Motivation Research Report 2009
Transcript of Motivation Research Report 2009
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INSITITUTE OF BUSINESS AND
TECHNOLOGY
BIZTEK
Submitted To:
Institute of Business and TechnologyGulshan Campus, Karachi
Submitted By:
MBA Ist semester
Fahad Abbas Bm-25078
Zohaib Abbas Bm-25081
Asad Mazher Bm-25065Ali Qasim Bm-25048
LETTER OF ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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Dear Reader,
We would like to thank ALLAH Almighty, for finally making
our efforts worthwhile. We also like to thankDr Rahat Aalam
course instructor, method in business management research,
biztek, Karachi for her amiable support and guidance in
completing this report. It is due to her that, we had the
opportunity of learning how to carry out and conduct a research
report. This report about Motivation, this will help us in
enhancing research and creative skills in the practical scenario.
Sincerely,
Fahad AbbasZohaib Abbas
Asad Mazher
Ali Qasim
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
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Institute of Business and Technology
(Biztek)Gulshan-e-Iqbal,Karachi, Pakistan
To Whom It May Concern
Dear Sir,
Presented here is the report on Motivation as a part of the
requirement of the course research report M.B.A (semester One)
This report follows the guidelines given in the course outline
provided by biztek it has been reviewed and duly approved our
course instructor
The research report provides flaws present Motivation Factor
Your feedback is vital for the credibility and worthiness of this
research report. Please do not hesitate to contact us for anyadditional information or question.00923452837521
Thank You
Yours Truly
Fahad AbbasZohaib Abbas
Asad Mazher
Ali Qasim
TABEL OF CONTENT
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1.0 What is motivation ----------------------------01
1.1 Motivation Concept -----------------------02
1.2 Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation-----03-04
1.3 Seven Rules of motivation------------05-062.0 Marketing Research---------------------------07
3.1 Method of data collection----------------------08
3.2 Survey Result--------------------------------08
4.0 Motivation Theories------------------------11-154.1 Motivational Speech Techniques----------16
5.0 Herzberg`s Two Facter theory-----------17-205.1 Alderfer`s ERG theory----------------------20
6.0 Theory X Theory Y-------------------------21-23
7.0 Goal setting Theory-------------------------23-24
8.0 Expectancy theory--------------------------24-26
9.0 Equity Theory--------------------------------27-30
10.0 Reinforcement Theory--------------------31-32
11.0 Graphical Presentation-------------------33-34
12.0 Conclusion---------------------------------------
35
13.0 Recommendation------------------------------3614.0 Bibliography------------------------------------37
15.0 Questionnaire-------------------------------38-39
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Motivation is the set of reasons that determines one to engage in a
particular behavior. The term is generally used for human motivation but,
theoretically, it can be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as
well. human motivation. According to various theories, motivation maybe rooted in the basic need to minimize physical pain and maximize
pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a
desired object, hobby, goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to
less-apparent reasons such as altruism, morality, or avoiding mortality.
In Other Words
The Willingness to exert high levels of effort toward Organizational
goals, conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfy some individual need.
Basic Characteristics of Motivation
Effort. This refers to the strength of a person's work-related
behavior.
Persistence. This refers to the persistence that individuals exhibitin applying effort to their work tasks.
Direction. This refers to the quality of a person's work related
behavior.
Goals. This refers to the ends towards which employees direct their
effort.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective_(goal)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective_(goal)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death -
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The Incentive Theory of Motivation
A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an
action (i.e. behavior) with the intent to cause the behavior to occur again.
This is done by associating positive meaning to the behavior. Studiesshow that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect would
be greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward
combination can cause the action to become habit. Motivation comes
from two things: you, and other people. There is extrinsic motivation,
which comes from others, and intrinsic motivation, which comes from
within you.
Rewards can also be organized as extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic rewards
are external to the person; for example, praise or money. Intrinsic rewards
are internal to the person; for example, satisfaction or a feeling ofaccomplishment.
Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsic motivation: one
based on enjoyment, the other on obligation. In this context, obligation
refers to motivation based on what an individual thinks ought to be done.
For instance, a feeling of responsibility for a mission may lead to helping
others beyond what is easily observable, rewarded, or fun.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enjoymenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enjoymenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligation -
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Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation: Stems from the direct relationship between the
worker and the task and it is usually self-applied.
