Motivation Theories

Theories of Motivation

Theories of MotivationI Semester MBA

1NITK SurathkalMotivationMotivation refers to forces within an individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.Direction an individuals choice when presented with a number of possible alternatives.Level the amount of effort a person puts forth.Persistence the length of time a person stays with a given action.

NITK Surathkal2Motivation and individual needsMotivationthe forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.NeedsUnfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an individual.Explain workplace behavior and attitudes.Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior.Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction.

NITK Surathkal3Theories of Motivation

Instinctmotives are innateDrivebiological needs as motivationIncentiveextrinsic things push or pull behaviorArousalpeople are motivated to maintain optimum level of arousalHumanistichierarchy of needsCompetence - demonstrating competence and exercising control in a situation Achievement directed toward excelling, succeeding, or outperforming others at some task Self-Determination Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation

NITK Surathkal4Instinct TheoryEmerging in the late 1800s, instinct theories contended that certain human behaviors are innate and due to evolutionary programming A complex, inherited, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a speciesAnimals display automatic and innate behavior patterns called fixed action patterns to environmental stimuliWilliam James listed 37 instincts.Criticism: Instinct theories merely describe and label behaviors rather than actually explaining them.

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DrivesBeginning in the 1920sOrganism feels tension created by imbalancesPushes an organism to restore the balance, typically reducing the drive and restoring homeostasis Part of drive-reduction theory

NITK Surathkal7Drive-Reduction TheoryThe idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the needEating and drinking are examples of drive-reducing behaviors.If you are cold, you would be driven to put on a coat to warm-up. If you shiver, that would be an instinctual behavior.Criticism: Cant explain why people often engage in behaviors that serve to increase tension and physiological arousalNITK Surathkal8Drives as Tissue Needs

Homeostasisthe constancy of internal conditions that the body must actively maintainDrives may be due to an upset in homeostasis, inducing behavior to correct the imbalanceAnimals do behave in accordance with their tissue needs (e.g., increasing or decreasing caloric intake, drive for salt)However, homeostasis cannot explain all drives

NITK Surathkal9Incentive TheoryBehavior motivated by the pull of external goals, such as rewards, money and recognition.Drew heavily from well-established learning principles, such as reinforcement, and the work of learning theorists, such as Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Tolman.Tolman also stressed the importance of cognitive factors in learning and motivation, especially the expectation that a particular behavior will lead to a particular goal. Criticism: Fails to explain behaviors that are not primarily motivated by any kind of external incentive

NITK Surathkal10Arousal Theory

Levels of alertness and responsiveness

People are motivated to maintain an optimum level of arousalneither too high nor too low

Curiosity motivehelps us understand our environment

NITK Surathkal11Sensation Seeking

A person high in sensation seeking tends to look for exciting (and sometimes risky) activities

NITK Surathkal12Categories of motivation theories.

Categories of motivation theories.Content theories.Focus on profiling the needs that people seek to fulfill.Process theories.Focus on peoples thought or cognitive processes.Reinforcement theories.Emphasize controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences.

NITK Surathkal13What do the content theories suggest about individual needs and motivation? Content theories.Motivation results from the individuals attempts to satisfy needs.Major content theories.Hierarchy of needs theory.ERG theory.Acquired needs theory.Two-factor theory. Each theory offers a slightly different view.NITK Surathkal14Theory of Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow defined human needs as:Physiological: the need for food, drink, shelter, and relief from pain.Safety and security: the need for freedom from threat; the security from threatening events or surroundings.Belongingness, social, and love: the need for friendship, affiliation, interaction, and love.Esteem: the need for self-esteem and for respect from others.Self-actualization: the need to fulfill oneself by maximizing the use of abilities, skills, and potential

NITK Surathkal15Maslows Theory of Hierarchy of NeedsNITK Surathkal16

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Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslows hierarchy of human needs.NITK Surathkal18

AssumptionsMaslows theory assumes that a person attempts to satisfy the more basic needs before directing behavior toward satisfying upper-level needs.Lower-order needs must be satisfied before a higher-order need begins to control a persons behavior.A satisfied need ceases to motivateNITK Surathkal19Alderfers ERG TheoryClayton P Alderfer proposed a hierarchy involving three sets of needs:Existence: needs satisfied by such factors as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions.Relatedness: needs satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships.Growth: needs satisfied by an individual making creative or productive contributions.Tested by Thematic Apperception Test

NITK Surathkal20Examples of Thematic Apperception TestNITK Surathkal21Chris ArgyrisInfluenced by the humanist approach of Abraham Maslow and the socio-technical process of E. Wight Bakke.Indicated his feelings about how organizations neglected human needs.If treated like a child one will behave like a child result is organizational mediocrityNITK Surathkal22Chris Argyris Personality vs. Organization Certain organizational practices, such as the division of labor, interfere with the development of healthy human personalities.These practices promote immature, not mature behavior.In an attempt to self-actualize, individuals run into the obstacles posed by formal organizations.The result is defensive behaviors, with management reacting by becoming more autocratic or by turning to sugar-coated human relations.

