Motivation Ans

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Motivation in Software Engineering: A Systematic

Literature ReviewSarah Beecham 1

Nathan Baddoo 1

Tracy Hall 1

Hugh Robinson 2

Helen Sharp 2

Technical Report No: 464

1School of Computer Science, University of Hertfordshire,College Lane Campus, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL10 9AB

{s.beecham; n.baddoo; t.hall}@herts.ac.uk

2Department of Computing, Faculty of Mathematics and Computing,The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA

{h.c.sharp; h.m.robinson}@open.ac.uk

September 2007


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Motivation in Software Engineering: A Systematic LiteratureReview

SARAH BEECHAM, NATHAN BADDOO AND TRACY HALLUniversity of HertfordshireandHUGH ROBINSON AND HELEN SHARPThe Open University

__________________________________________________________________________________________

This research presents a systematic literature review of motivation in Software Engineering. The objective is to report on what motivates andde-motivates developers, and how existing models address motivation. The majority of studies find Software Engineers form adistinguishable occupational group. Results indicate that Software Engineers are likely to be motivated according to: their 'characteristics'(e.g., their need for variety); internal 'controls' (e.g., their personality) and external 'moderators' (e.g., their career stage). Models of motivation in Software Engineering are disparate and do not reflect the complex needs of Software Engineers in their different career stages,cultural and environmental settings.

Categories and Subject Descriptors: D.m Survey [ Software Engineering ]: Miscellaneous Software Psychology ; K.5.1 [ Project andPeople ]: Management Software Engineer Motivation

General Terms: Motivation, Software Engineering, Software Engineer, Characteristics, Personality, Systematic Literature ReviewAdditional Key Words and Phrases: Job Characteristics Model, Job Diagnostics Survey, Job-Fit, practitioner, IS professional

__________________________________________________________________________________________

1. INTRODUCTION

In this paper we present findings from our systematic literature review on motivation in Software Engineering

(SE). Since Bartol and Martins literature review in (1982) no comprehensive body of research has been

published to provide a complete picture of the available material on motivation in Software Engineering. By

updating work in this area we help SE managers, Software Engineers and interested researchers to determine the

current state of research in Software Engineering motivation. Our systematic approach to analyzing published

studies enables us to identify reliably where the literature has recurring themes, where it presents conflicting

findings, and where are there gaps in the existing body of work.

Motivation in Software Engineering is reported to have the single largest impact on practitioner 1 productivity

(Boehm 1981) and software quality management (McConnell 1998), and continues to be undermined and

problematic to manage (Procaccino et al. 2005) . While there is increasing recognition amongst practitioners and

This research was supported by the UKs Engineering and Physical Science Research Council, under grant number EPSRC EP/D057272/1.Authors' addresses: Sarah Beecham, Nathan Baddoo & Tracy Hall, School of Computer Science, University of Hertfordshire, College LaneCampus, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL10 9AB, UK {s.beecham; n.baddoo; t.hall}@herts.ac.uk }. Hugh Robinson & Helen Sharp, Department

of Computing, Faculty of Mathematics and Computing, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UK {h.c.sharp;h.m.robinson}@open.ac.uk }

Permission to make digital/hard copy of part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that the copies arenot made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage, the copyright notice, the title of the publication, and its date of appear, andnotice is given that copying is by permission of the ACM, Inc. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers, or to redistribute to lists,requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. 2001 ACM 1073-0516/01/0300-0034 $5.00

1 The way Software Engineer (as a practitioner) and Software Engineering (as a field) have been referred to over the 26 years covered in thisstudy has evolved significantly. IT, IS, SE, analysts, developers, programmers are examples of some of the terms used for the practitionerrole/field. In this survey we use the term Software Engineer (SE) to refer to any of these roles and Software Engineering to refer to thefield. However, when quoting or referring to a particular paper, we use the term used in the study.


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the academic community that motivation is an important issue, no systematic literature review has been

undertaken to bring together the published work of motivation in a Software Engineering setting

(MoMSE(cfs) 2005).

Motivation is increasingly cited as a particularly pernicious people problem in Software Engineering. In

DeMarco and Listers (1999) survey, motivation was found to be one of the most frequently cited causes of

software development project failure. The Standish report (1995) amplifies this finding by reporting that having

access to competent, hard working and focused staff is one of ten success criteria for software projects. As

McConnell (1998) points out,

Motivation is a soft factor: It is difficult to quantify, and it often takes a back seat to other factorsthat might be less important but are easier to measure. Every organisation knows that motivation isimportant, but only a few organizations do anything about it. Many common management

practices are pennywise and pound-foolish, trading huge losses in motivation and morale forminor methodology improvements or dubious budget savings.

Some studies in this area suggest that conventional approaches to motivation within the industry might be

outdated. They have concentrated on rewards and recognition, e.g. (ProjectLink 2006), whereas some experts

have identified Software Engineers as having a distinctive personality profile (Capretz 2003) that are instead

motivated by the nature of the job, e.g. technical success and challenging technical problems (Tanner 2003;

Ramachandran and Rao 2006).

Given the importance of motivating Software Engineers, we conduct a systematic literature review of what

motivates Software Engineers and whether Software Engineers are indeed a homogeneous group with similar

needs. A systematic literature review evaluates and interprets all available research relevant to a particular

research question or topic area. It aims to present an evaluation of the literature relative to a research topic by

using a rigorous and auditable methodology. We have followed guidelines derived from those used by medical

researchers, adapted and applied by Kitchenham et al (2004; 2006) to reflect the specific problems of Software

Engineering research. We summarise evidence that establishes what motivates Software Engineers and how

existing theoretical frameworks represent motivation in Software Engineering. We look to the literature to

answer five research questions:

RQ1: What are the characteristics of Software Engineers?

RQ2: What (de)motivates Software Engineers to be more (less) productive? RQ3: What are the external signs or outcomes of (de)motivated Software Engineers?

RQ4: What aspects of Software Engineering (de)motivate Software Engineers?

RQ5: What models of motivation exist in Software Engineering?