Intrinsic motivation occurs when people engage in an activity, such
as a hobby, without obvious external incentives.
In knowledge-sharing communities and organizations, people often cite
altruistic reasons for their participation, including contributing to a
common good, a moral obligation to the group, mentorship or 'giving
back'. In workenvironments, money may provide a more powerful
extrinsic factor than the intrinsic motivation provided by an enjoyable
workplace.
In terms of sports, intrinsic motivation is the motivation that comes from
inside the performer. That is, the athlete competes for the love of the
sport.
Extrinsic M otivation
Extrinsic Motivation: Stems from the work environment external to the
task and it is usually applied by someone other than the person being
motivated.
Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the performer. Money is the
most obvious example, but coercion and threat of punishment are also
common extrinsic motivations.
In sports, the crowd may cheer the performer on, and this motivates him
or her to do well. Trophies are also extrinsic incentives. Competition is
often extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat
others, not to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity.
Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can
lead to over justification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic
motivation.
Self-control
The self-control of motivation is increasingly understood as a subset of
emotional intelligence; a person may be highly intelligent according to a
more conservative definition (as measured by many intelligence tests),yet unmotivated to dedicate this intelligence to certain tasks. Yale School
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of Management ProfessorVictor Vroom's "expectancy theory" provides
an account of when people will decide whether to exert self control to
pursue a particular goal.
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Rule #1 Set a major goal, but follows a path. The path has minigoals that go in many directions. When you learn to succeed at mini
goals, you will be motivated to challenge grand goals.
Rule #2 Finish what you start. A half finished project is of no useto anyone. Quitting is a habit. Develop the habit of finishing self-
motivated projects.
Rule # 3 Socialize with others of similar interest.Mutualsupport is motivating. We will develop the attitudes of our five best
friends. If they are losers, we will be a loser. If they are winners, we will
be a winner. To be a cowboy we must associate with cowboys
Rule #4 learns how to learn. Dependency on others for knowledgesupports the habit of procrastination. Man has the ability to learn without
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instructors. In fact, when we learn the art of self-education we will find, if
not create, opportunity to find success beyond our wildest dreams.
Rule #5 Harmonize natural talent with interest that
motivates. Natural talent creates motivation, motivation createspersistence and persistence gets the job done.
Rule #6 Increase knowledge of subjects that inspires.The
more we know about a subject, the more we want to learn about it. A self-propelled upward spiral develops.
Rule #7 Take risk. Failure and bouncing back are elements ofmotivation. Failure is a learning tool. No one has ever succeeded at
anything worthwhile without a string of failures.
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We collect Primary data by questionnaires by observing human behaviorinterest. We collect Secondary data from Internet, Newspaper, and
Books.
We conduct a survey to get or find the Motivation position in firms & and
employee conflicts against employer, or management.
We extracted from possessive survey is that the majority of people
demotivated because of lack of reward system and other opportunities.
We tried to find out the de motivation factor, what is the reason.
We find that employee want reward system, they want to completely full
fill their needs,Our survey result shows that we can easily solve this
problem due to follow of some special technique to managing human
behavior.
Employee Motivation Survey Design
An employee motivation survey is your first step towards employee
retention. Infosurv begins the process by designing a customized
employee motivation survey for your organization,.
Employee Motivation, including:
Overall satisfaction
Corporate culture
Supervisor relations
Training
Pay and benefits
Work environment
Communications
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Our standard employee motivation surveys are comprehensively designed
to identify and isolate key independent and dependent variables.
Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Supervisor relations Overall satisfactionPay & benefits Likelihood to recommend
Work environment Likelihood to stay
Corporate communications Employee loyalty
Our research shows that employee attitudes are a better predictor of
future employee behavior than past behavior. Our employee motivation
surveys are specifically designed to accurately measure attitudes that
affect real business metrics, like employee retention rates and turnover.
Employee Satisfaction Surveys Are Essential For Retention
An employee satisfaction survey is an invaluable tool that can measure
and analyze the satisfaction of employees.
