Mr. Cargile Mission Hills HS, San Marcos CA

Mr. CargileMr. Cargile

Mission Hills HS, San Marcos CAMission Hills HS, San Marcos CA

The Age of The Age of Reason & Reason &

EnlightenmEnlightenmentent

The Age of The Age of Reason & Reason &


An Overview of the 18th Century

► Political History Political History >>> >>> Reform

► Intellectual History Intellectual History Newtonian Physics Reason

► Cultural History Cultural History Individualism

► Social History Social History Increased Literacy Age of Aristocracy

► Economic History Economic History > > Mercantilism to Capitalism

18th Century Politics► BRITAIN – Constitutional – Constitutional MonarchyMonarchy

► FRANCE Royal Absolutism Royal Absolutism (cultural and religious (cultural and religious unity)unity)

► PRUSSIA, HABSBURG EMPIRE, RUSSIA “Enlightened “Enlightened Despotism”Despotism”

► OTTOMAN EMPIRE – – traditional traditional empire empire

The Origins of Enlightenment?

► SCIENTIFICSCIENTIFIC::

Newton’s system was Newton’s system was synonymoussynonymouswith the empirical and the with the empirical and the practical.practical.

Scientific laws could be Scientific laws could be expressed as universal expressed as universal mathematical formulas.mathematical formulas.

Science allowed alternatives Science allowed alternatives to beto beimagined in everything from imagined in everything from politicspoliticsto religion.to religion.

William Blake’s Newton, 1795

The Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris

Zoology & Biology

A dissection at the Royal A dissection at the Royal Academy, London.Academy, London.

Chemistry Labs & Botany Gardens

Natural History Collections

► Cocoa plant Cocoa plant drawing.drawing.

► Sir Hans Sir Hans SloaneSloane(1660-1753).(1660-1753).

► Collected from Collected from Jamaica.Jamaica.

Natural History Collections

James Petiver’s BeetlesJames Petiver’s Beetles(London apothecary)(London apothecary)

Private Collections

The Origins of Modern The Origins of Modern Museums.Museums.

Women & Science

The German The German astronomer astronomer Hevelius & Hevelius &

his wife his wife examine examine

the the heavens.heavens.

The Origins of Enlightenment?► RELIGIOUSRELIGIOUS::

physico-theologyphysico-theology – – an an attempt attempt (inspired by science) to (inspired by science) to explain God’s Providence by explain God’s Providence by reference to his reference to his work in work in naturenature & not primarily & not primarily through his biblicalthrough his biblical Word. Word. support of a “rational” support of a “rational” religion, freereligion, freefrom mysteries, miracles, andfrom mysteries, miracles, andsuperstitions.superstitions.


DeismDeismV The belief in the existence of a God The belief in the existence of a God

or supreme being but aor supreme being but adenial of revealed religion, basingdenial of revealed religion, basingone’s belief on the one’s belief on the lightlight of natureof natureand reasonand reason..

Deists saw no point in any particularDeists saw no point in any particularreligion; they recognized only a distant,religion; they recognized only a distant,God uninvolved in the daily life of man.God uninvolved in the daily life of man.


Gradually, highly educated Protestants Gradually, highly educated Protestants & Catholics thought more about & Catholics thought more about God’s God’s work as revealed through sciencework as revealed through science, than , than through the Scriptures.through the Scriptures.

PantheismPantheismV The belief that God andThe belief that God and

nature are one and the same.nature are one and the same.

Centers of the Enlightenment

The Characteristics of the Enlightenment

1.1. Rationalism Rationalism reason is the arbiter reason is the arbiter of allof all things. things.

2.2. Cosmology Cosmology a new concept of man, a new concept of man, hishis existence on earth, & the existence on earth, & the place of the earth in the place of the earth in the universe. universe.

3.3. Secularism Secularism application of the application of the methods ofmethods of science to religion & science to religion & philosophy. philosophy.


4.4. Scientific MethodScientific Method

Mathematical analysisMathematical analysis

ExperimentationExperimentation

Inductive reasoning.Inductive reasoning.

5.5. Utilitarianism Utilitarianism the greatest good for the greatest good for the greatest number. the greatest number.

6.6. Tolerance Tolerance No opinion is worth No opinion is worth burning your neighbor for. burning your neighbor for.


7.7. Optimism & Self-ConfidenceOptimism & Self-Confidence

The belief that man is The belief that man is intrinsically good.intrinsically good.

The belief in social progress.The belief in social progress.

8.8. FreedomFreedom

Of thought and expression.Of thought and expression.