In this review the literature often characterises Software Engineers (SEs) as a homogeneous group of high

achievers (Couger and Zawacki 1980; Capretz 2003). These studies suggest that Software Engineers are


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somehow different to non-Software Engineers, a view reinforced by Wynekoop and Walz (1998) who found

important differences in personalities exist between IS employees and the general population. On the other

hand, Ferratt and Short (1986) question the existence of differences between IT and non-IT employees. They

found that IT employees (including IT managers) within the technical-professional sub-occupations were not

more motivated by achievement needs than corresponding subgroups of non-IT employees. Although they did

find that meaningful work was the highest motivator for these IT subgroups.

Couger and Zawackis (1980) seminal work on motivation in software engineering was conducted over 20 years

ago. Yet, this work has been used throughout the period of this review as the central model of Motivation in

Software Engineering. The environment for software engineering has changed considerably since that time, e.g.

with the increase in outsourcing, open source development, new technical concepts and languages, new

lightweight development methods and so on. So, in this review we consider whether this work is still as valid as

it was.

This paper is organised as follows. In Section Two we describe the method we used for our systematic literature

review, this involves producing and following rules in a protocol that is independently validated. We also report

on the quality of the included papers in this section. Section Three presents results of our synthesis of the

literature, including geographical spread, temporal aspects and publication details. Section Four reports the

results of our synthesis of identified themes based on our five research questions. In Section Five we discuss our

key findings. Section Six presents some limitations of this study, and finally in Section Seven we present our

conclusions.

2. METHOD

2.1 Introduction

In accordance with systematic review guidelines (Kitchenham 2004) we take the following steps:

1. Identify the need for a systematic literature review (MoMSE(cfs) 2005)

2. Formulate review research question(s)

3. Carry out a comprehensive, exhaustive search for primary studies

4. Assess and record the quality of included studies

5. Classify data needed to answer the research question(s)

6. Extract data from each included study

7. Summarise and synthesise study results (meta-analysis)

8. Interpret results to determine their applicability

9. Write-up study as a report

These steps are detailed in our protocol (See (Beecham et al. 2006) or

http://homepages.feis.herts.ac.uk/~ssrg/MOMSEProto.htm ). We developed our protocol by running three

separate pilot studies involving four researchers who performed searches based on rules given in the protocol.

After several refinements the protocol was peer reviewed by an independent expert in systematic review

development in Software Engineering.


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The remainder of this methodology section summarises the process presented in our protocol. Where more

information is required please refer to (Beecham et al. 2006).

2.2 Resources Searched

Key words and synonyms were drawn up for each research question. Then the following databases weresearched using these key words:

ACM Digital library

EI Compendex

Google scholar

IEEE Explore

Inspec

ISI Web of Science

ScienceDirect

UH Universitys electronic library (voyager.herts.ac.uk)

To ensure we did not overlook any important material, additional searches were performed directly on key

conference proceedings, journals and authors.

2.3 Document Retrieval

Our searches elicited over 2,000 references. Evaluating the title and abstract enabled us to reject approximately

1,500 of these. We then looked at 519 papers in full to establish a final list of 92 papers.

2.4 Procedures for Including and Excluding Studies

Any published work that directly answers our research questions and was published between 1980 date isconsidered for inclusion in our review. To be included the study must also be published in a journal paper,

conference proceedings, or empirical experience report based on theoretical or previous rigorous research.

Studies are excluded that are opinion pieces or viewpoints that do not reference any other study or are not based

on empirical work. We also excluded studies external to Software Engineering, which focus on cognitive

behaviour, general group/team motivation and dynamics, manager motivation, user/end user motivation and

acceptance of technology, gender differences and education (e.g. motivating IT students to learn).

We included studies that focus on motivation and satisfaction in Software Engineering. We included satisfaction

as it is often used to measure Software Engineer motivation. For example, satisfaction is considered in great

detail in the Job Diagnostics Survey for Data Processing Personnel (JDS/DP) tool (Couger and Zawacki 1980)

that is used extensively to measure Software Engineer motivation.

2.5 Study Quality Assessment Checklists

Each accepted study is assessed against a quality checklist. Scores are given according to whether the study

presents clear, unambiguous findings based on evidence and argument. Quality scores for the 92 papers are

given in Table 1:


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3.3 Temporal view of publications

Figure 3 shows that over the last 26 years there is a recent increase in published papers covering Software

Engineer characteristics and motivation in Software Engineering.

Figure 3: Number of papers included in the review by five year intervals

This recent increase may be a reflection of a growing awareness of the importance of motivation in Software

Engineering. Alternatively, this increase may just match a general rise in published papers in Software

Engineering.

3.4 Data Sources

Figure 4: Publication sources of our included studies

05

1015202530354045

1980-84 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1999 2000-2005/6

N u m

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f p a p e r s

( T o

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N U M B E R O F P A P E R S

KEY JOURNALS AND CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

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SIGCPR

IEEEPROCS

INF &MAN

COMM OFACM

MIS JSS OTHERS

Key: SIGCPR = ACM Special Interest Group for Computing Personnel Research/ IEEE Procs = IEEEProceedings/ INF & MAN = Information and Management; JSS = Journal of Systems and Software


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Figure 4 gives a breakdown of where our 92 papers are published. The majority are published by the special

interest group on computer personnel research with fewer papers reaching the more widely known journal

publications.

3.5 Geographical distribution of papers

A high percentage of the empirical studies in our review are concentrated on work carried out in the USA

(56%), as shown in Figure 5:

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

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A u s t r a

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C a n a d

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n U K U S A

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Figure 5: Countries represented in the empirical studies

Seventeen countries are represented, and although the nine global studies involve all continents, countries such

as India are not well represented in the literature. It is clear that when we synthesise findings from all the studieswe are giving a predominantly Western view of motivation in Software Engineering.

4. RESULTS - MOTIVATION IN SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

This section reports on how the literature represents motivation in Software Engineering. Figure 6 gives an

overview of how our research questions work together to give a comprehensive view of our topic. Citations for

the 92 papers included in this section are given in numeric form with a bibliography in Appendix 1.

By investigating the five research questions in Figure 6, we aim to gain a broad picture of what the literature is

reporting on motivation in Software Engineering. We collected information on Software Engineercharacteristics (RQ1) to broaden our understanding of the underlying constructs relating to what (de)motivates

Software Engineers to be more/less productive (RQ2). We then took a more in depth view of Software Engineer

(de)motivators to uncover areas specific to the Software Engineering task itself (RQ4). To see how motivation is

measured and the potential benefits or otherwise of motivating Software Engineers, we researched the external

signs of (de)motivated Software Engineers. Finally, we looked at how all aspects of motivation are modelled in

the Software Engineering literature (RQ5).


