Mound Builders - Wikipedia, the free...

Monks Mound, built c. 950-1100CE and located at the CahokiaMounds UNESCO WorldHeritage Site near Collinsville,Illinois, is the largestPre-Columbian earthwork inAmerica north of Mesoamerica.

Grave Creek Mound, located inMoundsville, West Virginia, isone of the largest conical moundsin the United States. It was builtby the Adena culture.

Mound BuildersFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The varying cultures collectively called Mound Builders wereinhabitants of North America who, during a 5,000-year period,constructed various styles of earthen mounds for religious andceremonial, burial, and elite residential purposes. These includedthe Pre-Columbian cultures of the Archaic period; Woodland period(Adena and Hopewell cultures); and Mississippian period; datingfrom roughly 3500 BCE to the 16th century CE, and living inregions of the Great Lakes, the Ohio River Valley, and theMississippi River valley and its tributary waters.[1] Beginning withthe construction of Watson Brake about 3500 BCE in present-dayLouisiana, nomadic indigenous peoples started building earthworkmounds in North America nearly 1,000 years before the pyramidswere constructed in Egypt.

Since the 19th century, the prevailing scholarly consensus has beenthat the mounds were constructed by indigenous peoples of theAmericas. Sixteenth-century Spanish explorers made contact withnatives living in a number of later Mississippian cities, describedtheir cultures, and left artifacts.[2] By the time of United Stateswestward expansion two hundred years later, Native Americanswere generally not knowledgeable about the civilizations thatproduced the mounds. Research and study of these cultures andpeoples has been based mostly on archaeology and anthropology.

Contents

1 Name and culture2 Archaeological surveys3 Reports of early European explorers4 Mound building cultures

4.1 Archaic era4.2 Woodland period4.3 Coles Creek culture4.4 Mississippian cultures4.5 Fort Ancient culture4.6 Plaquemine culture

Mound Builders - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mound_Builders

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Alligator Effigy Mound, built c.950 CE, Ohio

5 Alternative explanations5.1 Effects of alternative explanations

6 Hoaxes7 See also8 Notes9 References10 Further reading11 External links

Name and cultureAt one time, the term "mound builder" was applied to the peoplebelieved to have constructed these earthworks. In the 16th through19th centuries, Europeans and Americans generally thought that apeople other than one related to the historic Native Americans hadbuilt the mounds.

The namesake cultural trait of the Mound Builders was the buildingof mounds and other earthworks. These burial and ceremonialstructures were typically flat-topped pyramids or platform mounds,flat-topped or rounded cones, elongated ridges, and sometimes avariety of other forms. They were generally built as part of complexvillages that arose from more dense populations, with aspecialization of skills and knowledge. The early earthworks built in

Louisiana c. 3500 BCE are the only ones known to be built by a hunter-gatherer culture.

The best-known flat-topped pyramidal structure, which at over 100 feet (30 m) tall is the largestpre-Columbian earthwork north of Mexico, is Monks Mound at Cahokia Indian Mounds in present-dayCollinsville, Illinois. At its peak about 1150 CE, Cahokia was an urban settlement with 20,000-30,000people; this population was not exceeded by North American European settlements until after 1800.

Some effigy mounds were constructed in the shapes or outlines of culturally significant animals. Themost famous effigy mound, Serpent Mound in southern Ohio, is 5 feet (1.5 m) tall, 20 feet (6 m) wide,over 1,330 feet (405 m) long, and shaped as an undulating serpent.

Many different tribal groups and chiefdoms, involving an array of beliefs and unique cultures overthousands of years, built mounds as expressions of their cultures. The general term, "mound builder,"covered their shared architectural practice of earthwork mound construction. This practice, believed tobe associated with a cosmology that had a cross-cultural appeal, may indicate common culturalantecedents. The first mound building was an early marker of political and social complexity among thecultures in the Eastern United States. Watson Brake in Louisiana, constructed about 3500 BCE duringthe Middle Archaic period, is the oldest dated mound complex in North America. It is one of eleven


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The Nodena Site, possibly theProvince of Pacaha encounteredby de Soto

The Kincaid Site, a Mississippiansettlement in southern Illinois

mound complexes from this period found in the Lower Mississippi Valley.[3]

Archaeological surveysThe most complete reference for these earthworks is Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,written by Ephraim G. Squier and Edwin H. Davis. It was published in 1848 by the Smithsonian. Sincemany of the features which the authors documented have since been destroyed or diminished by farmingand development, their surveys, sketches, and descriptions are still used by modern archaeologists. Allof the sites which they identified as located in Kentucky came from the manuscripts of C. S. Rafinesque.