Bring liberty to all men (modern Bring liberty to all men (modern battle against absolutism).battle against absolutism).

9.9. Education of the MassesEducation of the Masses


10.10.Legal ReformsLegal Reforms

Justice, kindness, and charity Justice, kindness, and charity no torture or indiscriminant no torture or indiscriminant incarceration.incarceration.

Due process of law. Due process of law.

11.11.ConstitutionalismConstitutionalism

Written constitutions Written constitutions listing listing citizens, rights.citizens, rights.

12.12.Cosmopolitanism.Cosmopolitanism.

The “Enlightened” Individual The Philosophe

► Not really original thinkers as a whole, but were Not really original thinkers as a whole, but were great publicists of the new thinking great publicists of the new thinking CHANGE & CHANGE & PROGRESS!PROGRESS!

► They were students of society who analyzed its They were students of society who analyzed its evils and advanced reforms.evils and advanced reforms.

The “Great Debate”

Reason& LogicReason& Logic

Traditionsand

Superstitions

Traditionsand

Superstitions

rationalisrationalismm

empiricisempiricismm

tolerancetolerance skepticisskepticis

mm DeismDeism

nostalgia for nostalgia for the the pastpast

organized organized religionsreligions

irrationalismirrationalism emotionalismemotionalism

Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794)► Progress of the Human Progress of the Human

MindMind, 1794, 1794 An expectation of An expectation of

universal happiness.universal happiness. Every individual Every individual

guided by reason guided by reason could enjoy true could enjoy true independence.independence.

He advocated a free He advocated a free and equal education, and equal education, constitutionalism, constitutionalism, and equal rights for and equal rights for women.women.

John Locke (1632-1704)

► Letter on TolerationLetter on Toleration, , 1689 1689

► Two Treatises ofTwo Treatises ofGovernmentGovernment, 1690, 1690

► Some ThoughtsSome ThoughtsConcerningConcerningEducationEducation, 1693, 1693

► The ReasonablenessThe Reasonablenessof Christianityof Christianity, 1695, 1695

John Locke’s Philosophy (I)

► The individual must become a “rationalThe individual must become a “rationalcreature.”creature.”

► Virtue can be learned and practiced.Virtue can be learned and practiced.► Human beings possess free will.Human beings possess free will.

they should be prepared for freedom.they should be prepared for freedom. obedience should be out of obedience should be out of

conviction,conviction,not out of fear.not out of fear.

► Legislators owe their power to a Legislators owe their power to a contractcontract with the peoplewith the people..

► Neither kings nor wealth are divinely Neither kings nor wealth are divinely ordained.ordained.

John Locke’s Philosophy (II)

► There are certain natural There are certain natural rights that are endowed by rights that are endowed by God to all human beings.God to all human beings.

life, liberty, property!life, liberty, property!

► The doctrine of the Divine The doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings was Right of Kings was nonsense.nonsense.

► He favored a republic as the He favored a republic as the best form of government.best form of government.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

► Critique of Pure Critique of Pure ReasonReason, 1781, 1781

► ““What is What is Enlightenment?”Enlightenment?”, 1784, 1784

► Metaphysical Metaphysical Foundations ofFoundations ofNatural Science, Natural Science, 17861786

Kant’s Philosophy

► Dare to Know!Dare to Know!► He introduced the concept of He introduced the concept of

transcendentalismtranscendentalism some things are known some things are known by methods other than empirically.by methods other than empirically.

The belief in the existence of a non-The belief in the existence of a non-rational way to understand things.rational way to understand things.

The existence of neither time nor space is The existence of neither time nor space is determined by empirical understanding.determined by empirical understanding.

These type of things are These type of things are a prioria priori..V They transcend sensory They transcend sensory

experience.experience.V They are pure, not empiricalThey are pure, not empirical

[[[concepts like faith, pre-existence, [concepts like faith, pre-existence, life after deathlife after death].].

Thomas Paine (1737-1809)

► Common Common SenseSense, 1776, 1776

► The Rights The Rights of Manof Man, , 17911791

The American “Philosophes”

John AdamsJohn Adams(1745-(1745-1826)1826)

Ben FranklinBen Franklin(1706-1790)(1706-1790)

ThomasThomasJeffersonJefferson(1743-(1743-1826)1826)

……...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of ...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness…………...happiness…………...

Voltaire (1712-1778)

► AKA AKA Francois Francois Marie Arouet.Marie Arouet.

