Motivation and Emotional Intelligence in a Swiss Leisure Park · As definições de motivação e...

UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DO RIO DE JANEIRO

INSTITUTO COPPEAD DE ADMINISTRAÇÃO

BEATRICE EIFERT

MOTIVATION AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AS KEY

DRIVERS FOR SUCCESS IN SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS:

A Case Study of a Swiss Leisure Park

Rio de Janeiro

2017

BEATRICE EIFERT




Master’s dissertation presented to the Instituto Coppead de

Administração, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, as

part of the mandatory requirements in order to obtain the de-

gree of Master in Business Administration (M.Sc.).

SUPERVISOR: Adriana V. Garibaldi de Hilal

Rio de Janeiro

2017

EE34mm Eifert, Beatrice

Motivation and Emotional Intelligence as Key Drivers for Suc-

cess in Service Organizations: A Case Study of a Swiss Leisure Park

/ Beatrice Eifert. – Rio de Janeiro: UFRJ, 2017.

102. f.

Orientadora: Adriana V. Garibaldi de Hilal

Dissertação (Mestrado) - Universidade

Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Instituto COPPEAD de Administração,

2017.

1. Motivação. 2. Setor de serviços. 3. Administração - Teses. I.

Garibaldi de Hilal, Adriana V. II. Universidade Federal do Rio de

Janeiro, Instituto COPPEAD de Administração. III. Motivation and

Emotional Intelligence as Key Drivers for Success in Service Organ-

izations: A Case Study of a Swiss Leisure Park.

BEATRICE EIFERT




Master’s dissertation presented to the Instituto

Coppead de Administração, Universidade Fed-

eral do Rio de Janeiro, as part of the mandatory

requirements in order to obtain the degree of

Master in Business Administration (M.Sc.).

Approved by:

_______________________________________________________

Profa. Adriana V. Garibaldi de Hilal, D. Sc. - Orientador

(COPPEAD/UFRJ)

_______________________________________________________

Profa Elaine Tavares, D.Sc

(COPPEAD/UFRJ)

_______________________________________________________

Prof. Jose Geraldo Barbosa, D. Sc

(MADE/UNESA)

_______________________________________________________

Profa, Ana Luiza Szuchmacher V. Lopes, D. Sc

(CONSULTORA)

ACKNOMLEDGMENTS

The accomplishment of this thesis benefits of the help and direction from my dear supervisor

Prof. Adriana V. Garibaldi de Hilal. I sincerely appreciate her support and patience, which made

this result possible. Furthermore, I would like to thank the top manager of the leisure park for

kindly allowing me to conduct a case study in the organization. I also would like to

acknowledge the time taken and full cooperation of all interviewees. Their insights greatly as-

sisted the research, although they may not agree with all the interpretations of this study. Fi-

nally, I am grateful to my family members and friends who have supported me along the way.

ABSTRACT

EIFERT, Beatrice. Motivation and Emotional Intelligence as Key

Drivers for Success in Service Organizations: A Case Study of a Swiss Leisure Park. 2017.

102p. Thesis (Master in Business Administration) - Instituto COPPEAD de Administração,

Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 2017.

Employees are often considered as a key strategic resource of organizations in the service in-

dustry. Furthermore, there are numerous studies on motivation and emotional intelligence as

key drivers for the success in service organizations. This study provides a synthesis of motiva-

tion, emotional intelligence and organizational success in the service sector. The concepts of

motivation and emotional intelligence are clarified, and examples of contemporary studies are

presented. Thereafter, the concepts’ impact on both job and organizational performance is ex-

posed. In-depth interviews were conducted with front desk workers and managers of a Swiss

leisure park. This qualitative research led to the identification of ten topics which were aggre-

gated into five main drivers of success for service organizations in the leisure sector: main team

motivators, distinct internal communication, socialization of newcomers, a visible ethics culture

and active employee participation.

Keywords: motivation, emotional intelligence, service sector, leisure park, case study

RESUMO

EIFERT, Beatrice. Motivation and Emotional Intelligence as Key

Drivers for Success in Service Organizations: A Case Study of a Swiss Leisure Park. 2017.

102p. Thesis (Master in Business Administration) - Instituto COPPEAD de Administração,

Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 2017.

Funcionários de empresas na área de serviços são frequentemente considerados um recurso

estratégico. Desta forma, há diversos estudos sobre motivação e inteligência emocional como

“key drivers” para o sucesso de empresas de serviços. Este estudo oferece uma síntese dos

conceitos de motivação, inteligência emocional e sucesso organizacional no setor de serviços.

As definições de motivação e inteligência emocional são elucidadas e exemplos de estudos

contemporâneos são apresentados. Em seguida, apresenta-se o impacto destes conceitos, tanto

no desempenho individual dos funcionários, quanto no desempenho organizacional. Entrevistas

detalhadas foram realizadas com funcionários de recepção e gerentes de um parque de diversão

localizado na Suíça. Esta pesquisa qualitativa teve como resultado a identificação de dez tópi-

cos, os quais foram agregados em cinco principais fatores de sucesso para empresas na aréa de

serviços de lazer: principais motivadores à equipe, comunicação interna diferenciada, sociali-

zação com recém-chegados, evidente cultura ética e participação ativa dos funcionários.

