Babbling - Crosslinguistics Similarities and Differences in Babbling
Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow...
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Transcript of Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow...
![Page 1: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Motor Control
![Page 2: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Beyond babbling
• Three problems with motor babbling:– Random exploration is slow– Error-based learning algorithms are faster but
error signals are available in sensory coordinates only
– Real arms have two many degrees of freedom
![Page 3: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Degrees of freedom
1
2
1
2
Averageposition
![Page 4: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
General Learning Principles
W
X
Y Yd
2
2
1
1,
212
d d
Nd
i ii
d
E f Y Y Y Y
Y Y
E E YW
W Y WY
Y YW
Error
This works if we have equations for this term…
![Page 5: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
General Learning Principles
W
X*
Y XE
WW
Error
?
?
![Page 6: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Forward Modeling
Cortex: InverseModel
Cortex: InverseModel
Desired Position of the hand
Reaching Motor command
ArmArm
Hand Displacement
![Page 7: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Forward Modeling
InverseModel
InverseModel
Desired Sensory Change
Motor command
PlantPlant
Sensory Change
![Page 8: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
InverseModel
InverseModel
Desired Sensory Change: Sd
Motor command (M)
ArmArm
Sensory Change: : S -Sd- S)
212
d
ijij
E S S
Ew
w
Learning starts with desired change, not a spontaneous movement.
Forward Modeling
![Page 9: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Forward Modeling
InverseModel
InverseModel
Desired Sensory Change: Sd
Motor command (M)
ArmArm
Sensory Change: : S -ij
ij
ij
Ew
w
E MM w
Major problem:How do we compute
?EM
Sd- S)
![Page 10: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Forward Modeling
InverseModel
InverseModel
ForwardModel
ForwardModel
Desired Sensory Change: : Sd
Predicted Sensory Change: : Sp
Motor command
PlantPlant
Sensory Change: S-Sd- Sp)
![Page 11: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Forward Modeling
We can’t compute
but we can use instead,
ijij
E Mw
M w
212
P
ijij
P d P
E Mw
M w
E S S
![Page 12: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Forward Modeling
This works as long as:
This means that the forward model only needs to be approximately correct
0PE E
M M
![Page 13: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Forward Modeling
InverseModel
InverseModel
ForwardModel
ForwardModel
Desired Sensory Change: : S*
Predicted Sensory Change: Sp
Motor command
PlantPlant
Sensory Change: S - S- Sp)
Training the forward model with motor babbling using prediction error
![Page 14: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Forward Modeling
InverseModel
InverseModel
ForwardModel
ForwardModel
Desired Sensory Change: : Sd
Predicted Sensory Change: : Sp
Motor command
- Sd- Sp)
Off line training of inverse model with predicted performance error
![Page 15: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Forward Modeling
InverseModel
InverseModel
ForwardModel
ForwardModel
Desired Sensory Change: : Sd
Predicted Sensory Change: : Sp
Motor command
PlantPlant
Sensory Change: S - Sd- S)
On line training of inverse models using performance error
![Page 16: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Forward Modeling
• Forward models can be used to predict the consequences of motor commands
• The prediction can be used to drive a linear inverse model (e.g. Jacobian) since they are not subject to long delays
• The prediction can be subtracted from current sensory input to compute the prediction error.
• Errors can be used to improve prediction.
![Page 17: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Modular Approach
• Sensorimotor transformations are context dependent, e.g., the force required to move an object depends on the mass of the objects.
• A central controller for all contexts might not be feasible and would take too many resources
• Alternative: use a family of controllers and mix them smoothly across contexts.
![Page 18: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Responsibility Estim
ator
Modular Approach
1t
*t tu u
X
X
XX
+
2t
3t
11tu
1t
*tx
1 11
ˆn
i it t t
i
u u
InverseModel 1
fbtu
or
![Page 19: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Modular Approach
• The weights of the inverse model are adjusted according to:
*i
i i itt t t ti
t
duu u
d
![Page 20: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Responsibility Estim
ator
Modular Approach
1ˆtx
tx 1t
ForwardModel 1
X
X1
+
-
XX
+
ut
2t
3ttx
2/erre
11ˆtx
1t 2
2
ˆ
ˆ
1
it t
jt t
x x
it n
x x
j
e
e
• To compute the responsibility, use the forward models
Favors the model which makes the best prediction at the previous time step
![Page 21: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Modular Approach
• The weights of the forward model are adjusted according to:
ˆˆ
ii i itt t t ti
t
dxw x x
dw
![Page 22: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Modular Approach
• We can also add a responsibility predictor.
where yt are the sensory cues used for the predictions.
ˆ ,
ˆˆ
i it t t
ii i itt t ti
t
y
d
d
![Page 23: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Modular Approach
• The overall responsibility is computed according to:
plays the role of a likelihood function, while is the prior.
2
2
ˆ
ˆ
1
ˆ
ˆ
it t
jt t
x xii tt n
x xjt
j
e
e
ˆit
2ˆi
t tx xe
![Page 24: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• The inverse problem (inverse dynamics)
• Ex: Controlling the trajectory of a spaceship
0 0
Forward Model
( )
Inverse Model
t t
x t a d d
F t ma t mx t
x t
F t
![Page 25: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• The inverse problem (inverse dynamics)
• Ex: a multi-joint arm ((t): joint torques)
1
Forward Model
, ,
Inverse Model
, ,D D D
x t x t x t H t
t H x t x t x t
, ,D D Dx t x t x t
t
![Page 26: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• The inverse problem (inverse dynamics) – Feedback models– Feedforward models– Equilibrium point models
![Page 27: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• The inverse problem: feedback models• Generate force according to the difference
between desired position and actual position (easy to compute in linear systems).