A smaller regional study in 1931 by author and archaeologist Fred Dustin charted and examined themounds and Ogemaw Earthworks near Saginaw, Michigan. Archaeological survey and recording ofmounds is an ongoing scholarly task.

Reports of early European explorersHernando de Soto, the Spanish conquistador who in 1540-1542traversed what became the southeast United States, encounteredmany different mound-builder peoples, perhaps descendants of thegreat Mississippian culture. The mound-building tradition was stillalive in the southeast during the mid-sixteenth century. De Sotoobserved people living in fortified towns with lofty mounds andplazas, and surmised that many of the mounds served as foundationsfor priestly temples. Near present-day Augusta, Georgia, de Sotoencountered a mound-building group ruled over by a queen,Cofitachequi. She told him that the mounds within her territoryserved as the burial places for nobles.

The artist Jacques Le Moyne, who had accompanied French settlersto northeastern Florida in the 1560s, likewise noted many NativeAmerican groups using existing mounds and constructing others. Heproduced a series of watercolor paintings depicting scenes of nativelife. Although most of his paintings have been lost, some engravingswere copied from the originals and published in 1591 by a Flemishcompany. Among these is a depiction of the burial of an aboriginalFloridian tribal chief, an occasion of great mourning and ceremony.The original caption reads:

“ Sometimes the deceased king of this province isburied with great solemnity, and his great cup fromwhich he was accustomed to drink is placed on atumulus with many arrows set about it. ”

—- Jacques Le Moyne 1650's


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Map of Watson Brake site inLouisiana, 3500 BCE

Maturin Le Petit, a Jesuit priest came in contact with the Natchez as did Le Page du Pratz (1758), aFrench explorer. Both observed them in the area that later became Mississippi. The Natchez were devoutworshippers of the sun. Having a population of some 4,000, they occupied at least nine villages andwere presided over by a paramount chief, known as the Great Sun, who wielded absolute power. Bothobservers noted the high temple mounds which the Natchez had built so that the Great Sun couldcommune with God, the sun. His large residence was built atop the highest mound, from

“ " which, every morning, he greeted the rising sun, invoking thanks and blowing tobaccosmoke to the four cardinal directions." ”

—- Le Page du Pratz 1758

[4][5][6]

Later explorers to the same regions, only a few decades after mound-building settlements had beenreported, found the regions largely depopulated, the residents vanished, and the mounds untended. Sincethere had been little violent conflict with Europeans during that period, the most plausible explanation isthat new Eurasian infectious diseases, such as smallpox and influenza, had decimated most of the NativeAmericans who had comprised the last mound-builder civilization.[7][8][9][10]

Mound building culturesArchaic era

Radiocarbon dating has established the age of the earliest Archaicmound complex in southeastern Louisiana. One of the two MonteSano Site mounds, excavated in 1967 before being destroyed duringnew construction at Baton Rouge, was dated at 6220 BP (plus orminus 140 years).[11] Researchers at the time thought that suchsocieties were not organizationally capable of this typeconstruction.[11] It has since been dated as about 6500 BP, or 4500BCE,[12] although not all agree.[13]

Watson Brake is located in the floodplain of the Ouachita River nearMonroe in northern Louisiana. Securely dated to about 5,400 yearsago (approx. 3500 BCE), in the Middle Archaic period, it consistsof a formation of 11 mounds from 3 to 25 feet (1-8m) tall,connected by ridges to form an oval nearly 900 feet (270m) across.[14] In the Americas, building ofcomplex earthwork mounds started at an early date, well before the pyramids of Egypt were constructed.Watson Brake was under construction nearly 2,000 years before the better-known Poverty Point, andbuilding went on for 500 years.[14] Middle Archaic mound construction appeared to cease about 2800BC, and scholars have not ascertained the reason, but it may have been because of changes in riverpatterns or other environmental factors.[15]