Palavras-chave: motivação, inteligência emocional, setor de serviços, parque de diversão, es-

tudo de caso

Table of Content

Table of Content ............................................................................................................................. VIII

List of Figures ...................................................................................................................................... X

1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................. 6

1.2 Relevance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 6

1.3 Limitations of the Study ........................................................................................................ 7

1.4 Structure of the Dissertation .................................................................................................. 7

2 Literature Review ........................................................................................................................ 9

2.1 Brief Description of the Main Classical Motivation Theories .............................................. 9

2.1.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ....................................................................................... 9

2.1.2 McClelland´s Theory of Needs ................................................................................... 12

2.1.3 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory ................................................................................... 13

2.1.4 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory....................................................................................... 16

2.1.5 McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y .......................................................................... 18

2.1.6 Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory ...................................................................................... 19

2.2 Critical Analysis of the Main Motivation Theories ............................................................. 21

2.3 Emotional Intelligence (EI) ................................................................................................. 24

2.3.1 Mixed Models vs. Mental Ability Models .................................................................. 24

2.3.2 Emotional Labor .......................................................................................................... 27

2.3.3 A Conceptual Model for Service Organizations ......................................................... 28

2.4 Critical Discussion of Emotional Intelligence ..................................................................... 30

2.5 Examples of Contemporary Studies regarding Motivation and Emotional Intelligence ..... 32

2.5.1 Evaluation of Motivation Techniques ......................................................................... 32

2.5.2 EI’s Effect on the Work-Life Balance ......................................................................... 35

2.5.3 The Role of Informal Networks and Communication ................................................. 37

2.5.4 Motivating Ethical Behavior ....................................................................................... 38

2.5.5 Egoistic and Altruistic Motivation .............................................................................. 40

2.5.6 The Relation Between Emotional Intelligence and Age ............................................. 43

2.5.7 Shared Purpose ............................................................................................................ 45

2.6 The Impact of Motivation and Emotional Intelligence on Performance ............................. 47

2.7 The Main Theoretical Takeaways that Apply to Our Case Study ....................................... 50

3 Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 54

3.1 Type of Research ................................................................................................................. 54

3.2 Universe, Sample and Interviewee Selection ...................................................................... 55

3.3 Collection and Analysis of the Data .................................................................................... 57

3.4 Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 59

4 Discussion of Results ................................................................................................................. 60

4.1 Employees’ Perception and Resistance to Change .............................................................. 60

4.2 Team Atmosphere ............................................................................................................... 62

4.3 Other Motivators ................................................................................................................. 65

4.4 Prioritization and its Aftermath ........................................................................................... 68

4.5 The Role of Control: Motivator or Restraint ....................................................................... 70

4.6 Leadership Perception (Management vs. Front Team) ....................................................... 71

4.7 Growing a Thick Skin for Customer Contact ...................................................................... 73

4.8 Individual Clients, Individual Workers ............................................................................... 75

4.9 Meanings of Ethical Behavior ............................................................................................. 77

4.10 Considerations on Employees’ Creativity and Active Participation ...................................... 79

5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 83

5.1 Brief Summary .................................................................................................................. 83

5.2 Main Findings and Conclusions ....................................................................................... 84

5.3 Recommendation for Future Research ........................................................................... 88

Appendix ............................................................................................................................................ 89

References .......................................................................................................................................... 94

Motivation and Emotional Intelligence in a Swiss Leisure Park

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List of Figures

Figure 1 - The European Employee Index Model (VIOREL ET AL., 2009) ......................................... 3

Figure 2 - Job Satisfaction and Work Motivation by Age (ESKILDSEN; KRISTENSEN; WESTLUND,

2004) ....................................................................................................................................................... 4

Figure 3 - Results About World Employee Engagement (CRABTREE, 2013) ...................................... 5

Figure 4 - Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (MASLOW, 1943) ............................................................... 10

Figure 5 - McClelland's Theory of Needs (BOURNE, 2015) ............................................................... 12

Figure 6 - Motivation and Hygiene Factors in an Organization (HERZBERG, 1974) ......................... 15

Figure 7 - McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y (BOURNE, 2015) ...................................................... 19

Figure 8 - Goal Difficulty and Performance Level (GRANDHORI; NERI, 2000) .............................. 20

Figure 9 - A Mixed Model of EI (GOLEMAN, 1998) .......................................................................... 25

Figure 10 - A Mental Ability Model of EI (SALOVEY; MAYER, 1990) ........................................... 26

Figure 11 - Conceptual Model of EI on Outcomes in Service Organizations (RATHI, 2014) ............. 29

Figure 12 - The Relationship Between EI and Work-Life Balance (MAHANTA, 2015) .................... 36

Figure 13 - Types of Informal Networks (KRACKHARDT; HANSON, 1993) .................................. 37

Figure 14 - Hypothesized Model of Organizational Citizenship Behavior (LEMMON;WAYNE, 2015)

............................................................................................................................................................... 41

Figure 15 - Results of the Study (LEMMON;WAYNE, 2015 & AUTHOR, 2016) ............................. 42

Figure 16 - The Effect of Age on EI and Well-Being (SLITER ET AL., 2013) ................................... 44

Figure 17 - Graphs Regarding the EI-Motivation Relation (OTHMAN; ABDULLAH; AHMAN, 2009)

............................................................................................................................................................... 49

Figure 18 - Motivation, EI and Performance (AUTHOR, 2016) .......................................................... 50

List of Tables

Table 1 - Interviewee Characteristics (AUTHOR, 2017) ....................................................... 58



1

1 Introduction

“Your customers don't care about you. They don't care about your product or service. They care

about themselves, their dreams, their goals. Now, they will care much more if you help them

reach their goals, and to do that, you must understand their goals, as well as their needs and

deepest desires.”

~Steve Jobs

This quote from Steve Jobs (PARKER, 2012), the Apple co-founder, portrays important

knowledge not only regarding customers but also employees, or more generally, people. In

order to motivate employees to increase their performance, managers must know and under-

stand the employees’ goals and desires. Without comprehending the needs of an employee, it

is difficult or even impossible to figure out what drives him/her to perform well (ADYASHA,

2013). Furthermore, satisfying customer needs is the main goal of any service company. How

can front-line employees know their customers’ needs and desires? How can management find

out about these personal matters of their employees? Emotional intelligence is one of the aux-

iliary concepts. It describes the ability of people to motivate, recognize feelings of oneself and

others and manage emotions (GOLEMAN, 1998, SALOVEY; MAYER, 1990). Moreover,

emotional intelligence is the key for improving a service, by making the customer experience

with the attending personnel more pleasant.