Research shows that employee turnover costs companies big money
every year - as much as 25 - 200% of an employee's annual
compensation. By understanding the concerns of your employees through
tools such as employee satisfaction surveys, companies are better able to
implement policies and procedures that can improve retention. Long-term, employee surveys:
Increase the sense of commitment and loyalty of your employees
Save company money due to fewer turnovers
Increase employee morale
Gain employee trust
In addition to the above, research has shown that employee satisfaction
has a direct relationship to business revenue and customer loyalty.
Satisfied employees perform better at their jobs. Employees with poorattitudes can have a negative affect on their co-workers and their
customers.
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Employee satisfaction surveys are inexpensive, yet will generate results
that are worth many times your small investment. If you choose to do
your employee satisfaction survey online, you'll receive real-time results
in as little a few minutes upon implementation. Employee satisfaction
surveys can assess just about anything that relates to the workenvironment, including:
Overall satisfaction
Management/employee relations
Corporate culture
Career development
Compensation
Benefits
Recognition and rewards Working conditions
Training
Staffing levels
Safety concerns
Policies and procedures
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Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Need Theories
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory inpsychology, proposed by
Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paperA Theory of Human Motivation,[2]
which he subsequently extended to include his observations of humans'
innate curiosity.
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Maslows Theory
PHSIOLOGICALPHSIOLOGICALPHSIOLOGICALPHSIOLOGICALSAFETYSAFETYSAFETYSAFETY
SOCIALSOCIALSECURITYSECURITY
SOCIALSOCIALSECURITYSECURITY
SELF ESTEEMSELF ESTEEMSELF ESTEEMSELF ESTEEM
SELFSELFACTUALIZATIONACTUALIZATION
SELFSELFACTUALIZATIONACTUALIZATION
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Physiological needs
For the most part, physiological needs are obvious - they are the literal
requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met (with
the exception ofsex), the human body simply cannot continue tofunction.
Physiological needs include:
Breathing
Homeostasis
Water
Sleep
Food
Excretion Sex
Safety needs
With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs
take over and dominate their behavior. These needs have to do with
people's yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and
inconsistency are under control, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar
rare. In the world of work, these safety needs manifest themselves in suchthings as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for
protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts,
insurance policies, and the like.
For the most part, physiological and safety needs are reasonably well
satisfied in the "First World." The obvious exceptions, of course, are
people outside the mainstream the poor and the disadvantaged. If
frustration has not led to apathy and weakness, such people still struggle
to satisfy the basic physiological and safety needs. They are primarilyconcerned with survival: obtaining adequate food, clothing, shelter, and
seeking justice from the dominant societal groups.
Safety and Security needs include:
Personal security
Financial security
Health and well-being
Safety net against accidents/illness and the adverse impacts
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Social needs
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of
human needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslow's hierarchy
involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as:
Friendship
Intimacy
Having a supportive and communicative family
Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it
comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious
groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs ("Safety in
numbers"), or small social connections (family members, intimate
partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and beloved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these
elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety,
and Clinical depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the
physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer
pressure; an anorexic, for example, ignores the need to eat and the
security of health for a feeling of control and belonging.
Esteem
All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self-respect,
and to respect. Also known as the belonging need, esteem presents the
normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People need to
engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities
that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-
valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result
in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem
need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again
depends on others. It may be noted, however, that many people with lowself-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply
by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept
themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can
also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.
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Aesthetic needs
The motivation to realize one's own maximum potential and possibilities
is considered to be the master motive or the only real motive, all other
motives being its various forms. In Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the needfor self-actualization is the final need that manifests when lower level
needs have been satisfied.
Self-T ranscendence
Near the end of his life Maslow revealed that there was a level on the
hierarchy that was above self-actualization: self-
transcendence"[Transcenders] may be said to be much more often aware
of the realm of Being (B-realm and B-cognition), to be living at the level
of Being to have unitive consciousness and plateau experience
(serene and contemplative B-cognitions rather than climactic ones)
and to have or to have had peak experience (mystic, sacral, ecstatic) with
illuminations or insights. Analysis of reality or cognitions which changedtheir view of the world and of themselves, perhaps occasionally, perhaps
as a usual thing."
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Five simple strategies to motivate your listeners.One of the most important elements of leadership is the ability to motivatepeople. Without motivation, even the most skilled team of seasonedprofessionals is unlikely to achieve great things. A highly motivated group oftalented people, on the other hand, can move mountains.