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Figure 6: The relationship between our f ive Research Questions

4.1 Do Software Engineers form a distinct occupational group?

Figure 7 shows that papers fall into three categories when considering whether Software Engineers form a

distinct occupational group.

YES54%

NO24%

YES&NO (dependingon context)

22%

Figure 7: Do Software Engineers form a Distinct Group?

Figure 7 shows that 76% (54% plus 22%) of papers find that Software Engineers do form a distinct occupational

group, albeit that in 22% of the cases this is context dependent. However, 24% of papers report that Software

Engineers do not form a distinct occupational group and in some contexts this rises to 46% (24% + 22%). Sixpapers included in our software characteristics group of papers do not cover this question and are therefore

excluded from this analysis.

The following sub-sections look at each of our research questions in more detail.


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4.2 RQ1 - Software Engineer Characteristics

43 papers were identified as answering Research Question 1 (RQ1), What are the characteristics of Software

Engineers?

These 43 papers identify 24 attributes which relate to characteristics of SEs. However a closer inspection

shows that these attributes can be structured into three linked categories. The first category contains the rawcharacteristics of Software Engineers. The second contains factors that control whether or not a particular

individual will have those characteristics. The third contains moderators which determine the strength of a

characteristic within an individual. Figure 8 shows how Characteristics, Control Factors and Moderators seem

to relate to one another: an individual will have a given Characteristic (e.g. need for stability) depending on

their Control Factors (e.g. their Myers Briggs Type Index (MBTI) score), and the strength of this characteristic

is Moderated by contextual factors, such as the country they live and work in. This structure implies a different

profile of characteristics for every individual Software Engineer, and that over time, an individuals motivation

changes. Both of these implications are consistent with findings in the literature.

Figure 8: Determinants of software engineer characteristics

Using this structure, we have identified 16 raw Software Engineer characteristics of which growth oriented,

introverted and need for independence are the most cited. The literature often uses the term Career Anchor to

describe a persons characteristics. A persons career anchor is (1) his or her self concept of talents and abilities;(2) his or her self concept of basic values; and (3) the individuals evolved sense of motives and needs (Schein

1996).

Table 2 presents our literature review results for characteristics.


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TABLE 2: Software Engineer CharacteristicsCh: Software Engineer Characteristics Paper references Frequency

(# of studies)Ch.1 Need for stability (organisational stability) [1-5]; 5Ch.2 Technically competent [1, 3, 6-8] 5Ch.3 Achievement orientated (e.g. seeks promotion) [2, 9-11] 4

Ch.4 Growth orientated (e.g. challenge, learn new skills) [4, 7, 9, 12-17] 9Ch.5 Need for competent supervising (e.g. needs respect

and appreciation, given a clear job to do and goals)[2, 3, 8, 18] 4

Ch.6 Introverted (low need for social interaction) [12-14, 19-22] 7Ch.7 Need for involvement in personal goal setting [14] 1Ch.8 Need for feedback (needs recognition) [14, 15] 2Ch.9 Need for Geographic stability [3] 1Ch.10 Need to make a contribution (needs worthwhile/

meaningful job)[3, 4, 8] 3

Ch.11 Autonomous (need for independence) [3-5, 11, 13, 17, 22] 7Ch.12 Need for variety [3, 5, 17, 23] 4Ch.13 Marketable [5, 17] 2Ch.14 Need for challenge [5, 11, 17, 20] 4Ch.15 Creative [17, 24] 2Ch.16 Need to be sociable/identify with

group/organisation/supportive relationships[4, 8, 9, 17, 25] 5

Control Factors relate to an individuals personality, their internal make-up and their strengths and weaknesses.

These control factors seem to determine the existence of various raw characteristics.

Table 3 presents our literature review results for control factors.

TABLE 3: Software Engineer ControllersCon: Controllers Paper references Frequency

(# of studies)Con.1 Personality Traits ( e.g. introverted, thinking) [6, 10, 19, 24, 26-28] 7Con.2 Career Paths (Managerial/Technical) [3, 4, 29] 3Con.3 Competencies (how good they are at their job) [6, 11, 30, 31] 4

Table 3 shows there are many studies that report personality traits of Software Engineers. Our findings suggest

that an engineers personality, career path preference and competencies will control whether each of the 16

characteristics listed in Table 2 form part of his or her make-up.

Moderators are external factors that influence characteristics, for example, environmental conditions, type of

work and role are moderators. Our findings suggest that moderators change the strength of a particular Software

Engineer characteristic. Table 4 presents our results for moderators.

TABLE 4: Software Engineer ModeratorsMod: Moderators (context) Paper references Frequency (#

of studies)Mod.1 Career stage (age & experience, e.g. Apprentice,

colleague, mentor, sponsor)[6, 26, 32-37] 8

Mod.2 Culture (relating to different countries) [2, 5, 9, 13, 15, 20, 25,38]

8

Mod.3 Job type/role/ occupational level [16, 20, 39, 40] 4Mod.4 State of IT profession (a snap shot of an evolutionary

process)[22, 37, 39, 41, 42] 5

Mod.5 Type of organisation (e.g. promotionopportunities/rules) relating to lifestyle

[4] 1


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Table 5 shows that the most frequently cited motivators in the literature are, the need to identify with the task

such as having clear goals, a personal interest, understanding the purpose of task, how the task fits in with the

whole, having job satisfaction; and working on an identifiable piece of quality work. Having a clear career path

and a variety of tasks is also found motivating in several papers.

Table 6 lists the de-motivators found in the literature.