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The Poverty Point site inLouisiana, 1500 BCE

Adena culture map

With the 1990s dating of Watson Brake and similar complexes,scholars established that pre-agricultural, pre-ceramic Americansocieties could organize to accomplish complex construction overextended periods of time, overturning scholars' understanding oftraditional models of Archaic society.[16] Watson Brake was built bya hunter-gatherer society whose people occupied the area on only aseasonal basis, but where successive generations organized to buildthe complex mounds over a 500-year period. Their food consistedmostly of fish and deer, as well as available plants.

Built about 1500 BC, Poverty Point in Louisiana is a prominentexample of Late Archaic mound-builder construction (c. 2500 BCE - 1000 BCE). It is a strikingcomplex of more than one square mile, where six earthwork crescent ridges were built in concentricarrangement, interrupted by radial aisles. Three mounds are also part of the main complex, and evidenceof residences extends for about 3 miles along the bank of Bayou Maçon. It is the major site among 100associated with the Poverty Point culture and is one of the best-known early examples of earthworkmonumental architecture. Unlike the localized societies during the Middle Archaic, this culture showedevidence of a wide trading network outside its area, which is one of its distinguishing characteristics.

Woodland period

The Archaic period was followed by the Woodland period (c.1000 BCE). Some well-understood examples are the Adenaculture of Ohio and nearby states. The subsequent Hopewellculture built monuments from present-day Illinois to Ohio; it isrenowned for its geometric earthworks. The Adena andHopewell were not the only mound-building peoples during thistime period. There were contemporaneous mound-buildingcultures throughout the Eastern United States. During this timeperiod, in parts of present-day Mississippi, Arkansas, andLouisiana, the Hopewellian Marksville culture declined and gaveway to the Baytown culture.[17]

Coles Creek culture

The Coles Creek culture is a Late Woodland culture (700-1200 CE) in the Lower Mississippi Valley inthe southern United States that marks a significant change in the cultural history of the area. Populationand cultural and political complexity increased, especially by the end of the Coles Creek period.Although many of the classic traits of chiefdom societies were not yet manifested, by 1000 CE theformation of simple elite polities had begun. Coles Creek sites are found in Arkansas, Louisiana,Oklahoma, Mississippi and Texas. The Coles Creek culture is considered ancestral to the Plaquemineculture.[18][19]

Mississippian cultures


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The mound of the Great Sun,Grand Village of the Natchez,1200 CE

Around 900–1450 CE, the Mississippian culture developed and spread through the Eastern UnitedStates, primarily along the river valleys.[20] The largest regional center where the Mississippian cultureis first clearly developed is located in Illinois and is referred to today as Cahokia. It had several regionalvariants including the Middle Mississippian culture of Cahokia, the South Appalachian Mississippianvariant at Moundville and Etowah, the Plaquemine Mississippian variant in south Louisiana andMississippi,[21] and the Caddoan Mississippian culture of northwestern Louisiana, eastern Texas, andsouthwestern Arkansas.[22]

Fort Ancient culture

Fort Ancient is the name for a Native American culture that flourished from 1000-1650 CE among apeople who predominantly inhabited land along the Ohio River in areas of southern modern-day Ohio,northern Kentucky and western West Virginia. Scholars once thought this was an expansion of theMississippian cultures, but they now believe the Fort Ancient culture was an independently developedculture descended from the Hopewell culture.