When discussing drives of employees, the term intrinsic motivation comes to mind. Cho and

Perry (2012, p. 399) found intrinsic motivation to be relevant for employee satisfaction and

turnover or, in other words, employee’s intent to leave. According to their study, this connection

is strengthened through managerial trustworthiness and goal directedness, while it is weakened

by extrinsic reward expectancy.

The American business man and author Mark Tibergien (2013, p. 65) gave an interesting advice

in the beginning of his article about incentives: “Think about your desired outcome before

throwing more money at unhappy people”. He explains that money does not necessarily moti-

vate employees to work harder but rather distract them from their intrinsic drive. Work chal-

lenges, shared values and recognition are what make employees excel according to Tibergien

(Ibid., p. 66). Similarly, Sood (2015) recognizes the importance of employee engagement and

points out the advantages of intrinsic motivation, as for example long-term employee commit-



2

ment. Positive reinforcement and punishment are her suggested methods for influencing em-

ployee behavior rather than financial incentives. Her main idea is to change the work relation-

ships from being transactional to being social.

Several other studies show, the importance of feedback to motivate employees (BURGERS ET

AL., 2015, CUSELLA, 1987, GARG; RASTOGI, 2006, KLUGER; DENISI, 1996, WILEY,

1997). And with feedback goes a key concept, namely the recognition for a great performance:

“Even momentary recognitions of achievements represent a major part of job satisfaction.”

(ADYASHA, 2013, p. 102). However, a case from a Saint Lucian public service organization

(NARCISSE; HARCOURT, 2008, p. 1164), showed that a lack in considerate justification

can make the feedback become counterproductive. Feedback that needs to have a considerate

justification and in the best case is constructive, requires a lot of knowledge not only about the

work itself but the employee’s drives and needs. This leads again to the questions from the very

beginning of this section and to emotional intelligence.

Over sixty percent of U.S. employees “suffer high levels of stress in combination with extreme

fatigue” (STATISTA, 2014). In Switzerland, more than a third of employees feel regularly or

even constantly stressed (DIETSCHI, 2017, GREBNER ET AL., 2011). Disruption, pressure

of time and organizational change are the most common reasons for Swiss employees to feel

stressed (GREBNER ET AL., 2011, p. 9). Furthermore, forty-seven percent of Swiss employees

went to work even though they were sick in 2010 (Ibid., p. 21). Stress can eventually result in

burnout, which costs Switzerland around 18 billion dollars a year (JOSURAN; THIERSTEIN;

SCHÄR, 2009). How can businesses tackle this issue without compromising productivity? Guy

and Lee (2015, p. 271-272) believe there is a way. They found that emotional intelligence, more

specifically the ability to regulate emotions, significantly decreases burnout levels. They sug-

gest that management offers training for employees to enhance their emotional intelligence

abilities. Additionally, to reducing burnout levels, this will lead to an increase in job satisfaction

according to their study.

A case study (BLAŠKOVÁ, BLAŠKO, 2008, p. 25) about sustainable development in rural

tourism found that one of the main challenges of tourism employees is to influence customer’s

motivation. The goal is to create an actual relationship between the organization and the cus-

tomer through the representative employee. This relationship needs to be created and nurtured,

because then the customer will become loyal and prefer that specific organization over others

with a similar service. Obviously, the customers’ behavior also motivates or demotivates the

employee. As most service providers are not able to select their customers but rather welcome

https://www.statista.com/statistics/315837/employee-stress-level-in-north-america/



3

all they can attract, it makes sense to focus on the employees’ behavior here. Emotional intelli-

gence is what makes employees able to motivate and to manage their own and others’ emotions

(GOLEMAN, 1998, SALOVEY; MAYER, 1990). Luckily, it is not simply a personality trait

but learnable through training.

For the employee to be a representative of the organization, there must be a healthy company-

employee relationship. Employees should be treated as internal customers and receive the same

consideration that they are supposed to have for customers (BOGDAN ET AL., 2008). Another

way of creating employees that represent the organizational spirit, is creating a shared purpose

and enhancing employees to “live the brand” (see section 2.5.7).

Human resources specialists from northern Europe developed an international benchmark for

employee motivation and its effects on employee behavior (VIOREL ET AL., 2009). Survey

results from over twenty countries led them to conclude that “the employees’ motivation, their

job satisfaction and sense of loyalty are the result of a large number of factors directly related

to the employees’ perception of job and work environment” (Ibid., p. 326). These factors were

classified into seven areas, which are visible in Figure 1 as the main drivers for motivation.

Employees from different countries value different drivers relatable to their culture.

Figure 1 - The European Employee Index Model (VIOREL ET AL., 2009)

Reputation describes how the organization is viewed by outsiders from the employee’s perspec-

tive. General direction of the company, again from the perspective of the employee, is displayed

in the senior management. The immediate superior is the employee’s evaluation of how he/she

is being managed and supported. Cooperation regards the interaction (both work-related and

DRIVERS

- Reputation

- Senior Management

- Immediate Superior

- Cooperation

- Daily Work

- Total Remuneration

- Development

Motivation & Satisfaction

Overall Perception

EngagementCommitment & Retention



4

social) between people from the organization and the sense of community. Working conditions

and work content are included in the daily work. All compensation that the employee feels to

receive from the job takes part in the total remuneration. Development describes to which

amount an employee feels to make acquisitions of competences. (VIOREL ET AL., 2009, p.

327).

Switzerland, which is the place of research in this case, is known to be very similar to the

northern European countries (BERSHIDSKY, 2015, EICHENBERGER, 2010). Therefore,

some data from a survey in the Nordic countries with information from almost 10,000 randomly

selected employees is exposed (ESKILDSEN; KRISTENSEN; WESTLUND, 2004). The ob-

jective is to bring the reader closer to the culture and motivational environment of the country,

in which this case study takes place. Different from the results of other studies (CLARK; OS-

WALD; WARR, 1996, KALLEBERG; MASTEKAASA, 2001, WHARTON, ROTOLO;

BIRD, 2000) the relationship between age and both job satisfaction and intrinsic work motiva-

tion was found to be linear, rather than u-shaped, in the Nordic countries from Eskildsen, Kris-

tensen and Westlund (2004, p. 132), as visible in Figure 2.