► Essay on the Essay on the CustomsCustomsand Spirit of Nationsand Spirit of Nations, ,

17561756

► CandideCandide, 1759, 1759

► Philosophical Philosophical DictionaryDictionary, 1764, 1764

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (I)

► Every man is guilty of all the Every man is guilty of all the good he good he didn’t do. didn’t do.► God is a comedian playing to an God is a comedian playing to an audience audience too afraid to laugh. too afraid to laugh.► If God did not exist, it would be If God did not exist, it would be necessary necessary to invent him. to invent him.► It is dangerous to be right It is dangerous to be right when the when the government is wrong. government is wrong.► Love truth and pardon error.Love truth and pardon error.

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (II)

► Judge of a man by his questions rather thanJudge of a man by his questions rather than by his answers. by his answers.► Men are equal; it is not birth, but virtueMen are equal; it is not birth, but virtue that makes the difference. that makes the difference.► Prejudice is opinion without judgment.Prejudice is opinion without judgment.► The way to become boring is to say The way to become boring is to say everything. everything.► I may not agree with what you have to say,I may not agree with what you have to say, but I will defend to the death your right to but I will defend to the death your right to say it. say it.

The Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

► Persian Persian LettersLetters, , 1721 1721

► On the Spirit On the Spirit of of LawsLaws, 1758, 1758

Montesquieu’s Philosophy

► Three types of government:Three types of government: Monarchy.Monarchy. Republic.Republic. Despotism.Despotism.

A separation of political A separation of political powers ensured freedom powers ensured freedom and liberty.and liberty.

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

► A Discourse A Discourse on the on the Sciences and Sciences and ArtsArts, 1750, 1750

► Emile, 1762.Emile, 1762.

► The Social The Social Contract, Contract, 1762.1762.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (I)

Virtue exists in the ”state of Virtue exists in the ”state of nature,” but lost in “society.”nature,” but lost in “society.”

Government must preserve “virtue” Government must preserve “virtue” and and ”liberty.””liberty.”

Man is born free, yet everywhere he Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains.is in chains.

The concept of the The concept of the ”Noble ”Noble Savage.”Savage.”

Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. Civil liberty Civil liberty invest ALL rights invest ALL rights

and liberties into a society.and liberties into a society.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (II)

► QuestionQuestion Does progress in Does progress in the arts and sciences the arts and sciences correspond with progress in correspond with progress in morality? morality?

As civilizations progress, they As civilizations progress, they move away from morality.move away from morality.

Civilization itself leads away Civilization itself leads away from true fundamentals.from true fundamentals.

Technology and art create false Technology and art create false desires.desires.

NO!NO!

Rousseau’s Philosophy (III)

► Concept of the Concept of the “General “General Will.”Will.”

Only those who make their Only those who make their own laws are free.own laws are free.

Virtuous citizens will agree, Virtuous citizens will agree, become one.become one.

V Not merely a consensus or Not merely a consensus or the majority.the majority.

A discussion among the A discussion among the virtuous will yield unity.virtuous will yield unity.

V Dissenters are “forced to be Dissenters are “forced to be free.”free.”

V General WillGeneral Will = = law law ++ freedom!freedom!

Edward Gibbon (1737-1794)

He pointed out He pointed out problems with problems with contemporary contemporary England and tried to England and tried to urge reform.urge reform.

► The Decline andThe Decline andFall of the Fall of the Roman EmpireRoman Empire, , 1787.1787.

PopularizinPopularizingg

thethe


PopularizinPopularizingg

thethe


A Parisian Salon

Madame Geoffrin’s Salon

The Salonnieres

Madame Madame GeoffrinGeoffrin

(1699-1777)(1699-1777)MademoiselleMademoiselle

Julie de Julie de LespinasseLespinasse

(1732*-1776)(1732*-1776)

MadameMadameSuzanne Suzanne NeckerNecker

(1739-1794)(1739-1794)

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

Diderot’s Encyclopédie

The Encyclopédie

► Complete cycle of Complete cycle of knowledge…………...…knowledge…………...…change the general way of change the general way of thinking.thinking.

► 28 volumes.28 volumes.

► Alphabetical, cross-referenced,Alphabetical, cross-referenced,illustrated.illustrated.

► First published in 1751.First published in 1751.

► 1500 1500 livreslivres a set. a set.

Subscriptions to Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

The “Republic of Letters”

►URBAN – – gathering of elites gathering of elites in thein the cities. cities. (salons)(salons)

►URBANE – – cosmopolitancosmopolitan, , worldlyworldly

music, art, literature, politicsmusic, art, literature, politics

read newspapers & the latest read newspapers & the latest books.books.