Plaquemine culture

This was an archaeological culture in the lower Mississippi RiverValley in western Mississippi and eastern Louisiana. Goodexamples of this culture's constructions are found at the Medora Sitein West Baton Rouge Parish, La; and the Anna, Emerald Mound,Winterville and Holly Bluff (Lake George) sites in Mississippi.[23]

Plaquemine culture was contemporaneous with the MiddleMississippian culture at the Cahokia site in Illinois. It is consideredancestral to the historic Natchez and Taensa peoples encountered byEuropeans.[24]

Hopewell traditions

Troyville culture andBaytown culture


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Coles Creek culture

Mississippian culture

Caddoan Mississippianculture

Fort Ancient culture

Plaquemine culture

Alternative explanationsThrough the mid-nineteenth century, European Americans did not recognize that ancestors of the NativeAmericans had built the prehistoric mounds of the eastern U.S. They believed that the massiveearthworks and large ceremonial complexes were built by a different people. A New York Times articlefrom 1897 described a mound in Wisconsin in which a giant human skeleton measuring over nine feet inlength was found.[25] From 1886, another New York Times article described water receding from amound in Cartersville, Georgia which uncovered acres of skulls and bones, some of which were said tobe gigantic. Two thigh bones were measured with the height of their owners estimated at 14 feet.[26]

President Lincoln made reference to the giants whose bones fill the mounds of America. "But still thereis more. It calls up the indefinite past. When Columbus first sought this continent---when Christ sufferedon the cross---when Moses led Israel through the Red-Sea---nay, even, when Adam first came from thehand of his Maker---then as now, Niagara was roaring here. The eyes of that species of extinct giants,whose bones fill the mounds of America, have gazed on Niagara, as ours do now. Co[n]temporary withthe whole race of men, and older than the first man, Niagara is strong, and fresh to-day as ten thousandyears ago. The Mammoth and Mastodon---now so long dead, that fragments of their monstrous bones,alone testify, that they ever lived, have gazed on Niagara. In that long---long time, never still for a singlemoment. Never dried, never froze, never slept, never rested."[27]

The antiquarian author William Pidgeon created fraudulent surveys of mound groups that did not existpossibly tainting this view which gave way to many others.[28][29][30]


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A key work in increasing public knowledge of the origins of the mounds was the 1894 report by CyrusThomas of the Bureau of American Ethnology (now Smithsonian Institution). He concluded that theprehistoric earthworks of the eastern United States were the work of early cultures of Native Americans.A small number of people had earlier reached similar conclusions: Thomas Jefferson, for example,excavated a mound and from the artifacts and burial practices, noted similarities between mound-builderfuneral practices and those of Native Americans in his time. In addition, Theodore Lewis in 1886 hadrefuted Pidgeon's fraudulent claims of pre-Native American moundbuilders.[31]

Writers and scholars have put forward numerous alternative origins for the Mound Builders:

Vikings

Benjamin Smith Barton proposed the theory that the Mound Builders were Vikings who came to NorthAmerica and eventually disappeared.[32]

Ancient world immigrants

Other people believed that Greeks, Africans, Chinese or assorted Europeans built the mounds. SomeEuro-Americans who embraced a Biblical worldview thought the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel had built themounds.[32]

Book of Mormon inhabitants

Beginning during the 19th century a common belief is that the Jews, particularly the Lost Ten Tribes,were the ancestors of Native Americans and the Mound Builders.[33] The Book of Mormon (firstpublished in 1830) provides an example of this belief, as its narrative describes two waves ofimmigration to the Americas from Mesopotamia: the Jaredites (ca. 3000 - 2000 BCE) and an Israelitegroup in 590 BCE (called Nephites, Lamanites and Mulekites). The Book of Mormon depicts thesesettlers building magnificent cities, which were destroyed by warfare around 385 CE.

Some Mormon scholars have considered The Book of Mormon narrative a description of the mound-building cultures; other Mormon apologists argue for a Mesoamerican or South American setting.[34]

Theories about a Mesoamerican setting for the Book of Mormon did not arise until after Latter-daySaints were influenced by publicized findings about the Central American stone ruins. This occurredafter the Book of Mormon was published.[35]

Black civilizations

In the 20th century, certain sects affiliated with the Black nationalist Moorish Science philosophytheorized a connection with the Mound Builders. They argue that the Mound Builders were an ancientadvanced Black civilization that developed the legendary continents of Atlantis and Mu, as well asancient Egypt and Mesoamerica. These black groups, similar to European Americans in earlier periods,propose that the American Indians were too primitive to have developed the sophisticated societies andthe technology believed necessary to build the mounds.