Figure 2 - Job Satisfaction and Work Motivation by Age (ESKILDSEN; KRISTENSEN;

WESTLUND, 2004)

Nordic women and men have an equal job satisfaction while women have a slightly higher

intrinsic job motivation. Highly educated people in the Nordic countries appear to be more

motivated but less satisfied than others. Managers offer both higher job satisfaction and more

intrinsic work motivation than employees in other positions. Furthermore, employees from big



5

companies (500 or more employees) have lower satisfaction and motivation levels than those

working in smaller ones. (ESKILDSEN; KRISTENSEN; WESTLUND, 2004, p. 132-134).

Why is there all this interest from academics and business people in motivation? Some people

even go as far to say that there is a “motivation industry”, when seeing the amounts of money

being invested into the concept of motivation (MARIANA, 2013, p. 785). The reasons for all

the interest and investments are the bright prospects of efficiency, less employee turnover,

lower absenteeism, image improvements and innovation.

A study from Gallup (CRABTREE, 2013) covering 142 countries, with over 300 survey an-

swers each, shows the following aggregated results regarding employee engagement.

Figure 3 - Results About World Employee Engagement (CRABTREE, 2013)

Therefore, on average only thirteen percent of employees are actually engaged in their work.

Luckily, in Switzerland, only eight percent of employees are actively disengaged. However,

seventy-six percent are not engaged and therefore only sixteen percent of Swiss employees are

engaged. (CRABTREE, 2013). This shows that there is still a lot of potential for motivation

theorists and practitioners.

Grant and Summanth (2009) conducted three different studies, testing whether prosocial moti-

vation raises the performance of fundraisers. In the first study, the number of phone calls made

by fundraisers was significantly raised through the motivation mediated by manager trustwor-

thiness. The second study tested the same relation impacting the performance in terms of money

raised, and again the impact was significant. The third study regarded resulting proactive be-

havior of fundraisers, which also increased with the proactive motivation. Several other studies

came to the same conclusion about motivation boosting performance (KILDUFF; BAKER,

1984, RAMLALL, 2004, TAMPU, 2015).

As clearly visible, employee motivation is one of the business topics given attention tirelessly

over decades. The main problem is “that unmotivated employees prefer to spend little or no

effort in their jobs, produce low quality work and leave their job in an organization for better

proposals” (MARIANA, 2013, p. 781). Therefore, motivation can lead to, employee engage-

ment, increased productivity, better product/service quality and a lower employee turnover.



6

1.1 Purpose of the Study

The goal of our study is to explore the two concepts, namely employee motivation and emo-

tional intelligence, and their key role for the success of service organizations. Due to the oppor-

tunity of access and previous experience, a leisure park in Switzerland was used as the basis of

analysis. First, the concepts must be understood. Then, contemporary findings regarding those

concepts within service organizations need to be analyzed. These proceedings have the purpose

of uncovering insights on how to achieve a competitive advantage in a service organization by

using the named concepts. Thus, the research question is formulated as follows:

Which are the main drivers of success that can be identified in the selected leisure-service

organization when considering the concepts of employee motivation and emotional intel-

ligence?

Motivation can be differentiated into two approaches; Either motivation is analyzed in the micro

perspective, within the organization, studying employees’ needs, abilities and achievements, or

the macro perspective is considered, taking all stakeholders and their contribution organiza-

tional performance into account (VLAD, 2012, p. 398). The macro perspective was only re-

cently developed and rests upon a modern vision of organizational behavior. Our study focuses

on the first approach, because analyzing the motivation of all stakeholders, rather than just of

the employees, would clearly go beyond the scope of this dissertation. Furthermore, the goal of

this study is to create valuable knowledge for the management of the leisure park. Therefore,

focusing on employee behavior fits the target.

1.2 Relevance of the Study

Motivation has clearly been researched exhaustively and the idea of this study is not to add

another vision or theory to that pile. Several authors conclude that the only way to motivate

employees is to consider each one as an individual with different needs and drives (ADYASHA,

2013, EHIOBUCHE, 2013, GOODMAN, 1968, MARIANA, 2013, WINTER, 2002). This is

where the connection to emotional intelligence comes in, the concept could be useful for em-

ployees to express their needs to their supervisors and for the latter to listen, understand and

manage employees’ emotions. Furthermore, this case study focuses only on services. As

Michel, Kavanagh and Tracey (2013) stated recently about the hospitality industry “there is

much to be learned about the factors associated with the work context that influences employee

motivation, performance, and retention”. Our study contributes to fill the gap in research re-

garding the connections between motivation, emotional intelligence and organizational success



7

success not just in the hospitality but generally the service sector. Results will be useful for both

managers and front-line employees in the given area. Furthermore, the study could provide

incentive for future research in other sectors considering both concepts, motivation and emo-

tional intelligence.

A case study about one of the Best Western Hotels (VLAD, 2012, p. 403) showed the qualitative

approach to be extremely useful for the hotel’s management, because the results revealed clear

discrepancies between what managers believe that motivates their employees and what the staff

desires. Our study has a similar objective. The goal is to provide useful information to the man-

agement of the Swiss leisure park regarding motivation and emotional intelligence of their

front-line personnel.

1.3 Limitations of the Study

The present study is subject to certain limitations. It focuses on one branch and a specific place

of business of a large Swiss corporation. Qualitative interviews were used to find out the real

inner drives of the front-line employees and their emotional intelligence abilities. Due to timely

and financial restrictions, only voluntarily selected employees of one front team were inter-

viewed. The team is the one facing most customers a day and working at the two most popular

fronts of the leisure park. Top management and the supervisor of the selected team were inter-

viewed as well. Motivation is one of the most researched topics in the business literature. There

is less material available on emotional intelligence, but still more than the extent of this paper

allows to bare. This case study focuses only on the specific topics presented in the literature

review.