• Unstable because of sensory delays• Works better if the “actual position” is internally
estimated by a forward model• Adapts on the fly to change of context• Popular model of the oculomotor system
![Page 28: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• The inverse problem: feedforward models• Estimating torque and its differentials from
a desired trajectory is a nonlinear mapping• Use a basis function network to implement
the mapping• Subject to the curse of dimensionality• Unable to adapt to change of context
(unless you add context units…)
![Page 29: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• The inverse problem (inverse dynamics)
• Ex: a multi-joint arm ((t): joint torques)
1
Forward Model
, ,
Inverse Model
, ,D D D
x t x t x t H t
t H x t x t x t
, ,D D Dx t x t x t
t
![Page 30: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• Equilibrium models
• Basic idea: the motor system only specifies the muscle length that maintain the arm at the desired location (in other words, it only specifies the joint coordinates).
![Page 31: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• Equilibrium models• Monkeys can reach accurately without
proprioceptive or visual feedback• If the arm is moved to the end point right at
the onset of a movement, it goes back to the starting point and resume its trajectory. This implies that trajectory are specified by moving the equilibrium point
![Page 32: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• Equilibrium models
• How do you control trajectories? The motor system may specify the trajectory of the equilibrium point (virtual trajectory). Unless muscles are very stiff, the actual trajectory will end up being very different. This makes it difficult to control trajectories very precisely.
![Page 33: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• There is an infinite number of trajectories between two points. How do we choose one? Do you have to specify one?
– Minimum Jerk (Flash & Hogan)– Maximum accuracy (Harris & Wolpert)– Optimal control (Todorov & Jordan)
![Page 34: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• Minimum Jerk
• Goal: find (t) minimizing C. The solution can be found using calculus of variations.
0
23
3
ft
t
dC dt
dt
![Page 35: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• Minimum Jerk
• It’s unclear how Jerk is computed in the brain.
• No principled explanation for why the brain would minimize such a quantity.
![Page 36: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• Maximum accuracy• Hypothesis: trajectory are optimized to
maximize accuracy• Assumption: motor commands are corrupted by
noise with standard deviation proportional to mean (this is different from Poisson noise!!)
• Question: for a fixed duration and amplitude of a movement, what’s the optimal control signal?
![Page 37: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• Maximum accuracy
• Large control signals lead to fast but inaccurate movements
• Small control signals lead to accurate but slow movements.
• Goal: select the control signal that leads to maximum accuracy for a given duration.
![Page 38: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• Maximum accuracy
• wt: white noise with mean zero and variance kut2
1
11
1 01
t t t t
tt t i
t i ii
x x u w
x x u w
A B
A A B
11
01
11 1 2
0
tt t i
t ii
tTt i t i
t ii
E x x u
Cov x k u
A A B
A B A B
![Page 39: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• Maximum accuracy
• Goal: minimize cov[xt] under the constraint that E[xt] is equal the desired location for several time steps after the end of the movement. Quadratic problem.
11
01
11 1 2
0
tt t i
t ii
tTt i t i
t ii
E x x u
Cov x k u
A A B
A B A B
![Page 40: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• Maximum accuracy
• Eye Movements
![Page 41: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• Maximum accuracy
• Arm Movements
0 100 2000
50
100
150
200
250
Time (ms)
Vel
oci
ty (
cm s
–1 )
0 100 2000
50
100
150
200
250
Time (ms)
0 100 2000
50
100
150
200
250
Time (ms)
a b c O bserved Predicted Param etricsensit iv ity
![Page 42: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• Optimal motor control (Todorov-Jordan)• Experts show a lot of variance in their
movements but high accuracy on end points
• Indeed, there are directions in motor space that induce no variance in end points, because of the large number of degrees of freedom
![Page 43: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• Optimal motor control (Todorov-Jordan)
• Choose trajectory with maximum accuracy and minimum effort
![Page 44: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
final
2final final *1 2 0
, 1,2
arg min
i i i i ix ax u u i
E x x X
u
x1
x2
1St solution: bring X to a value X* such that x1*=(X0*)1, x2*=(X0*)2
(X0*)2
(X0*)1
Line where the constraint is verified
*1 2 0x x X
![Page 45: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
final
2final final *1 2 0
, 1,2
arg min
i i i i ix ax u u i
E x x X
u
x1
x2
(X0*)2
(X0*)1
Additional noise
1St solution: bring X to a value X* such that x1*=(X0*)1, x2*=(X0*)2
![Page 46: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
final
2final final * 2 21 2 0 1 2
, 1,2
arg min
i i i i ix ax u u i
E x x X r u u
u
x1
x2
2nd solution: To minimize effort, go to the closest point such that x1*+x2*=X0*
![Page 47: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
final
2final final * 2 21 2 0 1 2
, 1,2
arg min
i i i i ix ax u u i
E x x X r u u
u
x1
x2
2nd solution: To minimize effort, go to the closest point such that x1*+x2*=X0*
![Page 48: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
final
2final final * 2 21 2 0 1 2
, 1,2
arg min
i i i i ix ax u u i
E x x X r u u
u
x1 x1
x2x2
![Page 49: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
Controlling a trajectory
• Optimal motor control (Todorov-Jordan)
X 1+X 2
-X*
Task e
rror
X1 -X
2
More task errorLess variability in solutions
![Page 50: Motor Control. Beyond babbling Three problems with motor babbling: –Random exploration is slow –Error-based learning algorithms are faster but error signals.](https://reader036.fdocuments.us/reader036/viewer/2022081603/56649f2f5503460f94c48e5e/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
Open question
• How does the nervous system compute the solutions to those optimization problems?
• Is it done off line (i.e., does the CNS specify a trajectory?) or on line? Attractor nets?