Divine creation


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The Reverend Landon West claimed that Serpent Mound in Ohio was built by God, or by man inspiredby him. He believed that God built the mound and placed it as a symbol of the story of the Garden ofEden.[36][37]

Mythical cultures

Some people attributed the mounds to mythical cultures: Lafcadio Hearn suggested that the moundswere built by people from the Lost Continent of Atlantis.[32][38]

Effects of alternative explanations

The mound builder explanations were often honest misinterpretations of real data from valid sources.Both scholars and laymen accepted some of these explanations. Reference to an alleged race appears inthe poem "The Prairies" (1832) by William Cullen Bryant.[39]

Assumption that construction was too complex for Indians

One belief was that American Indians were too unsophisticated to have constructed such complexearthworks and artifacts. The associated stone, metal, and clay artifacts were thought to be too complexfor the Indians to have made. In the American Southeast, and Midwest, numerous Indian cultures weresedentary and participated in agriculture. Numerous Indian towns had built surrounding stockades fordefense. Capable of this type of construction, they and ancestors could have built mounds, but peoplewho believed that the Indians did not build the earthworks did not analyze it in this way. They thoughtthe Native American nomadic cultures would not organize to build such monuments, for failure todevote the time and effort to construct such time-consuming projects.[32]

When most Europeans first arrived in America, they never witnessed the American Indians buildingmounds, and they found that few Indians knew of their history when asked. Yet earlier Europeans,especially the Spanish, had written numerous non-English-language accounts about the Indians'construction of mounds. Garcilaso de la Vega reported how the Indians built the mounds and placedtemples on top of them. A few French expeditions reported staying with Indian societies who builtmounds.[32]

Assumption construction older than Indians

People also claimed that the Indians were not the Mound Builders because the mounds and relatedartifacts were older than Indian cultures. Caleb Atwater's misunderstanding of stratigraphy led him tobelieve that the Mound Builders were a much older civilization than the Indians. In his book, AntiquitiesDiscovered in the Western States (1820), Atwater claimed that Indian remains were always found rightbeneath the surface of the earth. Since the artifacts associated with the Mound Builders were found fairlydeep in the ground, Atwater argued that they must be from a different group of people. The discovery ofmetal artifacts further convinced people that the Mound Builders were not Native Americans. TheIndians encountered by the Europeans and Americans were not thought to engage in metallurgy. Someartifacts that were found in relation to the mounds were inscribed with symbols. As the Europeans didnot know of any Indian cultures that had a writing system, they assumed a different group had createdthem.[32]


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HoaxesSeveral hoaxes were associated with the Mound Builder cultures.

Newark Holy Stones

In 1860, David Wyrick discovered the "Keystone tablet", containing Hebrew language inscriptionswritten on it in Newark, Ohio. Soon after, he found the "Newark Decalogue Stone" nearby, also claimedto be inscribed in Hebrew. The authenticity of the "Newark Holy Stones" and the circumstances of theirdiscovery are disputed.[32]

Davenport tablets

Reverend Jacob Gass discovered what were called the Davenport tablets. These bore inscriptions thatlater were determined to be fake.[32]

Walam Olum hoax

The Walam Olum hoax had considerable influence on perceptions of the Mound Builders. In 1836Constantine Samuel Rafinesque published his translation of a text he claimed had been written inpictographs on wooden tablets. This text explained that the Lenape Indians originated in Asia, told oftheir passage over the Bering Strait, and narrated their subsequent migration across the North Americancontinent. This “Walam Olum” tells of battles with native peoples already in America before the Lenapearrived. People hearing of the account believed that the "original people" were the Mound Builders, andthat the Lenape overthrew them and destroyed their culture. David Oestreicher later asserted thatRafinesque's account was a hoax. He argued that the Walam Olum glyphs were derived from Chinese,Egyptian, and Mayan alphabets. Meanwhile, the belief that the Native Americans destroyed the moundbuilder culture had gained widespread acceptance.[32]