1.4 Structure of the Dissertation

The paper is structured in a classical way. It is constructed of five parts: introduction, literature

review, methodology, results and conclusion. The introduction revealed some facts and figures

to illustrate the pertinence of the topic and motivate the reader to continue. Purpose, relevance

and limitations of the study were described.

The second chapter contains the literature review on the topic. The main classical motivation

theories are briefly described and discussed. The concept of emotional intelligence is introduced

and its main aspects are explained. Criticism on emotional intelligence is presented and partially

refuted. Then, selected examples of contemporary studies are presented, which could be espe-



8

cially relevant for service organizations. The impact of the two concepts on organizational per-

formance is identified and displayed. Finally, the main takeaways from the literature are sum-

marized, which appear to be relevant for the analysis of the leisure park.

In the third chapter, the research methodology is specified. First, the research design is de-

scribed. Then the research environment, the leisure park in Switzerland is characterized and the

sample is defined. Also, the interviewee selection is revealed. Data collection and analysis fol-

low. Furthermore, the limitations of the method are revealed.

The fourth chapter builds the heart of the research, the empirical results from the interviews are

presented. Ten topics, which were identified in the analysis, are discussed. They include em-

ployees’ perception and resistance to change, the team atmosphere, other key motivators, pri-

oritization and its after-math, the role of control: motivator or restraint, leadership perception

(management vs. front team), growing a thick skin for customer contact, individuality of clients

and front workers, meanings of ethical behavior, and considerations on employees’ creativity

and active participation.

The conclusion begins with a summary of the research. The ten topics discussed in chapter four

were aggregated into five main drivers of success. Thus, this section includes a discussion of

these key drivers identified in the selected leisure-service organization. Final considerations are

made and suggestions for the company are offered. Furthermore, future research directions are

suggested.



9

2 Literature Review

In the first place, motivation is defined, the main classical motivation theories are briefly de-

scribed and then critically analysed. Second, emotional intelligence (EI) in general and its crit-

ical evaluation are approached. Third, follow some contemporary ideas and theories of motiva-

tion and emotional intelligence. An important link is subsequently made between motivation,

EI and performance. Finally, the main takeaways which could be relevant for the leisure park

in Switzerland are summarized.

2.1 Brief Description of the Main Classical Motivation Theories

Motivation is one of the most often defined terms in organizational behavior. The term comes

from the Latin word “movere” which means to move (RAMLALL, 2004, p. 53). Basically,

motivation is something that makes you move. Webster’s dictionary defines motivation in three

ways: First, “The act or process of giving someone a reason for doing something”, second “The

condition of being eager to act or work” and third “A force or influence that causes someone to

do something”. These definitions demonstrate well, how there are different roles in the motiva-

tion process, the person or thing that motivates and the person that is motivated, which, at times,

are the same. The following theories cover the main points of these perspectives. There are both

content theories, focusing “on an individual’s internal attributes”, and process theories, which

are more about the interactions within a specific environment (FUDGE; SCHLACTER, 1999,

p. 296).

2.1.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow created one of the most cited content theories about human needs in 1943.

To build his rationale, he used some assumptions from his previous studies, which cannot be

ignored. He generally accepted cultural diversity in behavior, but stated that those cultural de-

sires are secondary to unconscious and deeply-rooted goals. He further discovered in his re-

search that “all organisms states are to be understood as motivated and as motivating”

(MASLOW, 1943, p. 371). Therefore, a person is never just in one of the roles described before

and always the actor and receiver of motivation, in different levels of intensity, of course. He

also discovered that goals classify motivation, not behavior. And finally, he saw the importance

of taking situational factors into account, clearly stating that they cannot substitute motivation

theory.

In his theory, Maslow puts the basic needs of human beings in an order (see Figure 4). The

general idea is: When lower needs are fulfilled, people start to desire the next upper needs and



10

try to satisfy those. However, “when a need has been satisfied for a long time, this need may be

underevaluated” (MASLOW, 1943, p. 378). An example is a person who has never felt hunger

and strives to satisfy his or her esteem needs, this person might completely forget to eat for a

day, without realizing that he or she needs to eat. Maslow´s theory further distinguishes between

conative and cognitive needs, people want to know before they try to understand. Therefore,

the basic needs in the hierarchy are first revealed and afterwards explained.

Figure 4 - Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (MASLOW, 1943)

Starting from the bottom of the pyramid, physiological needs are the most obvious needs we

have, and they mark the beginning of motivation theory. These needs are closely related to

biology, our body needs oxygen, water and food to function. Shelter and clothing are relevant

in terms of protecting our body from outside harm, whether the harm is a weather condition or

an intruding species. And, finally, sleep, which we naturally fall into when our body has a strong

lack. These basic needs are the first ones a human being tries to fulfil. (MASLOW, 1943, p.

372-373).

When the physiological needs are satisfied, safety and security needs emerge. Health, employ-

ment and social stability are the main examples. At this stage, Maslow elaborated “we may then

fairly describe the whole organism as a safety-seeking mechanism” (MASLOW, 1943, p. 373).



11

Nothing seems as relevant as safety and this does not count only for the current needs but also

for the future philosophy. The example of children is used to demonstrate the need for safety,

because they have not yet learned to inhibit their reaction to danger. Also, children like “a pre-

dictable, orderly world” and routines (Ibid., p. 374). Adults, in normal circumstances, usually

feel safe and do not react in such obvious ways as children do. The exception is neurosis. Neu-

rotic individuals are very similar to children, who feel unsafe.

Again, when people feel safe in all dimensions (employment, property, health and family), new

needs emerge, the love needs. They are about affectionate relationships and the feeling of be-

longing in a group. People not only want to receive love, they also like to give it. These needs

are deeply studied in psychopathology and in general easy to understand. Love needs should

not be mistaken for sex; sex can be part of the need but is no replacement for it. (MASLOW,

1943, p. 375-376).

When somebody has sufficient affectionate relations in his life, he or she starts caring about

self-esteem and the esteem of others. It should be firmly based on achievement, recognition and

in a broader sense independence. Feelings of strength and valuation are the outcome of satisfy-

ing this need. (MASLOW, 1943, p. 376).