TABLE 6: RQ2 De-Motivators in Software EngineeringDe-Motivators References Frequency

(# of studies)

D.1 Risk [1] 1D.2 Stress [43, 66, 69, 74, 75] 5D.3 Inequity (e.g. recognition based on managementintuition or personal preference)

[7, 43, 56, 66] 4

D.4 Interesting work going to other parties (e.g.outsourcing)

[45] 1

D.5 Unfair reward system (e.g. Management rewardedfor organisational performance; company benefits

based on company rank not merit)

[7, 70] 2

D.6 Lack of promotion opportunities/stagnation/careerplateau/boring work/poor job fit

[37, 56, 61, 76, 77] 5

D.7 Poor communication (Feedback deficiency/loss of direct contact with all levels of management)

[7, 13, 20, 39, 56] 5

D.8 Uncompetitive pay/poor pay/unpaid overtime [7, 13, 20, 56, 77, 78] 6D.9 Unrealistic goals/ phoney deadlines [7, 13, 23, 42, 56, 77] 4D.10 Bad relationship with users and colleagues [42, 51, 56, 74] 4D.11 Poor working environment (e.g., wrong staffinglevels/unstable/insecure/lacking in investment andresources; being physically separated from team)

[4, 7, 10, 22, 23, 56, 73, 74, 79] 9

D.12 Poor management (e.g. poorly conductedmeetings that are a waste of time)

[7, 20, 22, 23, 42, 47, 56, 79] 7

D.13 Producing poor quality software (no sense of accomplishment)

[7, 23, 56] 3

D.14 Poor cultural fit/stereotyping/role ambiguity [42, 51, 63] 3D.15 Lack of influence/not involved in decisionmaking/no voice

[23, 56] 2

Table 6 shows that poor working conditions and lack of resources are reported as de-motivating in 9 separate

studies.

TABLE 7: RQ2 IMPLEMENTATION FACTORSIMPLEMENTATION Factors References Frequency

(# of studies)

IMP 1: Job Fit [12, 13, 15, 22, 37, 38, 63, 75, 80] 9IMP 2: Tailoring practices [11, 43, 59, 62, 71, 75] 6IMP 3: Long term/ short term strategies [43] 1IMP 4: Temporal effects [1, 42, 56, 72, 78, 81] 6IMP 5: Individual differences [5, 29, 55, 56, 67] 5

The literature reports that to implement the motivators noted in Table 5, factors listed in Table 7 need to be

considered. How the job fits with an individuals needs is considered important in 9 separate studies. Here,

motivation is viewed as a function of the fit between the individual and the organisational job setting. The

concept of job-fit is detailed in the work of social scientist McClelland in 1975.


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4.3 Research Question 3

18 papers were identified as answering Research Question 3, RQ3: What are the external signs or outcomes of

(de)motivated Software Engineers?

Table 8 lists the external signs associated with motivated or de-motivated software engineers, as identified in

these 18 papers.

TABLE 8: External signs of motivated and de-motivated software engineers

External signs References Frequency(# of studies)

Ext1: Retention [21, 25, 32, 38, 43, 45, 50, 52, 57, 62, 66, 81] 12Ext2: Project delivery time [16, 82] 2Ext3: Productivity [6, 21, 58, 68, 73] 5Ext4: Budgets [81] 1Ext5: Absenteeism [50] 1Ext6: Project Success [68] 1

The majority of the studies cited retention as the major outcome of motivated or de-motivated software

engineers. Twelve studies showed that motivated engineers tend to stay in their jobs longer than de-motivated

engineers. Five studies reported that productivity is affected by motivated/de-motivated engineers.


Eighteen papers answered research question 4, What aspects of Software Engineering (de)motivate Software

Engineers?

Table 9 identifies themes based on (de)motivators relating to the software engineering activity itself. Factors

related to salary or other motivators extraneous to software engineering itself have not been included in this

analysis. This question is an offshoot of our research question 2 that takes a more general view of all motivatorsfound in software engineering.

TABLE 9: Aspects of Software Engineering that motivate Software Engineers

Motivating Aspects of software engineering field References # of studiesAsp1: Problem Solving (the process of understanding and solving a problem inprogramming terms)

[10, 22, 83] 3

Asp2: Team Working [61, 84] 2Asp3: Change [2, 11, 42, 85] 4Asp4: Challenge (Software Engineering is a challenging profession and that initself is motivating)

[22, 42, 61,65]

4

Asp5: Benefit (creating something to benefit others or enhances well-being) [10, 61, 83] 3Asp6: Science (making observations, identifying, describing, engineering,

investigating and theorising, explaining a phenomena)

[77, 83] 2

Asp7: Experiment (trying something new, experimentation to gain experience) [55, 83] 2Asp8: Development practices (Object Oriented, XP and prototyping practices) [85, 86] 2Asp9: Software process/lifecycle Software development, project initiationand feasibility studies, *maintenance (*also found a de-motivating activity)

[77] 1

We found comparatively few studies that identified specific tasks that motivate software engineers. A key study

in this area is Alstrum (2003)/[83], who asked the question What is the attraction to Computing? We have built

on some of the themes identified by Alstrum such as benefit, science and experiment.


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Table 9.1 De-motivating Aspects of Software Engineering References # of studiesDe-Asp1: Software process/lifecycle maintenance (note thatmaintenance was also found motivating under some conditions)

[12, 85] 2

Table 9.1 shows that only two studies considered what aspects of the lifecycle de-motivated software engineers,

both identified the maintenance task.

Table 9.2. Implementation Factors (as in table 7) References # of studiesIMP1. Job-Fit [15, 20, 37, 82, 85] 5

Similar to our findings relating to research question 2; Table 9.2 highlights that 5 studies found that the degree

that an engineer finds aspects of the software engineering job motivating on de-motivating will depend on his or

her personal job-fit.


17 papers were identified as answering Research Question 5, What models of motivation exist in Software

Engineering?

We searched for models that try to explain how motivation works or why motivation works the way it does. A

breakdown of the themes we identified in the literature is presented in Table 10.