Kinderhook Plates

The Kinderhook plates, "discovered" in 1843, were another hoax, consisting of material planted by acontemporary in Native American mounds. This hoax was intended to discredit the account of theMormon prophet Joseph Smith having translated an ancient book.[40][41]

See also

List of burial mounds in the United StatesPetroformsSerpent MoundSoutheastern Ceremonial ComplexTumulus, Mounds (or barrows) of Europe and Asia

Notes


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Panoramic view from within the GreatCircle at the Newark Earthworks inNewark, Ohio (wall of which can be seenin the background)

^ See Squier p. 11. ^ Constance E. Richards, "Contact and Conflict(http://www.warren-wilson.edu/~arch/berrysitepress/amerarchspring2008.pdf)", American Archaeologist, Spring2004, accessed 26 Jun 2008

2.

^ Robert W. Preucel, Stephen A. Mrozowski, ContemporaryArchaeology in Theory: The New Pragmatism,(http://books.google.com/books?id=Ccsmpug-xaoC&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=Hedgepeth+Middle+Archaic+site&source=bl&ots=2wHOwXsN4r&sig=5dL53XIFwgUqr8BCFujsxMRXpBo&hl=en&ei=x8-tTo-SBcrIsQLa6pXaDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFwQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Hedgepeth%20Middle%20Archaic%20site&f=false) John Wiley & Sons, 2010, p. 177

3.

^ Mallory O'Connor, Lost Cities of the Ancient Southeast (University Press of Florida, 1995)4. ^ Ephraim Squier and Edwin Davis, Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley (SmithsonianContributions to Knowledge, vol. 1. Washington DC, 1848)

5.

^ Biloine Young and Melvin Fowler, Cahokia: The Great Native American Metropolis (University of IllinoisPress, 2000)

6.

^ Davis Brose and N'omi Greber (eds.), Hopewell Archaeology (Kent State UP, 1979)7. ^ Roger Kennedy, Hidden Cities: The Discovery and Loss of Ancient North American Civilization (FreePress, 1994)

8.

^ Robert Silverberg, "...And the Mound-Builders Vanished from the Earth", originally in the 1969 edition ofAmerican Heritage, collected in the anthology A Sense of History [Houghton-Mifflin, 1985]; available onlinehere (http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1969/4/1969_4_60.shtml).

9.

^ Gordon M. Sayre, "The Mound Builders and the Imagination of American Antiquity in Jefferson, Bartram,and Chateaubriand", Early American Literature 33 (1998): 225-249.

10.

^ a b Rebecca Saunders, "The Case for Archaic Period Mounds in Southeastern Louisiana"(http://www.jstor.org/pss/40656501), Southeastern Archaeology, Vol. 13, No. 2, Winter 1994, accessed 4November 2011

11.

^ "Important new findings in Louisiana" (http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/000363.html). ArchaeoNews. Stone Pages. Retrieved 5 September 2011.

12.

^ Joe W. Saunders, "Middle Archaic and Watson Brake" (http://books.google.com/books?id=Ed3aT7jIxQUC&dq=Monte+Sano+Site+%2816EBR17%29&source=gbs_navlinks_s), inArchaeology of Louisiana, edited by Mark A. Rees, Ian W. (FRW) Brown, LSU Press, 2010, p. 67

13.

^ a b Saunders, in Rees and Brown (2010), Archaeology of Louisiana, pp. 69-7614. ^ Saunders, in Rees and Brown (2010), Archaeology of Louisiana, pp. 73-7415. ^ Saunders, in Rees and Brown (2010), Archaeology of Louisiana, p. 6316. ^ "Southeastern Prehistory-Late Woodland Period" (http://www.nps.gov/seac/outline/04-woodland/index-17.


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3.htm). Retrieved 2008-09-23.^ Kidder, Tristram (1998). R. Barry Lewis, Charles Stout, ed. Mississippian Towns and Sacred Spaces.University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-0947-0.

18.

^ "Troyville-Coles Creek" (http://www.crt.state.la.us/archaeology/virtualbooks/LAPREHIS/marca.htm).Louisiana prehistory. 2010-07-01.

19.