While its true that motivating people involves more than just changing theway you speak, there are some simple guidelines you can follow to help buildteam motivation with only your words and your voice:
Be enthusiastic. Enthusiasm is contagious! Before you present yourideas, think about the aspects of the subject that you find most interesting,and dont be afraid to let that interest come through in your voice. Use quotes, stories and anecdotes. Along with their obvious
entertainment value, quotes and stories can lend authority to your topicand provide concrete examples that people can relate to. Speak with confidence. Deliver your message loud and clear.Maintain eye contact with your listeners. Dont mumble or slouch. Say you and we, not Iand me. Instead of telling people what youwant them to do, present ways for them to work together to achieve theirgoals. Involve listeners in the success of the group. Keep it simple. People arent motivated by what you say; theyremotivated by what they understand. The best way to ensure audienceunderstanding is to break down complex ideas into simple components.
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Frederick Herzberg has tried to modify Maslows need Hierarchy theory.His theory is also known as two-factor theory or Hygiene theory.
He devised his theory on the question: What do people want from their
jobs? He asked people to describe in detail, such situations when they
felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad. From the responses that he
received, he concluded that opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction.
He states that presence of certain factors in the organization is natural and
the presence of the same does not lead to motivation. However, their non-
presence leads to De-motivation. In similar manner there are certain
factors, the absence of which causes no dissatisfaction, but their presence
has motivational impact.
HYGIENE FACTORS
Conditions
Pay
Status
Security
Company policies
MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS
Achievement
Recognition
Growth/Advancement
Interest in the job
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Two Factor Theory
(Also known as Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory) was
developed by Frederick Herzberg, apsychologist who found that job
satisfaction and job dissatisfaction acted independently of each other.Two Factor Theory states that there are certain factors in the workplace
that causejob satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause
dissatisfaction
Two Factor Theory Fundamentals
Anna Lustig attitudes and their connection with industrial mental health
are related to Maslow's theory of motivation. His findings have had a
considerable theoretical, as well as a practical, influence on attitudes
toward administration]. According to Herzberg, individuals are not
content with the satisfaction of lower-order needs at work, for example,
those associated with minimum salary levels or safe and pleasant working
conditions. Rather, individuals look for the gratification of higher-level
psychological needs having to do with achievement, recognition,
responsibility, advancement, and the nature of the work itself. So far, this
appears to parallel Maslow's theory of a need hierarchy. However,
Herzberg added a new dimension to this theory by proposing a two-factor
model of motivation, based on the notion that the presence of one set of
job characteristics or incentives lead to workersatisfaction at work,while another and separate set of job characteristics lead to
dissatisfaction at work. Thus, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not on a
continuum with one increasing as the other diminishes, but are
independent phenomena. This theory suggests that to improve job
attitudes and productivity, administrators must recognize and attend to
both sets of characteristics and not assume that an increase in satisfaction
leads to an decrease in unpleasurable dissatisfaction.
The two-factor, or motivation-hygiene theory, developed from datacollected by Herzberg from interviews with a large number of engineers
and accountants in the Pittsburgh area. From analyzing these interviews,
he found that job characteristics related to what an individual does thatis, to the nature of the work she performs apparently have the capacity
to gratify such needs as achievement, competency, status, personal worth,
and self-realization, thus making her happy and satisfied. However, the
absence of such gratifying job characteristics does not appear to lead tounhappiness and dissatisfaction. Instead, dissatisfaction results from
unfavorable assessments of such job-related factors as company policies,supervision, technical problems, salary, interpersonal relations on the job,
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and working conditions. Thus, if management wishes to increase
satisfaction on the job, it should be concerned with the nature of the work
itself the opportunities it presents for gaining status, assuming
responsibility, and for achieving self-realization. If, on the other hand,
management wishes to reduce dissatisfaction, then it must focus on thejob environment policies, procedures, supervision, and working
conditions If management is equally concerned with both (as is usually
the case), then managers must give attention to both sets of job factors.
The theory was based around interviews with 203 American accountants
& engineers in Pittsburgh, chosen because of their professions' growing
importance in the business world. The subjects were asked to relate times
when they felt exceptionally good or bad about their present job or any
previous job, and to provide reasons, and a description of the sequence of
events giving rise to that positive or negative feeling.