► POLITENESS – – proper proper behavior [behavior [ [ [self-governedself-governed]]

Reading During the Enlightenment►Literacy:

80%%% o/o for men; 60 o/o 80%%% o/o for men; 60 o/o women.women.

►Books were expensive (one Books were expensive (one day’s wages).day’s wages).

►Many readers for each book Many readers for each book (20 : 1)(20 : 1)

novels, plays & other literature.novels, plays & other literature.

journals, memoirs, “private lives.”journals, memoirs, “private lives.”

philosophy, history, theology.philosophy, history, theology.

newspapers, political pamphlets.newspapers, political pamphlets.

An Increase in Reading

“Must Read” Books of the Time

““EnlightenEnlighteneded

DespotismDespotism””

““EnlightenEnlighteneded

DespotismDespotism””

Frederick the Great of Prussia (r. 1740-1786)

► 1712 -– 1786.1712 -– 1786.

► Succeeded his Succeeded his father,father, Frederick Frederick William IWilliam I (the “Soldier (the “Soldier King”).King”).

► He saw himselfHe saw himself as the as the “First“First Servant of the Servant of the State.”State.”

Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)

► German PrincessGerman Princess Sophie Friederike Sophie Friederike Auguste of Auguste of Anhalt-Zerbst. Anhalt-Zerbst.

► 1729 -– 1796.1729 -– 1796.

1767: Catherine summons the 1767: Catherine summons the LegislativeLegislative Commission Commission..

1768-1774: 1768-1774: Russo-Turkish WarRusso-Turkish War..

1771-1775: 1771-1775: Pugachev RebellionPugachev Rebellion is is suppressed.suppressed.

1772: First partition of Poland.1772: First partition of Poland.

1785: 1785: Charter of NobilityCharter of Nobility..

1793: Second partition of Poland.1793: Second partition of Poland.

1795: Third partition of Poland.1795: Third partition of Poland.

Reformer? OR Despot?

Reformer? OR Despot?

The Partitions of Poland

- - 17721772

- - 17931793

- - 17951795

Russian Expansionism in the Late 18c

Joseph II of Austria (r. 1765-1790)

► 1741 -– 1741 -– 1790.1790.

► His mother His mother waswas Maria Maria Theresa.Theresa.

Habsburg Family Crest

1772: First partition of Poland.1772: First partition of Poland.

1778-1779: He failed to annex Bavaria to 1778-1779: He failed to annex Bavaria to Austrian lands.Austrian lands.

1781: Declared the 1781: Declared the Toleration PatentToleration Patent..

1781: 1781: Abolition of serfdom and feudal dues.Abolition of serfdom and feudal dues.

1785: He failed to exchange the Austria1785: He failed to exchange the Austria Netherlands for Bavaria. Netherlands for Bavaria.

1787-1792: Austria joined Russia in the Russo-1787-1792: Austria joined Russia in the Russo-TurkishTurkish War, but little was gained. War, but little was gained.

1795: Third partition of Poland.1795: Third partition of Poland.

Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor

Joseph II of Austria

The Legacy of the Enlightenment?

1.1.The democratic revolutions The democratic revolutions begun in America in 1776 and begun in America in 1776 and continued in Amsterdam, continued in Amsterdam, Brussels, and especially in Brussels, and especially in Paris in the late 1780s, put Paris in the late 1780s, put every Western government on every Western government on the defensive.the defensive.2.2.Reform, democracy, and Reform, democracy, and republicanism had been republicanism had been placed irrevocably on the placed irrevocably on the Western agenda.Western agenda.


3.3.New forms of civil society New forms of civil society arose –-- clubs, salons, arose –-- clubs, salons, fraternals, private academies, fraternals, private academies, lending libraries, and lending libraries, and professional/scientific professional/scientific organizations.organizations.4.4.19c conservatives blamed it 19c conservatives blamed it for the modern “egalitarian for the modern “egalitarian disease” (once reformers disease” (once reformers began to criticize established began to criticize established institutions, they didn’t know institutions, they didn’t know where and when to stop!)where and when to stop!)


5.5. It established a materialistic It established a materialistic tradition based on an ethical tradition based on an ethical system derived solely from a system derived solely from a naturalistic account of the naturalistic account of the human condition (the human condition (the “Religion of Nature”“Religion of Nature”).).

6.6.Theoretically endowed with full Theoretically endowed with full civil and legal rights, the civil and legal rights, the individualindividual had come into had come into existence as a political and existence as a political and social force to be reckoned social force to be reckoned with.with.

Mr. Cargile Mission Hills HS, San Marcos CA

Documents

Transcript of Mr. Cargile Mission Hills HS, San Marcos CA