^ Adam King (2002). "Mississippian Period: Overview" (http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-707). New Georgia Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2010-07-01.

20.

^ "Mississippian and Late Prehistoric Period" (http://www.nps.gov/seac/outline/05-mississippian/index.htm).Retrieved 2010-07-01.

21.

^ Peter N. Peregrine (1995). Archaeology of the Mississippian culture: a research guide. Garland Publishing.p. 165. ISBN 978-0-8153-0336-7.

22.

^ "Mississippian and Late Prehistoric Period" (http://www.nps.gov/seac/outline/05-mississippian/index.htm).Retrieved 2008-09-08.

23.

^ "The Plaquemine Culture, A.D 1000" (http://bcn.boulder.co.us/environment/cacv/cacvbrvl.htm). Retrieved2008-09-08.

24.

^ "WISCONSIN MOUND OPENED.; Skeleton Found of a Man Over Nine Feet High with an EnormousSkull." (http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9B02EED61330E333A25753C2A9649D94669ED7CF). New York Times. December20, 1897.

25.

^ "MONSTER SKULLS AND BONES." (http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9C07E1D71330E533A25756C0A9629C94679FD7CF). New York Times. April 5,1886.

26.

^ Lincoln, Abraham (1953). "Fragment: Niagara Falls [c. September 25-30, 1848]"(http://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln2/1:6?rgn=div1;view=fulltext). In Basler, Roy P. Collected Worksof Abraham Lincoln (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/) 2. pp. 10–11.

27.

^ Pidgeon, William (1858) Traditions of Dee-Coo-Dah and Antiquarian Researches. Horace Thayer, NewYork.

28.

^ Finney, Fred (2008) William Pidgeon and T.H. Lewis. Minnesota Archaeologist 67: 89-10529. ^ Birmingham, Robert A. and Leslie E. Eisenberg (2000) Indian Mounds of Wisconsin. University ofWisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin, pp 24-27.

30.

^ Lewis, Theodore H. (1886) "The 'Monumental Tortoise' Mounds of 'Dee-Coo-Dah'" The American Journalof Archaeology 2(1):65-69.

31.

^ a b c d e f g h i Feder, Kenneth L. (2005). "The Myth of the Moundbuilders". Frauds, Myths, And Mysteries:Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology (http://www.udel.edu/anthro/neitzel/mythofmoundbuilders.pdf).Central Connecticut State Univ: McGraw Hill. pp. 151–155, 159–160, 164–166. ISBN 978-0-07-286948-4.Retrieved May 19, 2012.

32.

^ Chapman, Jefferson. "Prehistoric American Indians in Tennessee" (http://mcclungmuseum.utk.edu/research/renotes/rn-27txt.htm). University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Retrieved 2012-02-08.

33.


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^ Jon Daniels. "The Book of Mormon and Mesoamerican Archeology" (http://www.stanford.edu/~jsdaniel/BoM_Meso.html). Stanford University. Retrieved 2012-02-08.

34.

^ See the anonymous newspaper article titled "ZARAHEMLA", Mormon Times and Seasons, October 1842,excerpts from John Lloyd Stephens, Incident of Travel in Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan (1841).Stephens’ conclusion that the Central American stone ruins were not of any great antiquity was overlookedby excited LDS readers.

35.

^ Ohio Historical Society. Ohio history, Volume 10 (http://books.google.com/books?pg=PA225&lpg=PA225&dq=Landon%20West%20reverend&sig=xH3okSLAZOI_7kCKV7_lyMgaiwc&ei=TDEtTs3WD-2msAKqnd2GCw&ct=result&id=SbYBG7ynKZAC&ots=zdG1YgwLtn&output=text).Retrieved 2011-07-25. "The Garden of Eden, it seems, is now definitely located. The site is in Ohio, "Adams"county, to be more precise...The Rev. Landon West of Pleasant Hill, O., a prominent and widely knownminister of the Baptist church... arrives at the conclusion that this great work was created either by Godhimself or by man inspired by Him to make an everlasting object lesson of man's disobedience, Satan'sperfidy and the results of sin and death. In support of this startling claim the Rev. Mr. West quotes Scriptureand refers to Job 16:13: "By His spirit. He hath garnished the heavens; His hand hath formed the crookedserpent.""

