Motivation PP1

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    Content theoriesContent theoriesexplain why people have different needsexplain why people have different needsat different timesat different times

    Process theoriesProcess theoriesdescribe the processes through whichdescribe the processes through whichneeds are translated into behavior.needs are translated into behavior.Process theories try to explain why andProcess theories try to explain why andhow people are motivated.how people are motivated.

    Content vs. Process MotivationContent vs. Process Motivation Theories Theories

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    Basic Model of Motivation

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    Needs HierarchyTheory

    Needs Hierarchy TheoryNeeds Hierarchy Theory

    Self-Actualization

    EsteemEsteem

    BelongingnessBelongingness

    SafetySafety

    PhysiologicalPhysiological

    Maslow arranged five needsMaslow arranged five needs

    in a hierarchyin a hierarchySatisfaction-progressionSatisfaction-progressionprocessprocess

    People who experience self-People who experience self-actualization desire moreactualization desire morerather than less of thisrather than less of thisneedneed

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    Acquired Needs TheoryAcquired Needs Theory by David McClelland by David McClelland

    Need for AchievementNeed for Achievement --Desire to accomplishDesire to accomplishsomething difficult, attain high standards of success,something difficult, attain high standards of success,master complex tasks, surpass othersmaster complex tasks, surpass others

    Need for Affiliation -Desire to form closepersonal relationships and friendships, avoid conflict

    Need for Power -Desire to influenceor control others, be responsible and haveauthority over others

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    Frederick Herzberg Two-Factor Theory

    HighlySatisfied

    Neither

    Highly

    Dissatisfied

    Motivators

    influence level of

    satisfaction

    Hygiene factors

    influence level of

    dissatisfaction

    MotivatorsAchievementRecognition

    ResponsibilityWork itself

    Personal growth

    HygieneFactors

    Work ConditionsPay/securityCompany Policy

    SupervisorsInterpersonal Rel.

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    Implications of ContentImplications of Content Theories Theories

    Balance competition/cooperation byBalance competition/cooperation byrewarding individual achievement andrewarding individual achievement andteamworkteamwork

    Offer employees a choice of rewardsOffer employees a choice of rewards

    people have different needs at differentpeople have different needs at differenttimestimes

    Support the drive to learn bySupport the drive to learn byproviding new learning opportunitiesproviding new learning opportunities

    Dont rely too much on financialDont rely too much on financialrewardsrewards

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    Key Elements of Key Elements of Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

    MOTIVATION

    Valance - value of outcomes

    (Pay, recognition, other rewards)

    P -- O expectancyPerformance ----- Outcomes

    E -- P expectancy

    Effort ----- Performance

    Will putting effort into thetask lead to the desiredperformance?

    Will high performance leadto the desired outcome?

    Are the available outcomeshighly valued?

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    Assumptions - ExpectancyAssumptions - Expectancy

    Workers are motivated to receiveWorkers are motivated to receivepositive outcomes and avoid negativepositive outcomes and avoid negative

    onesonesWorkers are rational, carefulWorkers are rational, carefulprocessors of informationprocessors of information

    Workers can make choices about howWorkers can make choices about howthey behave, act, and how muchthey behave, act, and how mucheffort they exerteffort they exert

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    Expectancy Theory inExpectancy Theory in

    PracticePracticeIncreasing the E-to-P expectancyIncreasing the E-to-P expectancy

    training, selection, resources, clarify roles,training, selection, resources, clarify roles,provide coaching and feedbackprovide coaching and feedback

    Increasing the P-to-O expectancyIncreasing the P-to-O expectancyMeasure performance accurately, explain howMeasure performance accurately, explain howrewards are based on past performancerewards are based on past performance

    Increasing outcome valencesIncreasing outcome valencesUse valued rewards, individualize rewards,Use valued rewards, individualize rewards,minimize countervalent outcomesminimize countervalent outcomes

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    Equity DefinedEquity Defined

    A State of psychological comfortA State of psychological comfortExists when an individuals input toExists when an individuals input tooutcome ratio is equal to the ratio of outcome ratio is equal to the ratio of the comparison otherthe comparison other

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    Elements of Equity TheoryElements of Equity Theory

    Outcome/input ratioOutcome/input ratioinputs -- what employee contributes (e.g. skill)inputs -- what employee contributes (e.g. skill)outcomes -- what employees receive (e.g. pay)outcomes -- what employees receive (e.g. pay)

    Comparison otherComparison otherperson/people we compare ratio withperson/people we compare ratio withnot easily identifiablenot easily identifiable

    Equity evaluationEquity evaluation

    compare outcome/input ratio withcompare outcome/input ratio withthe comparison otherthe comparison other

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    Overreward vs UnderrewardOverreward vs UnderrewardInequityInequity

    YouComparisonOther

    OutcomesOutcomes

    InputsInputs

    OutcomesOutcomes

    InputsInputs

    OverrewardInequity

    OutcomesOutcomes

    InputsInputs

    OutcomesOutcomes

    InputsInputs

    UnderrewardInequity

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    Equity SensitivityEquity Sensitivity