Here is the description of this interview analysis:
Briefly, we asked our respondents to describe periods in their lives when
they were exceedingly happy and unhappy with their jobs. Each
respondent gave as many "sequences of events" as he could which met
certain criteria including a marked change in feeling, a beginning and an
end, and contained some substantive description other than feelings and
interpretations....
The proposed hypothesis appears verified. The factors on the right that
led to satisfaction (achievement, intrinsic interest in the work,
responsibility, and advancement) are mostly unipolar; that is, they
contribute very little to job dissatisfaction. Conversely, the dis-satisfiers
(company policy and administrative practices, supervision, interpersonal
relationships, working conditions, and salary) contribute very little to job
satisfaction.
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Two Factor Theory distinguishes between:
Motivators (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility)
which give positive satisfaction, arising from intrinsic conditions of
the job itself, such as recognition, achievement, or personal growth.
Hygiene factors (e.g. status,job security, salary and fringe
benefits) which do not give positive satisfaction, although
dissatisfaction results from their absence. These are extrinsic to the
work itself, and include aspects such as company policies,
supervisory practices, or wages/salary.
Essentially, hygiene factors are needed to ensure an employee is not
dissatisfied. Motivation factors are needed in order to motivate an
employee to higher performance, Herzberg also further classified ouractions and how and why we do them, for example, if you perform a
work related action because you have to then that is classed asmovement, but if you perform a work related action because you wanttothen that is classed as motivation.
Unlike Maslow, who offered little data to support his ideas, Herzberg and
others have presented considerable empirical evidence to confirm the
motivation-hygiene theory. Their work, however, has been criticized on
methodological grounds. Nevertheless, Herzberg and his associates haverendered a valuable service to science and to management through their
efforts to apply scientific methods to understanding complex motivational
problems at work and have stimulated others to continue the search.
Clayton Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the
ERG theory (existence, relatedness and growth). Physiological and
safety, the lower order needs, are placed in the existence category, while
love and self esteem needs are placed in the relatedness category. The
growth category contains our self-actualization and self-esteem needs.
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Theory X and Theory Y are theories of human motivation created and
developed by Douglas McGregorat the MIT Sloan School of
Management in the 1960s that have been used in human resource
management, organizational behavior, organizational communication and
organizational development. They describe two very different attitudes
toward workforce motivation. McGregor felt that companies followed
either one or the other approach. He also thought that the key to
connecting self-actualization with work is determined by the managerial
trust of subordinates.
Theory X
Under the assumptions of theory X:
Employees inherently do not like work and whenever possible, will
attempt to avoid it.
Because employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or
threatened with punishment to achieve goals.Employees avoid responsibilities and do not work fill formal directions
are issued.
Most workers place a greater importance on security over all other factors
and display little ambition.
In this theory, which many managers practice, management assumes
employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can. They
inherently dislike work. Because of this, workers need to be closely
supervised and comprehensive systems of controls developed. A
hierarchical structure is needed with narrow span of control at each andevery level. According to this theory, employees will show little ambition
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without an enticing incentive program and will avoid responsibility
whenever they can. According to Michael J. Papa, if the organizational
goals are to be met, theory X managers rely heavily on threat and
coercion to gain their employee's compliance. Beliefs of this theory lead
to mistrust, highly restrictive supervision, and a punitive atmosphere. TheTheory X manager tends to believe that everything must end in blaming
someone. He or she thinks all prospective employees are only out for
themselves. Usually these managers feel the sole purpose of the
employee's interest in the job is money. They will blame the person first
in most situations, without questioning whether it may be the system,
policy, or lack of training that deserves the blame. A Theory X manager
believes that his or her employees do not really want to work, that they
would rather avoid responsibility and that it is the manager's job to
structure the work and energize the employee. One major flaw of thismanagement style is it is much more likely to cause Diseconomies of
Scale in large businesses.
Theory Y
In contrast under the Assumptions of Theory Y:
Physical and mental effort at work is as natural as rest or play.
People do exercise self-control and self-direction and if they arecommitted to those goals.
Average human beings are willing to take responsibility and
exercise imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving the
problems of the organization.
That the way the things are organized, the average human beings
brainpower is only partly used.