TABLE 10: Models of Motivation in Software Engineering

Explicit Models of motivation References Frequency(# of studies)

Mod1: Job Characteristics Theory Model (JCT) of SoftwareEngineer (SE) Motivation(development, enhancement or validation)

[14, 15, 89-91] 5

Mod2: Models of leadership influence on SE motivation [7, 59, 91] 3Mod3: Models of Open Source Developer SE Motivation [59, 87, 88] 3Mod4: Model of Task Design influence on SE motivation [67] 1Mod5: Model of Career Progression influence SE onmotivation

[60] 1

Implicit Models of motivation

Rel1: Models focussing on Software Engineer Job Satisfaction [50, 52, 53, 56, 62] 5

Rel2: Model drawing on expectancy theory, goal-settingtheory, and organizational behaviour specific to the softwaredevelopment process

[92] 1

Rel3: Social support influence on Software Engineerturnover

[62] 1

The literature presents a disparate set of models that are mostly hypothesised from theoretical studies and

validated through empirical surveys. A commonly-cited model of motivation is the Job Characteristics Theory

(JCT) Model (Hackman and Oldham 1976). The basic tenet of the JCT is that Software Engineers will

experience internal motivation and satisfaction if their Growth Need Strength's (GNS) are matched by the

Motivational Potential Score (MPS) of the jobs they do. This implies that Software Engineers with low GNS

will be satisfied with low MPS in a job, in much the same way as those with high GNS will need high MPS in a


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job. Optimum internal motivation and satisfaction is achieved when Software Engineers' GNSs are matched

with the appropriate MPS's in a job.

Five papers in our review explicitly build upon the JCT to extend it (e.g. with role ambiguity/conflict and

leadership styles), validate it using comparisons with countries outside the USA, such as Japan, or enhance it,

e.g. looking at employment fit (which is similar to job fit, but includes working conditions). A further fivepapers presented models that focus on job satisfaction, which is an element of the JCT and is therefore linked to

motivation. For example, [56] suggest that managerial, team member or self-control of tasks influences the level

of job satisfaction felt by an employee.

Three papers explicitly investigate the motivation of open source developers. [87] considers whether two social

science models (one focusing on voluntary action and one focusing on small teams) adequately explain OSS

developers motivation. [59] focuses on leadership styles, and [88] investigates the relationship between

intrinsic, extrinsic and internalised extrinsic motivators.

Two papers focus on job or employment fit of some kind. For example, [89] focuses on validating an instrument

to measure employment arrangement fit. This reflects findings from other literature identified under RQ1 where

the influence of career anchor is highlighted. In addit ion, RQ4 identifies job fit as being a (de)motivator for SEs.

5. DISCUSSION

In this section we discuss how the literature in our systematic literature review assists us to understand the

underlying constructs of motivation in software engineering. Figure 9 shows our enhanced understanding of our

research topics introduced in Figure 6.

5.1 Software engineers as a homogeneous occupational group

Figure 9 shows that the literature is divided as to whether Software Engineers form a distinct occupational

group. However, the majority of included studies support the idea that these practitioners do form a recognisable

group with similar needs. This view is consolidated in the many studies from Couger, Zawacki and colleagues,

e.g. (Couger and Zawacki 1978; Couger and Zawacki 1980; Dittrich et al. 1985; Couger and McIntyre 1987;

Couger and McIntyre 1987-1978; Couger 1988; Couger and Adelsberger 1988; Couger 1989; Couger et al.

1990; Burn et al. 1992; Couger 1992; Couger and Ishikawa 1995) based on a comparison of job perceptions and

needs of more than 6000 people from both Software Engineers [Data Processors/IT professionals] and the

general public. These studies reported that Software Engineers found their work less meaningful and rated their

jobs less favourably than other professionals. Their need to interact with others was negligible. SoftwareEngineers displayed very high growth needs and were concerned about learning new technology. Myers (1992)

refined the studies of Couger and Zawacki and colleagues to show that although Software Engineers formed a

distinct group, they varied among themselves by job type. More recent work that presents Software Engineers as

a distinct group include: (Kandeel and Wahba 2001; Capretz 2003; Garza et al. 2003; Tanner 2003; Darcy and

Ma 2005; Ramachandran and Rao 2006).


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Key Results Definitions RQ1: What are the characteristics of Software Engineers? RQ2: What (de)motivates Software Engineers to be more (less) productive? RQ3: What are the external signs or outcomes of (de)motivated Software

Engineers? RQ4: What aspects of Software Engineering (de)motivate Software Engineers? RQ5: What models of motivation exist in Software Engineering?

Table 2-4Table 5-7Table 8

Table 9Table 10

Extrinsic factors : External to the job These factors just maintain practitioner

Intrinsic factors : Primary determinanto Job itself, e.g. work itself, recognitio

Personality : more or less permanent cstate of being, (e.g. shy, extrovert, cons

Figure 9: Model of Motivation in Software Engineering

+/-SW EngineerCharacteristics

Individual personality

Context (jobtype/culture) A distinct group

Not a distinct group

mediates

RQ2GeneralMotivators(extrinsic andintrinsic )in the SW EngLiterature

RQ4Motivators/jobsatisfiers

Specific to SWEng (activity)

+/-

RQ1

RQ5

controls


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However, several studies take a contrary view. For example, Ferratt and Short (1986; 1988) found that

Software Engineering employees and non-Software Engineering Employees [IS and non-IS employees]

could be motivated equally using the same underlying constructs. Im and Hartland (1990) although

disputing Ferratt and Shorts (1986) methodology, supported their outcome. More recent work that

presents Software Engineers as a group that cannot be distinguished from other occupations when

considering motivation include (Enns et al. 2006; Smith and Speight 2006).

These mixed findings from the 1980s to today lead us to conclude that whether or not software

engineers form a homogeneous group with similar motivational needs depends on their individual

context.

5.2 RQ1 - Software Engineer characteristics

The 43 papers that cover this question provide us with a broad picture of Software Engineer

characteristics. As these characteristics are based on studies from different countries, practitioner roles,

personality types, organisations, development processes and historical periods, we cannot assume that

every characteristic relates to all software engineers. In fact is it clear that this would not be feasible,

since some of the characteristics contradict each other. For example, engineers are seen to be sociable

yet introverted, needing stability on the one hand and liking a variety of new tasks and challenges on

the other. Therefore, to apply these characteristics to any individual we have extracted implicit findings

from the papers and identified two new categories: moderators (environmental and demographic

influences) and controllers (internal constructs).

We do not report on the cognitive aspects of a Software Engineers personality which go beyond the

scope of this study. However, we note that cognitive processes and personality traits need to be

considered and understood as these internal constructs will determine an individuals set of characteristics. As Chelsom et al (2005) note, the differences in peoples personality are greater than

the similarities, and we cannot ignore the significance of individuality. The literature also shows that

external factors such as career stage and culture need to be considered as these will moderate the

strength of each characteristic.