    BenevolentsBenevolents Tolerant of being underrewarded Tolerant of being underrewarded

    Equity SensitivesEquity SensitivesWant ratio to be equal to theWant ratio to be equal to thecomparison othercomparison other

    EntitledsEntitledsPrefer receiving proportionately morePrefer receiving proportionately morethan othersthan others

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    Goals are MotivationalGoals are Motivational

    Because you can choose where youBecause you can choose where youwant to gowant to go

    You know exactly what to do You know exactly what to doCan provide short and long termCan provide short and long termvisionvisionFosters planning and resourceFosters planning and resourceevaluationevaluation

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    SpecificSpecific

    RelevantRelevant

    ChallengingChallengingTaskTaskEffortEffort

    TaskTaskPerformancePerformance

    Effective Goal SettingEffective Goal Setting

    ChallengingChallenging

    ParticipationParticipation

    CommitmentCommitment

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    Area of OptimalGoal

    Difficulty

    High

    TaskPerform

    ance

    Low Moderate Challenging Impossible

    Effect of Goal Difficulty onEffect of Goal Difficulty onPerformancePerformance

    Goal Difficulty

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    Outcomes of Goal SettingOutcomes of Goal Setting

    Greater productivity and salesGreater productivity and salesImproved performanceImproved performanceImproved self-confidenceImproved self-confidenceIncreases motivation to achieveIncreases motivation to achieve

    Increases pride and satisfactionIncreases pride and satisfactionHelps reduce negative attitudesHelps reduce negative attitudestoward work/increases moraletoward work/increases morale

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    Research Suggests: ThoseResearch Suggests: Those

    who use Goal Settingwho use Goal SettingSuffer less from stress and anxietySuffer less from stress and anxietyConcentrate betterConcentrate betterShow more self-confidenceShow more self-confidencePerform betterPerform better

    Are more satisfied with their jobsAre more satisfied with their jobs

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    Behavior ModificationBehavior Modification

    We operate on the environmentWe operate on the environmentAlter behavior to maximize positive and minimize adverseAlter behavior to maximize positive and minimize adverseconsequences. Behavior is a function of its consequencesconsequences. Behavior is a function of its consequences

    Operant means voluntary or learned behavior asOperant means voluntary or learned behavior asopposed to reflexive or unlearned behavioropposed to reflexive or unlearned behavior

    Law of effectLaw of effectLikelihood that an operant behavior will be repeatedLikelihood that an operant behavior will be repeateddepends on its consequencesdepends on its consequences

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    ConsequencesConsequences

    What happensWhat happensAfter behavior After behavior

    EmployeeEmployeereceivesreceives

    attendanceattendancebonusbonus

    ExampleExample

    A-B-Cs of BehaviorA-B-Cs of Behavior

    ModificationModificationBehavior Behavior What personWhat personsays or doessays or does

    EmployeeEmployeeattendsattends

    scheduledscheduledworkwork

    AntecedentsAntecedents

    What happensWhat happensbefore behavior before behavior

    AttendanceAttendancebonus systembonus systemis announcedis announced

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    Reinforcement PerspectiveReinforcement Perspectiveon Motivationon Motivation

    Positive Reinforcement increase strength andPositive Reinforcement increase strength andfrequency of a behavior by providing somethingfrequency of a behavior by providing somethingpleasingpleasingNegative Reinforcement increase strength andNegative Reinforcement increase strength andfrequency of a behavior by the removal orfrequency of a behavior by the removal oravoidance of a consequence (stop criticizing andavoidance of a consequence (stop criticizing andgood performance results)good performance results)Punishment decrease strength and frequencyPunishment decrease strength and frequencyof a behavior by giving the employee somethingof a behavior by giving the employee somethingdispleasing or taking away something pleasingdispleasing or taking away something pleasingExtinction decrease strength and frequency of Extinction decrease strength and frequency of a behavior by providing no consequencea behavior by providing no consequence

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    Behavior Increases/Maintained

    Behavior

    Decreases

    Consequenceis Introduced

    Consequenceis Removed

    Contingencies of Contingencies of

    ReinforcementReinforcement

    PunishmentPunishment

    PositivePositivereinforcementreinforcement

    ExtinctionExtinction PunishmentPunishment

    NegativeNegativereinforcementreinforcement

    NoConsequence

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    Behavior ModificationBehavior Modification

    LimitationsLimitationsCant reinforce nonobservable behaviorCant reinforce nonobservable behavior

    Reinforcer tends to wear off Reinforcer tends to wear off

    Variable ratio schedule is a form of Variable ratio schedule is a form of gamblinggambling

    Ethical concerns about perceivedEthical concerns about perceivedmanipulationmanipulation

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    OrganizationwideOrganizationwide

    Motivational ProgramsMotivational Prog ramsEmployee ownershipEmployee ownership -- Psychological,Psychological,stockstock

    Pay for knowledge - Skills possessed

    Gainsharing - Teamwork

    Pay for performance - Results

    Job enrichment - High level, moretasks