In this theory, management assumes employees may be ambitious, self-
motivated, and exercise self-control. It is believed that employees enjoy
their mental and physical work duties. According to Papa, to them work
is as natural as play. They possess the ability for creative problem
solving, but their talents are underused in most organizations. Given the
proper conditions, theory Y managers believe that employees will learn to
seek out and accept responsibility and to exercise self-control and self-
direction in accomplishing objectives to which they are committed. A
Theory Y manager believes that, given the right conditions, most people
will want to do well at work. They believe that the satisfaction of doing a
good job is a strong motivation. Many people interpret Theory Y as a
positive set of beliefs about workers. A close reading of The Human Side
of Enterprise reveals that McGregor simply argues for managers to be
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open to a more positive view of workers and the possibilities that this
creates. He thinks that Theory Y managers are more likely than Theory X
managers to develop the climate of trust with an employee that is
required for human resource development. It's here through human
resource development that is a crucial aspect of any organization. Thiswould include managers communicating openly with subordinates,
minimizing the difference between superior-subordinate relationships,
creating a comfortable environment in which subordinates can develop
and use their abilities. This climate would include the sharing of decision
making so that subordinates have say in decisions that influence them.
Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes
have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a
reward in itself. A goal's efficiency is affected by three features:
proximity, difficulty and specificity. An ideal goal should present a
situation where the time between the initiation of behavior and the end
state is close. This explains why some children are more motivated to
learn how to ride a bike than mastering algebra. A goal should be
moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. In both cases, most
people are not optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (whichassumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the same time people
want to feel that there is a substantial probability that they will succeed.
Specificity concerns the description of the goal in their class. The goal
should be objectively defined and intelligible for the individual. A classic
example of a poorly specified goal is to get the highest possible grade.
Most children have no idea how much effort they need to reach that goal.
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Douglas Vermeeren, has done extensive research into why many people
fail to get to their goals. The failure is directly attributed to motivating
factors. Vermeeren states that unless an individual can clearly identify
their motivating factor or their significant and meaningful reasons why
they wish to attain the goal, they will never have the power to attain it.
Expectancy theory is about choice. It explains the processes that an
individual undergoes to make choices. In organizational behaviorstudy,
expectancy theory is a motivation theory first proposed by Victor
Vroom of the Yale School of Management.
Expectancy theory predicts that employees in an organization will bemotivated when they believe that:
putting in more effort will yield better job performance
better job performance will lead to organizational rewards, such as
an increase in salary or benefits
These predicted organizational rewards are valued by the employee
in question.
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"This theory emphasizes the need for organizations to relate rewards
directly to performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are those
rewards deserved and wanted by the recipients."
- Emphasizes self interest in the alignment of rewards with employee'swants. - Emphasizes the connections among expected behaviors, rewards
and organizational goals
Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices
among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to
minimize pain. Together with Edward Lawler and Lyman Porter, Vroom
suggested that the relationship between people's behavior at work and
their goals was not as simple as was first imagined by other scientists.
Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individual
factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities.
Victor H. Vroom introduces three variables within the expectancy theory
which are valence (V), expectancy (E) and instrumentality (I). The three
elements are important behind choosing one element over another
because they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy (E>P
expectancy), performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy).
E>P expectancy: Our assessment of the probability our efforts will lead to
the required performance level.
P>O expectancy: Our assessment of the probability our successful
performance will lead to certain outcomes.
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Vrooms model is based on three concepts:
1. Valence - Strength of an individuals preference for a particular
outcome. For the valence to be positive, the person must prefer
attaining the outcome to not attaining it.2. Instrumentality Means of the first level outcome in obtaining the
desired second level outcome; the degree to which a first level
outcome will lead to the second level outcome.
3. Expectancy - Probability or strength of belief that a particular
action will lead to a particular first level outcome.
Vroom says the product of these variables is the motivation.
In order to enhance the performance-outcome tie, managers should use
systems that tie rewards very closely to performance. Managers also need
to ensure that the rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the
recipients. In order to improve the effort-performance tie, managers
should engage in training to improve their capabilities and improve their
belief that added effort will in fact lead to better performance.