The characteristics cited most often in the literature are the need for growth and independence. The

need for growth may be due to the engineers internal make up, and/or the need be marketable

(another characteristic) and keep up with the fast changing technology. The need for independence is

possibly linked to the type of person attracted to software engineering that is sometimes seen as a

creative task that is not helped by overbearing management.

Many of the characteristics we identify reflect the findings and views of Couger and Zawacki (1980).

This is not surprising as their job diagnostics survey for data processing personnel (JDS/DP) has been

used in several of the papers included in our literature review, e.g ((Couger and McIntyre 1987; Couger

and McIntyre 1987-1978; Couger 1988; Couger and Adelsberger 1988; Couger 1989; Couger et al.

1990; Couger 1992; Couger and Ishikawa 1995).


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We have extracted from the literature a more structured view of the findings concerning SEs

characteristics, noting that the characteristics of any one individual depend on controllers, such as

personality trait and moderators such as career stage.

5.3 RQ2 What motivates Software Engineers?The 62 papers that answer this question create a list of 22 different motivators. The most frequently

cited motivators in the literature are, the need to identify with the task such as having clear goals, a

personal interest, understanding the purpose of a task, how it fits in with the whole, having job

satisfaction; and working on an identifiable piece of quality work. Having a clear career path and a

variety of tasks is also found motivating in several papers. The literature suggests it is important to

involve the engineer in decision making, and to participate and work with others, which appears to go

against characteristics of independence and introversion which are cited in many papers. When looking

at what Software Engineering activities motivate Software Engineers we need to consider that some of

the findings might not apply today. For example, we have listed Object Oriented Design as a motivator

that is reported as meeting a growth need in engineers. However, as this finding was reported in the

1990s, it may be that this fulfilled a growth need only because Object Oriented Design was a new skill

at the time this may no longer apply today. This is just one example of how a motivator may be

context specific, relating to time, role, culture, experience, age, individual characteristic etc.

An aspect of Software Engineering found both motivating and de-motivating is the maintenance task.

This could be due to several factors. For example this evolutionary phase of software development can

consume between 40 80% of software costs. If it is the dominant activity within a group, then it may

attract the recognition and challenges associated with motivation. Alternatively, as 60% of maintenance

tasks are in fact enhancements (Glass 2003) this might also be regarded as problem-solving andchallenging. Finally, bug-fixing may be regarded as motivating if the right person is given the job, i.e.

the job-fit is right.

5.3.1 Software Engineer De-motivators

To give a balanced view, we also recorded what the literature reports on Software Engineer de-

motivators. Working conditions and lack of resources are reported as de-motivating in 9 separate

studies. These are classed as hygiene factors by Herzberg et al (1959), who developed the hygiene-

motivator theory in the 1950s. This theory asserts that removing the de-motivator will not necessarily

translate to motivating employees. It will simply maintain practitioners in their job and avoid

dissatisfaction. Salary or rewards are an exception to this rule; a good salary can be motivating in

unstable environments and early in an engineers career, although salary is usually considered a

hygiene factor.

5.3.2 Motivating and de-motivating factors

Finding a factor to be both motivating and de-motivating might be due the temporal effects of

motivation as highlighted by Maslows (1954) hierarchy of needs theory. What might motivate


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someone in the early stages of their career may end up de-motivating them in the latter stages of their

career. For example, the newly recruited Software Engineer could be highly motivated by job security

and close supervision, whereas these same factors, especially close supervision, could turn out to be de-

motivating to a seasoned Software Engineer. An experienced Software Engineer is more likely to be

motivated by challenges, opportunities for recognition and autonomy.

5.4 RQ3 The outcomes of motivating Software Engineers

Considering the large body of work on motivation, very little work covers the tangible benefits or

outcomes of motivating engineers. Eighteen studies were found in this category (RQ3), where most

dealt with turnover and absenteeism. Turnover and absenteeism focus on the likelihood of an individual

staying in a particular job. As measures of motivation therefore they suffer from being a management

and organisational view of motivation, i.e. they consider motivation from an organisations perspective.

We found little work that focused on understanding or measuring an individual's motivation to stay in

Software Engineering as a profession.

Also, very few studies considered productivity improvements or increase in quality. This is possibly

due to the difficulty in measuring motivation and associating motivation with actual output. Also the

themes of turnover and absenteeism are part of the JDS/DP (Couger and Zawacki 1980) a survey

used by many of the studies included in this review.

5.5 RQ4 What is motivating about Software Engineering

Although this review takes in a large range of studies relating to Software Engineering, only a very

small proportion identify what is specifically motivating about this field. When looking at answers to

RQ2 (Table 5) for instance, most of the motivators could apply to many professions.

The literature identifies Software Engineering as a challenging profession and often links challenge to

change, as noted in (Almstrum 2003) the reason for challenge is the pace of change of the field and

the effort it took to keep pace with the changes. ..If you just want to learn something and do it for the

rest of your life . you dont want to go into IT. Challenge also relates to technical challenges (not

just coping with change).

Learning, exploring new techniques and problem solving would also appear to be motivating tasks,.

Benefit is a category identified by Alstrum (2003) and is supported in the work of (Hertel et al. 2003;

Roberts et al. 2004; Li et al. 2006), where the three different studies show Software Engineers aremotivated by creating something that will benefit others; the usefulness in supporting other

areas/fields; and creating something that is of value to the user.

As observed above, we found little work that explicitly focused on Software Engineering as a

profession, and hence considering why Software Engineers remain in Software Engineering (even if

they change jobs).


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5.6 RQ5 Modelling motivation in Software Engineering

We aimed to synthesise the findings on how motivation in software engineering is modelled in the

literature. However, we found it very difficult to combine all the models as they tend to cover general

aspects of motivation, have few commonalities and only partially cover the Software Engineering

domain. exception to this is found in the recurring theme of models based on the Job CharacteristicsTheory (JCT) (Hackman and Oldman 1976) and the JDS/DP (Couger and Zawacki, 1980).

