essence of a
research study to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other participants and circumstances
usually with different participants in different situations
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Description
Psychologists describe behavior using case studies,
surveys, and naturalistic observation
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Description
Case Study Psychologists
study one or more individuals in great depth in the hope of revealing things true of us all Is language uniquely human?
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Description
Survey technique for ascertaining the self-
reported attitudes or behaviors of people usually by questioning a representative,
random sample of people Random Sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
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Description
False Consensus Effect tendency to overestimate the extent
to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
Population all the cases in a group, from which
samples may be drawn for a study
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Description
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Description
If marbles of two colors are mixed well in the large jar, the fastest way to know their ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller one and count them
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Description
Naturalistic Observation observing and
recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
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Correlation Correlation Coefficient
a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other
Correlation coefficient
Indicates directionof relationship
(positive or negative)
Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)
r = +.37
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Correlation
Scatterplot a graphed cluster of dots, each of which
represents the values of two variables the slope of the points suggests the
direction of the relationship the amount of scatter suggests the
strength of the correlation little scatter indicates high correlation
also called a scattergram or scatter diagram
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Correlation
Perfect positivecorrelation (+1.00)
No relationship (0.00) Perfect negativecorrelation (-1.00)
Scatterplots, showing patterns of correlations
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CorrelationHeight and Temperament of 20 Men
123456789
10
11121314151617181920
80636179746962757760
64767166737063716870
75666090604242608139
48697257637530578439
SubjectHeight in
Inches Temperament SubjectHeight in
Inches Temperament
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Correlation
Scatterplot of Height and Temperament
55 60 65 70 75 80 85
959085807570656055504540353025
Temperamentscores
Height in inches
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CorrelationThree Possible Cause-Effect Relationships
(1)Low self-esteem
Depression
(2)Depression
Low self-esteem
Low self-esteem
Depression
(3)Distressing events
or biologicalpredisposition
could cause
could cause
could cause
or
or
and
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Illusory Correlation
Illusory Correlation the
perception of a relationship where none exists
Conceive Do not conceive
Adopt
Do notadopt
disconfirming evidence
confirming evidence
disconfirming evidence
confirming evidence
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Two Random Sequences
Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.
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Experimentation
Experiment an investigator manipulates one or
more factors (independent variables) to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)
by random assignment of participants the experiment controls other relevant factors
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Experimentation Placebo
an inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent
Double-blind Procedure both the research participants and the
research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo
commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
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Experimentation
Experimental Condition the condition of an experiment that
exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Control Condition the condition of an experiment that
contrasts with the experimental treatment serves as a comparison for evaluating the
effect of the treatment
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Experimentation
Random Assignmentassigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance
minimizes pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups
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Experimentation Independent Variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated
the variable whose effect is being studied Dependent Variable
the experimental factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
in psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process
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Experimentation
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Research Strategies
Design of the subliminal tapes experiment
Subliminal tape content
Self-esteem Memory
Memory
Self-esteem
Tape label
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Statistical Reasoning
Our Brand Brand BrandBrand X Y Z
100%
99
98
97
96
95
Percentagestill functioningafter 10 years
Brand of truck
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Statistical Reasoning
Our Brand Brand Brand Brand X Y Z
100%
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentagestill functioningafter 10 years
Brand of truck
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Statistical Reasoning Mode
the most frequently occurring score in a distribution
Mean the arithmetic average of a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then
dividing by the number of scores Median
the middle score in a distribution half the scores are above it and half are
below it
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Statistical Reasoning
A Skewed Distribution
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 90 475 710
70
Mode Median Mean
One Family Income per family in thousands of dollars
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Statistical Reasoning
Range the difference between the highest and
lowest scores in a distribution Standard Deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean
Statistical Significance a statistical statement of how likely it is that
an obtained result occurred by chance
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Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
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Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Does behavior depend on ones culture? Culture--the enduring
behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
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Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Does behavior vary with gender?
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Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Why do psychologists study animals?
Is it ethical to experiment on animals?
Is it ethical to experiment on people?
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Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Is psychology free of value judgments?
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Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Is psychology potentially dangerous?