NITK Surathkal23Chris ArgyrisNITK Surathkal24

Albert BanduraAlbert Bandura proposed a social cognitive theory (social learning theory; self-efficacy theory) which refers to an individuals belief that they are capable of performing a task.Four ways self efficacy can be increased:Enactive mastery if youve performed task in the past, you can do it againVicarious modeling you become more confident because you see someone else do the taskVerbal persuasion you become more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to perform taskArousal if you get psyched up then you perform better

NITK Surathkal25David McClellands Theory of Needs or Acquired Needs TheoryNeed for Achievement (nAch) drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standardsNeed for Affiliation (nAff) the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationshipsNeed for Power (nPow) need to make others behave in a way in which they would not have behaved otherwise (to have power over them)

NITK Surathkal26Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)Taught psychology at MIT.At Antioch College, McGregor found that his classroom teaching of human relations did not always work in practice.From these experiences, his ideas evolve and lead him to recognize the influence of assumptions we make about people and our managerial style.Formulated Theory X and Theory YNITK Surathkal27Theory XManagement is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise money, materials, equipment, people in the interest of economic ends.With respect to people, this is a process of directing their efforts, motivating them, controlling their actions, modifying their behavior to fit the needs of the organization.Without this active intervention by management, people would be passive even resistant to organizational needs. They must, therefore, be persuaded, rewarded, punished, controlled their activities must be directed. This is managements task -- in managing subordinate managers or workers. We often sum it up by saying that management consists of getting things done through other people.

NITK Surathkal28Theory X Behind this conventional theory there are several additional beliefs less explicit, but widespread:The average man is by nature indolent he works as little as possible.He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, prefers to be led.He is inherently self-centered, indifferent to organizational needs.He is by nature resistant to change.He is gullible, not very bright the ready dupe of the charlatan and the demagogue.

NITK Surathkal29Theory YManagement is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise money, materials, equipment, people in the interest of economic ends. People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational needs. They have become so as a result of experience in organizations.The motivation, the potential for development, the capacity for assuming responsibility, the readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals are all present in people. Management does not put them there. It is a responsibility of management to make it possible for people to recognize and develop these human characteristics for themselves.The essential task of management is to arrange organizational conditions and methods of operation so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts toward organizational objectives.

NITK Surathkal30Theory XTheory YWork is inherently distasteful to most people.Most people are not ambitious, have little desire for responsibility, and prefer to be directed.Most people have little capacity for creativity in solving organizational problems.Motivation occurs only at the physiological and safety levels.Most people must be closely controlled and often coerced to achieve organizational objectives.

Work is as natural as play, if the conditions are favorable.Self-control is often indispensable in achieving organizational goals.The capacity for creativity in solving organizational problems is widely distributed in the population.Motivation occurs at the social, esteem, and self-actualization levels, as well as physiological and security levels.People can be self-directed and creative at work if properly motivatedNITK Surathkal31Frederick HerzbergsTwo Factor TheoryHis research emphasized job enrichment (depth) rather than job enlargementJob context (hygiene factors) needed to be optimal to prevent job dissatisfaction. These factors (according to Herzberg) did not motivate.Job content (motivators) factors that did lead to motivationMoney (according to Herzberg) could motivate if it was seen as a reward for accomplishment; but if money was given without regard for merit, then it was a hygiene factor.

NITK Surathkal32Motivation and Hygiene FactorsMotivation and Hygiene FactorsPolicies and AdministrationSupervisionWorking ConditionsInterpersonal RelationsMoney, Status, Security

MotivatorsAchievementRecognition for AccomplishmentChallenging WorkIncreased ResponsibilityGrowth and Development

NITK Surathkal3333Herzbergs two-factor theory.NITK Surathkal34

Work DesignRichard Hackman, Edward Lawler, and Greg Oldhams work extended Herzbergs notions by adding a situational (it depends) dimensionKey job characteristicsDepending on an individuals growth-need strength, these characteristics could be amplified to make the job more meaningful.