The results from RQ5 though difficult to assimilate fall into one of three camps:

those that use and adapt the JCT model and the JDS/DP e.g. to add leadership considerations,

those that try to provide an alternative to the JCT approach, and

those that take a totally different approach (e.g. using small-team theories to explain Open Source

Development )

According to Couger and Zawacki (1980), the JCT (Hackman and Oldman 1976) was found useful for

management in Software Engineering to analyse individual patterns of motivation. Couger and

Zawacki augmented the underlying constructs of this model in the Job Diagnostics Survey for Data

Processing Personal (JDS/DP) to provide a richer picture of how growth need strength (GNS) relates to

Motivation Potential Score (MPS) in a given job.

Literature that uses the JDS/DP generally aims to validate the theory in different national cultural

contexts and often uses the USA as the benchmark. It is helpful for cross-comparisons to use the same

instrument with other professions and between and within given roles, showing the strength of feeling

for certain needs and identifying differences and similarities. However, the JDS/DP comprises a tick

list of factors, and so studies based on the JDS/DP will only be able to comment on motivating factors

contained within the instrument rather than unearth any new motivators or emerging trends. The natureof the Software Engineers job has changed considerably since the JDS/DP was first devised, and so it

is questionable as to whether or not it is as applicable as it used to be.

We have not found a definitive model of motivation in Software Engineering that adequately captures

the motivators and de-motivators we found in answer to RQ4, What aspects of Software Engineering

(de)motivate Software Engineers? , nor the other facets of Software Engineer characteristics and

motivation reported through RQs1-3.

6. LIMITATIONS

6.1 Completeness

We have conducted a very thorough review of the literature eliciting work from 70 different authors

including some secondary studies (where we used the reference in the primary study to lead to another

study). We note however that with the increasing number of works in this area we cannot guarantee to

have captured all the material in this area.


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Another area of concern is that few studies have been published on motivation in Software Engineering

in countries such as India that are increasingly involved in Software Engineering (Yourdon 2005),

suggesting that we cannot present a global view of this area. This is not a limitation of our approach,

but a reflection of the limitations imposed on us by the available research in this area.

6.2 Data synthesisAs we have covered different countries and eras in Software Engineering we have grouped all Software

Engineer roles together. Some studies have found that different roles are associated with different

motivational needs and characteristics. By grouping all roles together, we may have lost some of this

detail.

7. CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest an increasing awareness of motivation in Software Engineering since about 1995,

as compared to the previous 15 years. Most of the studies in this area rely on the use of questionnaires,

with 16% using multiple data collection methods and only 1% using multiple methods without

questionnaire. Over half of the studies (54) were conducted in the USA. In addition, the majority of

papers were published in the Proceedings of SIGCPR Computer Personnel Research rather than

mainstream software engineering conferences or journals. Notwithstanding this, the 92 papers in our

systematic literature review provide a broad understanding of the research conducted into what has

motivated Software Engineers in 16 different countries over the past 26 years.

Mixed findings in the literature lead us to conclude that whether software engineers form a

homogeneous group with similar needs depends on their individual context. Building on the work

reported, we have structured the SE characteristics investigated in the literature into three relatedcategories: raw characteristics, moderators and controllers. Whether or not an individual has a

particular characteristic depends on certain controllers, and how strong this characteristic is depends on

the moderators.

The literature cites 22 different motivators for Software Engineers. The most frequently cited ones are,

the need to identify with the task such as having clear goals, a personal interest, understanding the

purpose of a task, how it fits in with the whole, having job satisfaction; and working on an identifiable

piece of quality work. However some factors are identified as being both motivators and de-motivators.

It may be possible to account for this by considering the career stage of the individual.

Turnover and absenteeism are the most cited outcomes of (de)motivated engineers (maybe because

these are mentioned in the JDS/DP). We found little work that focused on understanding or measuring

an individual's motivation to stay in Software Engineering as a profession.


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Learning, exploring new techniques and problem solving appear to be motivating aspects of SE.

However little work has focused on the specific nature of software engineering itself, or of the impact

of the changing environment in which software engineering is conducted.

Although we found a variety of models of motivation in Software Engineering in the literature, no

model considered all the identified factors in our list of motivators, moderators, controllers andimplementers. Neither did any of the models focus on the nature of the SEs job itself such as the

reliance on tools or programming languages, the logical nature of problem solving, use of creativity,

complex problem-solving, and so on. Yet the job itself continues to be the principal motivator.

Therefore, considering the changes in what the job demands, in terms of new skills and communicating

with many different stakeholders, there appears to be a gap in defining what exactly it is about the job

that motivates engineers.

It is clear from the literature that there is a need for a comprehensive model of motivation in Software

Engineering that includes what is particularly motivating about the job itself. We also need a better way

to measure motivation, as basing it on turnover only reflects whether an engineer is motivated to stay in

an organisation. It does not shed light on what motivates an individual to stay in the SE profession, to

produce better quality software, increase productivity, and use and share skills in the wider Software

Engineering community.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Dorota Jagielska for helping us pilot this study and David Clover of The Open University for

setting up a collaborative website for the project group.

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APPENDIX 1

Numeric References for the 92 studies included in Systematic Literature Review (Section 4)

1. Agarwal, R., P. De, and T.W. Ferratt, Explaining an IT professional's preferred employment duration: Empirical tests of

a causal model of antecedents. Proceedings of the ACM SIGCPR Conference, 2002: p. 14-24.

2. Burn, J.M., L.C. Ma, and E.M. Ng Tye, Managing IT professionals in a global environment SIGCPR Comput. Pers,1995. 16(3): p. 11-19.

3. Crepeau, R.G., et al., Career Anchors of Information Systems Personnel. Journal of Management Information Systems,1992. 9(2): p. 145-160.

4. Garza, A.I., S.E. Lunce, and B. Maniam, Career anchors of Hispanic information systems professionals. Proceedings -Annual Meeting of the Decision Sciences Institute, 2003: p. 1067-1072.

5. Ituma, A., The internal career: an explorative study of the career anchors of information technology workers in NigeriaProceedings of the 2006 ACM SIGMIS CPR conference on computer personnel research: Forty four years of computerpersonnel research: achievements, challenges & the future. Claremont, California, USA, 2006: p. 205-212.

6. Darcy, D.P. and M. Ma, Exploring Individual Characteristics and Programming Performance: Implications forProgrammer Selection. IEEE International Conference on System Sciences, 2005. HICSS '05. Proceedings of the 38thAnnual Hawaii (03-06 Jan. 2005), 2005: p. 314a-314a.

