Motivation

Today we coverHow does motivation activate, direct, and sustain behavior? How do people achieve personal goals?What is addiction?Drugs and AlcoholOpiatesMDMAMarijuanaLSDAlcohol

MotivationA need or desire that energizes or directs a behaviorA hypothetical state within an organism that propels it toward Instigation and maintenance of a behaviorAchievement of a goal

Some Definitions Instinct: A complex unlearned behavior rigidly patterned throughout a speciesHomeostasis: A tendency to maintain a constant internal stateDrive-reduction theory: A physiological need creates arousal which motivates an organism to satisfy the need

DefinitionsNeeds are states of deficiencyDrives are psychological states activated to satisfy needsNeeds produce states of arousal which drive behaviorIncentives are external motivators that motivate behaviors

Maslows Hierarchy of NeedsCrandall & Jones (1986): ScaleSatisfaction of lower level needs creates upper level needs Motivation enables satisfaction of needs

Fig. 9.6

The pleasure principleMotivational states arouse behaviors that solve adaptive problems and produce pleasure

Pleasure is associated with dopamine release, and many pleasurable behaviors exceed adaptive needs

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic motivationExtrinsic motivation = external goalsIntrinsic motivation = value or pleasure of an activity for its own sakeIntrinsic motivatorsCuriosityPlayCreativityProblem solvingWhat happens when you give extrinsic motive for an intrinsically motivated activity?

What Is Addiction?

Addiction Has Psychological and Physical AspectsPhysical vs. psychological dependence

Both negative and positive reinforcement operate in producing addiction

Both social and individual levels of analysis contribute to causation

Experimenters are better adjusted than abstainers

DependencePhysical Dependence

Psychological Dependence

kicking the habitgoing cold turkey

Negative and Positive ReinforcementDrugs operate via negative and positive reinforcementUsing: positive reinforcementWithdrawal unpleasant: using again = negative reinforcementWithdrawal symptoms: positive punishment

PsychopharmacologyThe study of the effects of drugs on mood, sensation, consciousness, or other psychological or behavioral functions

Stimulants

Increase behavioral and mental activityActivate the sympathetic nervous systemInterfere with the normal reuptake of dopamine by the releasing neuronSome stimulants also increase the release of dopamine Caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines

Amphetamine PsychosisPsychosis resulting from the use of amphetaminesParanoia, delusions, hallucinations, and thought disorder

MDMA (Ecstasy)stimulates the release and inhibits the reuptake of serotonin (5-HT)

Tuesday Blues

Therapeutic applications?

Neurotoxicity of MDMA

MarijuanaThe most widely used illegal drug in North AmericaTetrahydrocannabinol (THC)THC receptors in the hippocampusImpaired focus, attention, comprehension

Cognitive impairment from heavy marijuana use may linger for a week or longer, but it does not appear to be permanent" -Harrison Pope

OpiatesAnalgesic propertiesOpium, heroine, morphine, codeineHighly addictiveCocaine developed as a cure for opiate addiction

HallucinogensD-Lysergic acid diethylamide, Psilocybin, mescaline LSD: actions at multiple receptorsNot physiologically addictive, no withdrawal, and no documented toxic fatalitiesPsychosis: sometimes prolongedFlashbacks and Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD)

What is Alcohol?Alcohol is a sedativeIt is primarily used for recreation, not medicine2nd most commonly used psychoactive drug in the world (first is caffeine)

Alcohol Is the Most Widely Abused DrugAlcohols believed effects motivate drinking

The balanced placebo design helps researchers separate alcohol effects from alcohol-expectancy effects

Believing one has consumed alcohol can produce learned disinhibition of social behaviors

Fig. 9.16

The Pharmacokinetics of Alcohol: AbsorptionAlcohol is soluble in both fat and waterThis means alcohol is absorbed though the gastrointestinal tract and through the blood brain barrier20% is absorbed through the stomach the other 80% through the upper intestine

Concentration-Effect Relationship

BAC [%]Effects0.02-0.03Mood elevation. Slight muscle relaxation.0.05-0.06Relaxation and Warmth. Increased reaction time. Decreased fine muscle coordination.0.08-0.09Impaired balance, speech, vision, hearing, muscle coordination. Euphoria.0.14-0.15Gross impairment of physical and mental control.0.20-0.30Severely intoxicated. Very little control of mind or body.0.40-0.50Unconscious. Deep coma. Death from respiratory depression

The Pharmacokinetics of Alcohol: DistributionAlcohol easily crosses the blood-brain barrier because it is lipid solubleAlcohol can even cross the placental barrier and cause fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). FAS occurs in 30% to 50% of the infants of alcoholic mothers.

Effects of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure:Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Genetic Variation in ALDHAcetaldehyde Dehydrogenase (ALDH) varies in Whites, Blacks and Asians.

50% of Asians have inactive ALDH

Elevated acetaldehyde cause increased flushing, tachycardia (elevated heart rate), nausea, vomiting & hyperventilation.

Metabolism of Alcohol by Men and WomenSince men have less fat then women and larger blood vessels, men have a lower Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) than women

Also, women have 50% less enzyme then men, thus the metabolism rate is slower for alcohol absorption, so it takes longer for females bodies to rid themselves of the alcohol

Is a state of deficiency such as a lack of air or food9.6 The Yerkes-Dodson Law According tothis law, performance increases with arousaluntil an optimal point, after which arousalinterferes with performance.

Lepper, Greene, & NisbettAlbert Hoffman9.16 True Effects of Alcohol Theconsumption of alcohol typically includesboth physiological and expectancy effects.The balanced-placebo design allowsresearchers to examine these influenceson behavior separately.

Alcohol Pharmacology: Concentration-Response relationshipsThis slide shows the characteristic effects of alcohol at progressively increasing blood alcohol levels. Its important to note that this correlation is based on the acute use of alcohol by a socially-drinking, non-abusing individual. At low BACs corresponding to 1-2 drinks (0.02-0.03%), there is mood elevation and slight muscle relaxation. As BACs increase, there is increased relation, warmth, and increases in reaction time. At around the legal limit of intoxication, there is impairment of balance, speech, vision, hearing and muscle coordination, accompanied by feelings of euphoria. At higher BACs, there is progressive intoxication, impairment and loss of physical and mental control, until levels of 0.04-0.05 where the individual is in a deep coma and at risk of death from respiratory depression. It is important to re-emphasize that this is the scenario in non-abusing individuals. Once chronic use and abuse occurs and tolerance develop, the threshold concentrations at which these effects occur are elevated.