NITK Surathkal35Alternative approaches to job designJob.A collection of tasks performed in support of organizational objectives.Job design.The process of creating or defining jobs by assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups.Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result.

NITK Surathkal36Alternative approaches to job designJob rotation and job enlargement:Expands job scope.Job rotation.Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments.Job enlargement.Increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously assigned to separate workers.Horizontal loading.

NITK Surathkal37Alternative approaches to job designJob enrichment.Building more opportunities for satisfaction into a job by expanding its content.Expands both job scope and job depth.Frequently accomplished through vertical loading.

NITK Surathkal38A continuum of job design alternatives.NITK Surathkal39

Core job characteristicsSkill variety.Task identity.Task significance.Autonomy.Feedback.

NITK Surathkal40Job design and individual work outcomes using the core characteristics model.NITK Surathkal41

Alternative approaches to job designImproving core job characteristics:Form natural units of work.Combine tasks.Establish client relationships.Open feedback channels.Practice vertical loading.

NITK Surathkal42Alternative approaches to job designCompressed workweek.Flexible working hours.Job sharingWork sharing.Telecommuting.Hoteling.Virtual offices.Part-time work.Contingency workers

NITK Surathkal43Process Theories - Expectancy TheoryThe expectancy theory of Victor Vroom helps explain the choosing process among individuals in terms of the value (valence) of the reward and the expectancy of receiving the reward.

NITK Surathkal44Expectancy Theory (illustrated)This process may be illustrated in the following way:

Force = Valence Expectancy NITK Surathkal45EffortRequired performanceOutcome(eg. Promotion)Expectancy TheoryForce is strength of motivation. Valence is strength of preference for an outcome. Expectancy is the level of belief that changes in behaviour will achieve the required outcome.NITK Surathkal46The recommendations to management that go with this model are outlined as follows: Discover what outcome each employee values most. Define for employees the kinds of performance that are desired or required, ie explain what constitutes a goal and adequate performance. Ensure that the desired levels of performance are achievable. Link the outcomes desired by employees to the specific performance desired by management. Ensure that the overall motivation strategy avoids conflict between the positive expectations it seeks to create and other factors in the work situation. Make sure that outcome or rewards are sufficiently attractive to motivate the desired level of performance.46Expectancy TheoryMotivation is a function of the relationship between: effort expended and perceived level of performance the expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) will be related to performance.

There must also be the expectation that rewards are available. These relationships determine the strength of the motivational link. the strength of the individuals preference for an outcome the belief in the likelihood that particular actions will achieve the required goalNITK Surathkal47Expectancy TheoryLyman Porter and Edward Lawler (Managerial Attitudes and Performance, 1968) extended Vrooms work with their model of expectancy.The model shows that the amount of effort generated depends upon: the value of the reward the amount of effort seen to be necessary the probability of receiving the reward

NITK Surathkal48Expectancy Theory (illustrated)NITK Surathkal49Value of rewardsProbability of achieving rewardEffortSkills, abilities, personalityPerformanceRole perceptionRemember that rewards may be: (a) external rewards that are given by others and form part of the job situation (eg wages, status, security) (b) intrinsic rewards which the individual manager awards himself. These arise from the performance of the tasks (eg feelings of self-esteem, accomplishment)49Elements in the expectancy theory of motivation.NITK Surathkal50

Process Theories of Motivation:Expectancy Theory (continued)Management practices:Managers need to focus on employee expectations for success.Managers must actively determine which second-level outcomes are important to employees.Managers should link desired second-level outcomes to the organizations performance goals.

NITK Surathkal51Equity TheoryEquity theory is not a new one but focuses on how individuals perceive their reward or pay compared to what others are receiving. Issues of social justice and distributive justice are involved in the theories of Stacy Adams and Elliot Jaques.

NITK Surathkal52Equity Theory (contd)Employees compare their efforts and rewards with those of others in similar work situations.Individuals, who work in exchange for rewards from the organization, are motivated by a desire to be equitably treated at work.Equity exists when employees perceive that the ratios of their inputs (efforts) to their outcomes (rewards) are equivalent to the ratios of other similar employees.Inequity exists when these ratios are not equivalent.

NITK Surathkal53Equity theory and the role of social comparison.NITK Surathkal54

Equity theory

People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing Work inputs.Rewards received.Comparison points.Situation.