7. Frangos, S.A., Motivated humans for reliable software products. Microprocessors and Microsystems, 1997. 21(10): p.605-610.

8. Ferratt, T.W. and L.E. Short, Are information systems people different: an investigation of motivational differences.Management Information Systems Quarterly, 1986. 10(4): p. 377-87.

9. Burn, J.M., J.D. Couger, and L. Ma, Motivating IT professionals. The Hong Kong challenge Information &Management, 1992. 22(5): p. 269-280.

10. Linberg, K.R., Software developer perceptions about software project failure: a case study. Journal of Systems andSoftware, 1999. 49(2-3): p. 177-92.

11. Smits, S.J., E.R. McLean, and J.R. Tanner, Managing high achieving information systems professionals. Proceedings of the 1992 ACM SIGCPR Conference on Computer Personnel Research (Cincinnati, Ohio, United States, April 05 - 07,1992). A. L. Lederer, Ed. SIGCPR '92., 1992: p. 314-327.

12. Couger, J.D., Comparison of motivating environments for programmer/analysts and programmers in the US, Israel andSingapore. System Sciences, 1989. Vol.IV: Emerging Technologies and Applications Track, Proceedings of the Twenty-Second Annual Hawaii International Conference on, 1989. 4: p. 316-323 vol.4.

13. Couger, J.D. and H. Adelsberger, Environments: Austria compared to the United States. SIGCPR Comput. Pers., 1988.11(4): p. 13-17.

14. Couger, J.D., et al., Commonalities in motivating environments for programmer/analysts in Austria, Israel, Singapore,and the U.S.A. Information & Management, 1990. 18(1): p. 41-46.

15. Couger, J.D. and A. Ishikawa, Comparing motivation of Japanese computer personnel versus these of the United States.System Sciences, 1995. Vol. IV. Proceedings of the Twenty-Eighth Hawaii International Conference on, 1995. 4: p.1012-1019 vol.4.

16. Couger, J.D. and S.C. McIntyre, Motivating norms for artifical intelligence personnel. Proceedings of the TwentiethHawaii International Conference on System Sciences 1987. Hawaii Int. Conference Syst. Sci. 1987, 1987: p. 370-4 vol.

17. Sumner, M., S. Yager, and D. Franke, Career orientation and organizational commitment of IT personnel. Proceedings

of the 2005 ACM SIGMIS CPR Conference on Computer Personnel Research (Atlanta, Georgia, USA, April 14 - 16,2005). SIGMIS CPR '05, 2005: p. 75-80.

18. Mata-Toledo, R.A. and E.A. Unger, Another look at motivating data processing professionals SIGCPR Comput. Pers. ,1985. 10(1): p. 1-7.

19. Capretz, L.F., Personality types in software engineering. International Journal of Human Computer Studies, 2003. 58(2):p. 207-214.

20. Khalil, O.E.M., et al., What motivates Egyptian IS managers and personnel: Some preliminary results. Proceedings of the ACM SIGCPR Conference, 1997: p. 187-192.


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21. Kym, H. and W.-W. Park, Effect of cultural fit/misfit on the productivity and turnover of is personnel. Proceedings of the 1992 ACM SIGCPR conference on Computer personnel research 1992: p. 184-190.

22. Tanner, F.R., On motivating engineers. Engineering Management Conference, 2003. IEMC '03. ManagingTechnologically Driven Organizations: The Human Side of Innovation and Change, 2003: p. 214-218.

23. Peters, L., Managing software professionals. IEMC '03 Proceedings. Managing Technologically Driven Organizations:The Human Side of Innovation and Change (IEEE Cat. No.03CH37502). IEEE. 2003, 2003: p. 61-6.

24. Wynekoop, J.L. and D.B. Walz, Revisiting the perennial Question: Are IS People Different? The Database for Advancesin Information Systems, 1998. 29(2): p. 62-72.

25. Jordan, E. and A.M. Whiteley, HRM practices in information technology management Proceedings of computerpersonnel research conference (SIGCPR) on Reinventing IS : managing information technology in changingorganizations: managing information technology in changing organizations. Alexandria, Virginia, United States 1994: p.57 - 64.

26. Enns, H.G., T.W. Ferratt, and J. Prasad, Beyond Stereotypes of IT Professionals: Implications for IT HR Practices.COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM, 2006. 49(4): p. 106-109.

27. Moore, J.E., Personality characteristics of information systems professionals. Proceedings of the 1991 conference onSIGCPR, 1991: p. 140.

28. Miller, W.C., J.D. Couger, and L.F. Higgins, Comparing innovation styles profile of IS personnel to other occupations.IEEE International Conference on System Sciences, 1993. HICSS '93. Proceedings of the 26th Annual Hawaii 1993. iv:p. 378-386.

29. Igbaria, M., G. Meredith, and D.C. Smith, Career orientations of information systems employees in South Africa. TheJournal of Strategic Information Systems, 1995. 4(4): p. 319-340.

30. Kandeel, H. and K. Wahba, Competency models for human resource development: case of Egyptian software industry.Managing Information Technology in a Global Environment. 2001 Information Resources Management AssociationInternational Conference . Idea Group Publishing. 2001, 2001: p. 117-21.

31. Turley, R.T. and J.M. Bieman, Competencies of exceptional and nonexceptional software engineers. Journal of Systemsand Software, 1995. 28(1): p. 19-38.

32. Agarwal, R. and T.W. Ferratt, Retention and the career motives of IT professionals. Proceedings of the ACM SIGCPRConference, 2000: p. 158-166.

33. Cheney, P.H., Effects of Individual Characteristics, Organizational Factors and Task Characteristics on ComputerProgrammer Productivity and Job Satisfaction. Information & Management, 1984. 7(4): p. 209-214.

34. Crook, C.W., R.G. Crepeau, and M.E. McMurtrey, Utilization of the career anchor/career orientation constructs formanagement of I/S professionals. . SIGCPR Comput. Pers., 1991. 13(2): p. 12-23.

35. Goldstein, D.K., An updated measure of supervisor-rated job performance for programmer/analysis. Proceedings of theACM SIGCPR Conference on Management of information Systems Personnel (College park, Maryland, United States,April 07 - 08, 1988), 1988: p. 148-152.

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