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Equity Theory attempts to explain relational satisfaction in terms of
perceptions of fair/unfair distributions of resources within interpersonalrelationships. Equity theory is considered as one of the justice theories, It
was first developed in 1962 by John Stacey Adams, a workplace and
behavioral psychologist, who asserted that employees seek to maintain
equity between the inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes that
they receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others
(Adams, 1965). The belief is that people value fair treatment in which
causes them to be motivated to keep the fairness maintained within the
relationships of their co-workers and the organization. The structure of
equity in the workplace is based on the ratio of inputs to outcomes. Inputsare the contributions made by the employee for the organization; this
includes the work done by the employees and the behavior brought by the
employee as well as their skills and other useful experiences the
employee may contribute for the good of the company.
Definition of Equity
An individual will consider that he is treated fairly if he perceives the
ratio of his inputs to his outcomes to be equivalent to those around him.
Thus, all else being equal, it would be acceptable for a more seniorcolleague to receive higher compensation, since the value of his
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experience (an input) is higher. The way people base their experience
with satisfaction for their job is the make comparisons with themselves to
the people they work with. If an employee notices that another person is
getting more recognition and rewards for their contributions, even when
both have done the same amount and quality of work, it would persuadethe employee to be dissatisfied. This dissatisfaction would result in the
employee feeling underappreciated and perhaps worthless. This is in
direct contrast with the idea of equity theory, the idea is to have the
rewards (outcomes) be directly related with the quality and quantity of
the employees contributions (inputs). If both employees were perhaps
rewarded the same, it would help the workforce realize that the
organization is fair, observant, and appreciative.
This can be illustrated by the following equation:
Inputs and outcomes
Inputs
Inputs are defined as each participants contributions to the relational
exchange and are viewed as entitling him/her to rewards or costs. The
inputs that a participant contributes to a relationship can be either assets
entitling him/her to rewards or liabilities - entitling him/her to costs.
The entitlement to rewards or costs ascribed to each input vary depending
on the relational setting. In industrial settings, assets such as capital and
manual labor are seen as "relevant inputs" inputs that legitimately
entitle the contributor to rewards. In social settings, assets such as
physical beauty and kindness are generally seen as assets entitling the
possessor to social rewards. Individual traits such as boorishness and
cruelty are seen as liabilities entitling the possessor to costs (Walster,
Traupmann & Walster, 1978). Inputs typically include any of the
following:
Time
Effort
Loyalty
Hard Work
Commitment
Ability
Adaptability
Flexibility Tolerance
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Determination
Enthusiasm
Personal sacrifice
Trust in superiors
Support from co-workers and colleagues Skill
Outcomes
Outputs are defined as the positive and negative consequences that an
individual perceives a participant has incurred as a consequence of his/her
relationship with another. When the ratio of inputs to outcomes is close,
than the employee should have much satisfaction with their job. Outputs
can be both tangible and intangible (Walster, Traupmann & Walster,
1978). Typical outcomes include any of the following:
Job Security
Esteem
Salary
Employee benefit
Expenses
Recognition
Reputation
Responsibility
Sense of achievement
PraiseThanks
Stimuli
Propositions
Equity Theory consists of four propositions:
Individuals seek to maximize their outcomes (where outcomes are
defined as rewards minus costs)
Groups can maximize collective rewards by developing accepted systems
for equitably apportioning rewards and costs among members. Systems
of equity will evolve within groups, and members will attempt to induceother members to accept and adhere to these systems. The only way
groups can induce members to equitably behave is by making it more
profitable to behave equitably than inequitably. Thus, groups will
generally reward members who treat others equitably and generally
punish (increase the cost for) members who treat others inequitably.
When individuals find themselves participating in inequitable
relationships, they become distressed. The more inequitable the
relationship, the more distress individuals feel. According to equity
theory, both the person who gets too much and the person who gets
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too little feel distressed. The person who gets too much may feel guilt
or shame. The person who gets too little may feel angry or humiliated.
Individuals who perceive that they are in an inequitable relationship
attempt to eliminate their distress by restoring equity. The greater the
inequity, the more distress people feel and the more they try to restoreequity. (Walster, Traupmann and Walster, 1978)
Equity Theory in Business
Equity Theory has been widely applied to business settings by Industrial
Psychologists to describe the relationship between an employee's
motivation and his or her perception of equitable or inequitable treatment.