Finally, when people have a high self-confidence and feel truly respected and needed, the desire

of self-actualization arises. People at this stage are called “basically satisfied”, since all the

previous needs are fulfilled. Unfortunately, most human beings never reach this stage. This

means individuals want to become, what they are fitted for. People want to fulfil their potential.

This need is highly diverse; it goes from being the perfect mother to expressing your art. People

are different and even though they essentially want the same thing, being self-fulfilled, can

mean completely different things in terms of getting there. (MASLOW, 1943, p. 376).

Maslow also mentioned some preconditions or possible threats to the satisfaction of these basic

needs, for example freedom of speech and information, justice and fairness, freedom of ful-

filling one’s needs if there is no harm for others, and honesty. When those are endangered, this

automatically creates a direct threat to basic need satisfaction. Furthermore, concessions re-

garding exceptions, like people with strong ideals or values, cannot be missing. Self-esteem for

some people is more important than love. Additionally, there is a degree of relative satisfaction;

when people are just partially satisfied in their basic needs. Most basic needs are unconscious

and the conscious content or surface indicators can differ a lot from culture to culture. These

differences appear rather superficial, since the unconscious needs below usually coincide. In



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the end, behavior is not only determined by basic needs and motivation theory includes many

paradoxes. (MASLOW, 1943, p. 376-381).

2.1.2 McClelland´s Theory of Needs

McClelland’s (1967) research regarding human motivation and achievement is quite compre-

hensive, and the result is a content theory based on human needs. He published several arti-

cles and books about the topic in a time frame of almost 50 years. Regarding motivation this

work considers mainly his book on “The Achieving Society” from the year 1967. He ended it

with a powerful sentence: “For in the end, it is men, and in particular their deepest concerns,

that shape history” (Ibid., p. 437). According to McClelland, an achieving society is one that

grows economically (Ibid., p. 8). In other words, he explains economic growth partially

through the need for achievement (Ibid., p.36). The achievement motivation is personal, like

an inner drive, and not to be mistaken with rewards of success (RAMLALL, 2004, p. 54;

MCCLELLAND, 1967, p. 47 & 48). The other two needs, McClelland studied extensively,

are the need for power and the need for affiliation. These three needs are illustrated in Figure

5 and are explained in detail below.

Figure 5 - McClelland's Theory of Needs (BOURNE, 2015)

McClelland (1967, p. 38) makes an important reference to Freud, saying that his model proved,

how motivation is not rational, neither can it “be rationally inferred from action”. This view is

contrary to classical economic theory, but in behavioral theories widely accepted. It makes re-

search into motivation much more difficult, since simply observing behavior is not enough for

knowing the motives behind it. McClelland found some of the information, he wanted, by col-

lecting human’s fantasies in the state of heightened motivation for achievement. He differenti-

ates clearly between the desire for achievement and the desire for gain. His research is about

the former (Ibid., p. 391). One of the first findings was that achievement motivation is stronger

Need for Achievement

•Drive to excel

•Achieve in relation to a set of standards

• Strive to succeed

Need for Power

•To control others

•To get desired things done

Need for Affiliation

• Friendship

•Good relationship



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in situations where the achievement appears to be possible. This could also explain the relation-

ship between achievement level and an entrepreneurial culture of a certain society (Ibid., p. 70).

It goes both ways, entrepreneurship leads to achievement, and visible achievement leads to an

entrepreneurial spirit, since the achievement becomes more possible. He explains further the

two factors for the need for achievement, wanting self-fulfilment and having an enterprise spirit.

Regarding fulfilment, the comparison to others or to earlier achievements is quite important.

People want to achieve in comparison to a certain standard, they want to surpass it, be better.

The need for power is a different approach of getting desired things done. People like to exert

influence on others, to encourage and to control them. The joy of being in a dominant position

creates this need. Power is not directly related to economic development, but to “the political

means used to achieve economic or other ends” (MCCLELLAND, 1967, p. 168).

Finally, the need for affiliation was unexpected in McClelland’s research (1967, p. 160). As

Figure 5 rightfully presents, the need for affiliation results in affective relationships or friend-

ships. Family members do not automatically have affiliation for each other, neither do lovers.

The feeling of affiliation exists in a warm, positive relationship, in which members are con-

cerned about its maintenance. People with a strong need for affiliation spend a lot of time in

social activities (RAMLALL, 2004, p. 55). The connection to economic growth is built through

the influence of affiliation on population growth (MCCLELLAND, 1967, p. 164).

Interesting is, how these three needs work together and what can result from this liaison. Suc-

cessful managers are supposed to have a high need for power and a low one for affiliation

(RAMLALL, 2004, p. 55). However, this combination is also the typical sign for totalitarian

governments (MCCLELLAND, 1967, p. 168 & 169). People with a high need for affiliation

usually have difficulties making tough choices. High achievement needs in combination with

high power needs and medium affiliation needs, are great for economic development (Ibid., p.

394).

2.1.3 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Herzberg’s content theory aimed to proof the long-held belief wrong that any factor can change

the level of human satisfaction (WALL; STEPHENSON, 1970, p. 45). He believed, there are

two types of factors with contrary outcomes: Motivators, which create satisfaction and hygiene

factors, which eliminate dissatisfaction (HERZBERG, 1974, p. 18; WALL; STEPHENSON,

1970, p. 44; RAMLALL, 2004, p. 57). On these grounds, being satisfied does not mean that

there is no dissatisfaction about certain things and vice-versa. Herzberg came to this result



14

through an extensive study from a survey with around 200 accountants and engineers partici-

pating in the year 1959 (WALL; STEPHENSON, 1970, p. 44; RAMLALL, 2004, p. 57).

As visible in Figure 6, motivators leading to job satisfaction are achievement, recognition for

achievement, the work itself, responsibility, advancement and growth. These are all about the

content of work and have an intrinsic character. Job satisfaction leads to motivation, that’s how

the motivators got their name. Dissatisfiers on the other hand, are about the work context (ex-

trinsic), how employees feel treated at their work environment. Herzberg’s examples for these

treatment factors are company policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal relations,

working conditions, salary, status and security. Salary can actually be both eliminating dissat-

isfaction and leading to job satisfaction. This is, because remuneration generally has a contex-

tual character, but some people see it also as a measure of recognition for their achievements.