36.

^ BROOK WILENSKY-LANFORD (May 23, 2011). "ADAM AND EVE--AND REVEREND WEST--INOHIO" (http://www.thecommononline.org/features/adam-and-eve-and-reverend-west-ohio). The Common."The Eden I found in a 1909 pamphlet by Reverend Landon West—the Serpent Mound earthwork that is nowan Ohio state park—was still preserved for all to see, so I went...Details that fell outside of West’s lifetimewere hard to fit into the book: his son Dan West became the founder of the Heifer Project charity, and hisaccomplishments no doubt helped preserve the memory of his father’s Garden of Eden."

37.

^ Hearn, Lafcadio (April 24, 1876). "The Mound Builders" (http://www.trussel.com/prehist/mound.htm). TheCommercial. Retrieved May 17, 2012.

38.

^ Bryant, William Cullen, "The Prairies" (1832) (http://www.4literature.net/William_Cullen_Bryant/Prairies/)

39.

^ Kimball, Stanley B. (Aug. 1981). "Kinderhook Plates Brought to Joseph Smith Appear to Be a Nineteenth-Century Hoax (http://www.lds.org/ensign/1981/08/kinderhook-plates-brought-to-joseph-smith-appear-to-be-a-nineteenth-century-hoax)". Ensign (LDS Church). Retrieved May 17, 2012.

40.

^ Evans, Glenn; Groat, Joel B. (2003). "Joseph Smith and the Kinderhook Plates: Overview and CurrentPerspectives (http://www.irr.org/mit/kinderhook-plates.html)". Mormons in Transition (IRR). Retrieved May17, 2012.

41.

References

Abrams, Elliot M.; Freter, AnnCorinne, eds. (2005). The Emergence of the Moundbuilders: TheArchaeology of Tribal Societies in Southeastern Ohio. Athens: Ohio University Press.ISBN 978-0-8214-1609-9.


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Wikisource has the text ofthe 1911 EncyclopædiaBritannica article Mound-builders.

Thomas, Cyrus. Report on the mound explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology. Pp. 3–730. Twelfthannual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1890–91,by J. W. Powell, Director. XLVIII+742 pp., 42 pls., 344 figs. 1894.Feder, Kenneth L. Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology’’.5th ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2006.Squier, E.G.; Davis, E.H. (1847). Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley(http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4301/). Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution.

Further reading

Gale, George (1867). Upper Mississippi: or, Historical Sketches of the Mound-builders, the Indiantribes and the Progress of Civilization in the North-west, from A.D. 1600 to the Present Time(http://www.archive.org/stream/uppermississippi00galerich#page/n7/mode/2up). Chicago: Clarke.

External links

Lost Race Myth (http://archaeology.about.com/od/lterms/g/lostraces.htm)LenaweeHistory.com | Mound Builders section, TheWestern Historical Society 1909, reprint.(http://www.lenaweehistory.com/lenawee-ch1.html#indians)Artist Hideout, Art of the Ancients (http://www.artisthideout.com/art-of-the-ancients-2/)Ancient Monuments Placemarks (http://jqjacobs.net/archaeo/sites/)The Mound Builders at Project GutenbergWith Climate Swing, a Culture Bloomed in Americas (http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=18888119) (mound builders in Peru)Science 19 September 1997 (http://www.sciencemag.org/content/277/5333/1796.full) (A MoundComplex in Louisiana at 5400-5000 Years Before the Present)Bruce Smith video on the 1880s Smithsonian explorations to determine who built the ancientearthen mounds in eastern North America can be viewed as part of series 19th Century Explorersand Anthropologists: Developing the Earliest Smithsonian Anthropology Collections(http://anthropology.si.edu/founding_collections.html)

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Categories: Mound builders (people) Pre-Columbian architecture Archaic period in North AmericaFormative period in the Americas Archaeological cultures of North AmericaPre-Columbian cultures Woodland period of North America Native American archeologyNative American history Mounds

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