In a business setting, the relevant dyadic relationship is that between
employee and employer. As in marriage and other contractual dyadicrelationships, Equity Theory assumes that employees seek to maintain an
equitable ratio between the inputs they bring to the relationship and the
outcomes they receive from it (Adams, 1965). Equity Theory in business,
however, introduces the concept of social comparison, whereby
employees evaluate their own input/output ratios based on their
comparison with the input/outcome ratios of other employees (Carrell and
Dittrich, 1978). Inputs in this context include the employees time,
expertise, qualifications, experience, intangible personal qualities such as
drive and ambition, and interpersonal skills. Outcomes include monetary
compensation, perquisites (perks), benefits, and flexible work
arrangements. Employees who perceive inequity will seek to reduce it,
either by distorting inputs and/or outcomes in their own minds
("cognitive distortion"), directly altering inputs and/or outcomes, or
leaving the organization (Carrell and Dittrich, 1978). Thus, the theory has
wide-reaching implications for employee morale, efficiency,productivity,
and turnover.
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Reinforcer: Any stimulus that, when contingent on a response, serves toincrease the rate of responding
Reinforcement theory: The main idea that reinforcers can control
behavior. The definition has two main components: Contingency, where
the occurrence of the reinforcer depends on the occurrence of the learner's
response, and Rate of Responding, where the reinforcer serves to increase
the learner's rate of responding.
Schedules of Reinforcement
When the desired behavior is gained as a result of reinforcement,
reinforcing again and again becomes too time-consuming. An abrupt
stoppage of the reinforcement would cause the performance of the desired
behavior to weaken. Therefore, a gradual thinning of reinforcement is
necessary. Schedules of reinforcement are the rules for how a reinforcer
is presented following a behavior. They can be defined in terms of time
(interval) or number of responses (ratio).
Fixed interval
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Reinforces behaviors at a specific time (ex. Every 5 minutes). One
reinforcer would be delivered if at least one correct response was made
during the time interval. The reinforced can become aware of the time
length and, knowing he has to perform just once, will wait for the time
limit to run out before beginning his next task.
Example: Rewarded at the end of every class period for good behavior
Fixed ratio
Reinforces behaviors after a specific number of responses (ex. Every 5th
response). The key here is to seek the right amount of work given the
reward schedule. Normally a ratio schedule produces consistent work.
Example: Rewarded for every homework assignment turned in
Variable interval
Reinforces behaviors at various time intervals randomly. The student's
behavioral performance is is higher and steadier because he cannot
determine the next time interval that will be used to make thereinforcement available.
Example: Rewarded at different times of the day for good behavior
Variable ratio
Reinforces behaviors after various numbers of responses randomly. It is
done in such a manner that the reinforcer is not predictable, so the student
maintains or even increases the pace of his output.
Example: Rewarded for some homework assignments turned in
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We would like to conclude on a special note regarding very keen andsharp completive environment in which Motivation is placed in Pakistan.
We conclude that employee motivation is a most sensitive factor in
management, employee wants satisfaction, and reward opportunity, but
major problem is that there is a conflict between employer & employee
empolyee nees job securityand they want to full fill basic needs we can
reduce de motivation facter with providing maximum benefits & good
relationship.
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Motivation in pakistan company now required to full fill employee
need,
Motivation can run an organization successfully.
Employer must be mental association with people.
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Www.yahoo.com
Www.wiki-answer.org
www.motivation123.com
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Q#1) As a manager you know that without motivation we cannot run acompany suecssfully,so tell me what are the problem that you are face
during management.
a) Dis- satisfactiom of employee
b) Employee not listen carefully
c) Confilct between You and empolyee
d) Other.__________________________
Q#2) As a manager what facter that you like to see in your employee
a) Discipline
b) Hard worker
c) Self motvation
Q#3) how can we reduce de-motivation
a) Through Reward System
b) Good relationship
c) Maximum Full fill needs of employee
d) Other.___________________________
Q#4 What do you think about motivation theory ,Which theory is
practical Implication.
_____________________________________
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Q#1) As a Empolyee What are the problem that you face mostly
a) No reward system
b) More working hours
c) Low rate of wagesd) Other.____________________________
Q#2 What would you like to change in your company employement
a) Employer must be co-operative
b) Increase in salary
c) Other._____________________________
Q#3 Whats your major need or problem that you want to solve?
__________________________________
Q11) Personal Information
Name: ____________
Sex: ______________
Age: _____________
Qualification: ____________
HAVE A NICE DAY