The factors in Figure 6 are ranked according to frequency of employee’s mentioning them and

not to subjective importance. (HERZBERG, 1974, p. 18 - 20).



15

Figure 6 - Motivation and Hygiene Factors in an Organization (HERZBERG, 1974)

Implications for the managers in an organization are the following. Motivation can be achieved

only by increasing job satisfaction. Eliminating job dissatisfaction by caring for hygiene factors

can bring peace but not real job satisfaction and with it motivation. Therefore, increased re-

sponsibility, recognition and opportunities for achievement and growth should be the goal of

managers instead of higher remuneration and better working conditions. These desired motiva-

tors could be reached by offering more job freedom, specific and more difficult tasks, transpar-

ency and personal accountability. (WALL; STEPHENSON, 1970, p. 44; RAMLALL, 2004, p.

57).

Finally, organizations can have a deviated motivation-hygiene profile from the “normal” one

seen in Figure 6. A firm could have a hygiene problem, as for example the constant problem



16

of not having decent bathrooms. This would make employees so focused on their working con-

ditions that all other factors suffer of less importance and attention due to that specific elevation

of working conditions. When the firm resolves that problem, by offering an incredible work

environment for example (as e.g. Google does), then, another hygiene problem arises causing

confusion. Employees will confuse the relief of dissatisfaction thanks to the improvement with

a feeling of satisfaction. Herzberg (1974, p. 24) calls this a “boomerang inversion”. Usually,

time is the cure in this situation, unless the management encourages the misinterpretation and

expects higher motivation. That would make the problem turn into a motivational problem.

More typical examples for a motivational problem are “underutilization of available talents”

and “assembly-line syndrome” (Ibid., p. 26). The latter is the problem of using only the two top

motivators (achievement and recognition) with blue-collar workers, who need all motivators

more than the white-collar ones. Herzberg suggests that for a problem in the organization re-

garding dissatisfaction (hygiene problem), there is always a solution. However, when the man-

agement continuously fails to provide the right motivators, the organization, in fact, attracts

people who just want to be comfortable at work and not those creative beings willing to go the

extra mile for achievement. That of course, is the ruin for a company and the only way out is

exchanging the responsible manager(s). (HERZBERG, 1974, p. 19-29).

2.1.4 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

The expectancy theory is, as its name suggests, about expectation and one of the first process

theories of motivation. Generally, expectancy theory is all about perceptions. Perceptions are

subjective and usually influenced by past experiences. Expecting a desired outcome motivates

people to act in a way that makes them get to that outcome. There are two main assumptions

needed for the motivation: that the performance leads to the outcome, and that the outcome is

desirable. The strength of the resulting motivation is directly correlated to the strength of these

connections. Vroom “looks at occupational choice as a function of the individual's needs and

(times not plus) his expectations that any given choice will have desirable outcomes”

(MAUSNER, 1965, p. 117). He identified that behavior always derives from choosing the best

option according to psychological processes. In other words, he believed that people are rational

to a certain extent. However, the rational choice of options includes the evaluation of subjective

experiences. The three main factors, which decide behavior, are valence, instrumentality and

expectancy. (FUDGE; SCHLACTER, 1999, p. 296-298; GRANDHORI; NERI, 2000, p. 68-

69; RAMLALL, 2004, p. 56).



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Valence is the subjective value or utility of the outcome for the person performing. The imag-

ined utility can range from dismissal to promotion, including everything between as for exam-

ple official recognition. It can have either an extrinsic (e.g. monetary) or intrinsic (e.g. sense of

competence) character. Valence is also described as the level of satisfaction, which a worker

expects to feel after a specific outcome. If for example someone does not like to work at a place

anymore, but quitting is no option, dismissal could have a positive valence and therefore, this

person would try to perform in a way to make her superiors fire her. The general idea of expec-

tancy theory though, is for people to be motivated to achieve higher, when they see the positive

outcome of performing extraordinarily. This leads to the next factor. (GRANDHORI; NERI,

2000, p. 68-69; RAMLALL, 2004, p. 56).

Instrumentality is given, when a person believes that a specific action leads to one or more

specific outcomes. Basically, a person subjectively assesses, whether its efforts lead to the de-

sired result, or whether they are the right instrument for that outcome. This goes also the other

way around; people want to know whether the rewards are really linked to their performance,

or if they would have received them either way. Commission payments are an example of how

a manager can incentivize high instrumentality. (FUDGE; SCHLACTER, 1999, p. 296; RAM-

LALL, 2004, p. 56).

Ultimately, expectancy is “the strength of a person’s belief about whether a particular outcome

is possible” (RAMLALL, 2004, p. 56). However, this is not a yes or no assessment. People

estimate the probability of the outcome and the higher it is, the higher their motivation. Addi-

tional to the self-efficacy test, a person wants to know about her rewards for the performance.

(GRANDHORI; NERI, 2000, p. 68-69).

These three factors are connected in a simple function:

Motivational Force = Valence x Instrumentality x Expectancy

Therefore, the motivational force of a person in a job, in general, is the sum of the valences

multiplied by the corresponding instrumentalities and expectancies of all different outcomes.

In his first main study, Vroom put as formula the sum of all expectancies multiplied by its

valences (HARRELL; CALDWELL; DOTY, 1985, p. 725), because the instrumentality can be

regarded as given or explained in the expectancy. The separation makes it clear that a person

does not just assess the instrumentality itself but the probability of the outcome.