NITK Surathkal55Managerial implications of equity theoryUnderpaid people experience anger.Overpaid people experience guilt.Perceptions of rewards determine motivational outcomes.Negative consequences of equity comparisons should be minimized, if not eliminated.Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of equity controversies in the workplace. Gender equity.Comparable worth.

NITK Surathkal56Goal Setting TheoryKey issues and principles in the goal-setting process:Set specific goals.Set challenging goals.Build goal acceptance and commitment.Clarify goal priorities.Provide feedback on goal accomplishment.Reward goal accomplishment.

NITK Surathkal57Goal-setting theory

Developed by Edwin Locke.Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating.Motivational effects of task goals:Provide direction to people in their work.Clarify performance expectations.Establish a frame of reference for feedback.Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management.

NITK Surathkal58Goal-setting theory

Participation in goal settingunlocks the motivational potential of goal setting.management by objectives (MBO) promotes participation.when participation is not possible, workers will respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist.

NITK Surathkal59Reinforcement TheoryReinforcementThe administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior.Proper management of reinforcement can change the direction, level, and persistence of an individuals behavior.

NITK Surathkal60Reinforcement TheoryFundamentals of reinforcement theory Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of external environmental consequences on behavior.Law of effect impact of type of consequence on future behavior.Operant conditioning:Developed by B.F. Skinner.Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences.

NITK Surathkal61Reinforcement theories linked to motivationNITK Surathkal62

Reinforcement theories linked to motivationLaw of effect.Theoretical basis for manipulating consequences of behavior.Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated while behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.

NITK Surathkal63Reinforcement theories linked to motivationOperant conditioning strategies:Positive reinforcement Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence.Negative reinforcementIncreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence.


Reinforcement theories linked to motivationOrganizational behavior modification (OB Mod).The systematic reinforcement of desirable work behavior and the non-reinforcement or punishment of unwanted work behavior.Uses four basic strategies:Positive reinforcement.Negative reinforcement.Punishment.ExtinctionNITK Surathkal66Reinforcement theories linked to motivationPositive reinforcement.The administration of positive consequences to increase the likelihood of repeating the desired behavior in similar settings.Rewards are not necessarily positive reinforcers.A reward is a positive reinforcer only if the behavior improves.

NITK Surathkal67Reinforcement theories linked to motivationPrinciples governing reinforcement.Law of contingent reinforcement.The reward must be delivered only if the desired behavior is exhibited.Law of immediate reinforcement.The reward must be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior is exhibited.

NITK Surathkal68Reinforcement theories linked to motivationScheduling reinforcement.Continuous reinforcement.Administers a reward each time the desired behavior occurs.Intermittent reinforcement.Rewards behavior periodically either on the basis of time elapsed or the number of desired behaviors exhibited.


Reinforcement theories linked to motivationNegative reinforcement.Also known as avoidance.The withdrawal of negative consequences to increase the likelihood of repeating the desired behavior in a similar setting.

NITK Surathkal71Reinforcement theories linked to motivationPunishment.The administration of negative consequences or the withdrawal of positive consequences to reduce the likelihood of repeating the behavior in similar settings.

NITK Surathkal72Reinforcement theories linked to motivationImplications of using punishment.Punishing poor performance enhances performance without affecting satisfaction.Arbitrary and capricious punishment leads to poor performance and low satisfaction.Punishment may be offset by positive reinforcement from another source.

NITK Surathkal73Reinforcement theories linked to motivationExtinction.The withdrawal of the reinforcing consequences for a given behavior.The behavior is not unlearned; it simply is not exhibited.The behavior will reappear if it is reinforced again.

NITK Surathkal74Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality management.NITK Surathkal75

Reinforcement theories linked to motivationNITK Surathkal76

Reinforcement theories linked to motivationEthical issues with reinforcement usage.Is improved performance really due to reinforcement?Is the use of reinforcement demeaning and dehumanizing?Will managers abuse their power by exerting external control over behavior?How can we ensure that the manipulation of consequences is done in a positive and constructive fashion?

NITK Surathkal77Last Thoughts from Peter DruckerI would hope that American managersindeed, managers worldwidecontinue to appreciate what I have been saying almost since day one: that management is so much more than exercising rank and privilege; its so much more than making deals. Management affects people and their lives, both in business and in many other aspects as well. The practice of management deserves our utmost attention; it deserves to be studied

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Motivation Theories

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