People with a high effort-performance expectancy are more motivated than people with a low

one. The same counts for a high performance-outcome expectancy (instrumentality) and for a



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high personal valence (FUDGE; SCHLACTER, 1999, p. 296-297). Grandhori and Neri (2000,

p. 69) believe, people valuing extrinsic, monetary rewards in relatively good positions (high

responsibility jobs), are most likely to act accordingly to expectancy theory. These workers

have enough information and knowledge about possible consequences to do the effort of this

value-maximizing decision process. However, lower-paid employees obviously have a higher

valence for monetary rewards like a salary increase and are therefore easier or cheaper to in-

centivise in this way (FUDGE; SCHLACTER, 1999, p. 297). In the end, it is all about the total

motivational force, and managers trying to motivate their employees according to expectancy

theory need to take all three factors into account.

2.1.5 McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

McGregor analysed performance appraisal in 1957 and discovered that the conventional

method makes managers judge their employees by their personal worth instead of stimulating

development and performance. Unsurprisingly, nobody likes to “play God”, and resistance

among managers prevailed. McGregor suggests a more positive approach. While putting the

responsibility on the subordinate, managers should build a relationship, emphasize the future

rather than the past and focus on performance rather than personal traits. He concluded, the cost

for increased managerial skills and a more time-consuming process would be very small, in

comparison to the benefits regarding employee motivation. (MCGREGOR, 1972, p. 133-138).

From these findings, McGregor later derived the famous Theory X and Theory Y. In his con-

tent-oriented theory(s) of motivation, McGregor also focused on the management’s role in em-

ployee motivation. Motivation is the goal, because of its positive effect on the economic health

of a company. Management should assemble factors of production in a way to increase the

economic well-being. Employees are a crucial factor of production, and their performance

highly depends on subjective circumstances, which can be partially influenced by management.

McGregor took the propositions of the conventional approach and called them Theory X. The

new approach takes the controversies of the conventional one into account and has its own,

different assumptions, it was named “Theory Y”. Figure 7 shows some of these suppositions.

(MCGREGOR, 1960, p. 314; EHIOBUCHE, 2013, p. 24 & 25).



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Figure 7 - McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y (BOURNE, 2015)

In his second study on the topic, McGregor went much deeper than just analysing performance

appraisal. He reviewed the motivational theories of that time, including Maslow’s Theory of

Needs, and even turned to basic physics for answers. Maslow’s pyramid made it clear that peo-

ple can be at different stages and need different things. Theory X basically assumes that people

only work to earn money without any internal ambition, they are in the lower part of Maslow’s

Hierarchy of Needs. Managers can either use the hard approach, methods involving coercion

and threat, or they use the soft approach, permissive behavior seeking harmony. Theory Y is

for employees at the top of Maslow’s pyramid with a need for self-fulfilment. Managers can

and should use this motivational energy of their subordinates and delegate tasks to them for

increased responsibility. However, this approach requires much more sensibility of managers

and soft skills. It is not to confuse with the soft approach of Theory X. Managers in Theory Y

must adapt a style, which is neither soft nor hard. The suggested approach is to be hard on the

objectives but confident with the person. (MCCLELLAND, 1960, p. 314-324; EHIOBUCHE,

2013, p. 24-25).

2.1.6 Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory

Just like the expectancy theory, Locke’s goal-setting theory is a process theory and the author

is quite confident about its ubiquity among motivational theories. He argues that “rational hu-

man action is goal directed” and the action of an employee is even purposeful (Locke, 1978, p.

594). This means, behavior at work is consciously chosen from alternatives. Setting goals is

Theory X: Assumes that employees dislike work, lack

ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be directend and coerced to

perform.

Theory Y: Assumes that employees like work, seek responsibility, are capable of making decisions, and exercise self-direction and self-

control when committed to a goal.



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positive for a company’s success, because it increases motivation and cuts through general

complexity in a work environment. Therefore, organizations should enforce goal-setting among

employees. There are different ways for management to influence the goals of employees and

direct them towards reaching organizational goals. A manager can for example instruct his sub-

ordinate or he can use persuasion. Other motivational factors like incentives or autonomy could

also motivate an employee to set goals, in the optimal case the right goals. (LOCKE, 1978, p.

594-600).

The goal-setting theory is a practical approach and its effectivity has been proven many times

(GRANDHORI; NERI, 2000, p. 70). Studies also revealed that employees, in fact, have a great

willingness to accept goals set by their superiors. Obviously, fairness and difficulty of the goals

play a big role. Against common popularity of linear correlations, the relationship between the

degree of goal difficulty and performance builds a concave curve. Figure 8 visualizes this rela-

tion. A goal should be difficult enough to raise aspiration, but easy enough to appear achievable.

Finally, the organizational context cannot be neglected in any process of goal-setting, nor in the

calculation of its effects. Otherwise, the process might end up counterproductive, for example,

when the employee focuses so much on one goal that he or she forgets about all the other im-

portant tasks. (LOCKE, 1978, p. 594-600; GRANDHORI; NERI, 2000, p. 70).

Figure 8 - Goal Difficulty and Performance Level (GRANDHORI; NERI, 2000)

“Goal-setting is effective for any task where people have control over their performance”

(LOCKE, 2004, p. 124). While being a strong statement in favour of the goal-setting theory,

this phrase also makes clear that control is an important component of the practical formula to

success. When talking about achievement and employee behavior, there are a lot of factors

involved, which are uncontrollable at least for the organization and its employees. That is why



21

the context is so important. Goals must appear fair and achievable in the eyes of the one pursu-

ing the goal, because commitment is the key for a successful goal-setting strategy. (LOCKE,

2004, p. 124-125).

2.2 Critical Analysis of the Main Motivation Theories

In a first part of the literature review, the main motivation theories were described. The critical

analysis of those theories begins with a separate, possibly more objective consideration of each

theory. A synthesis follows, demonstrating differences among the theories and their viewpoints

and describing complementary usage. The separate evaluation will use the same order as was

used in the previous chapter, starting with Maslow.

The famous hierarchy of needs from Abraham Maslow is the foundation for most motivation

theories. It is considered general knowledge, not only in behavioral studies. It is also universal,

makes sense and is easy to apply. However, the pyramid is criticized as being incomplete and

too strict. Life stage and social cultures have an impact on need variation; this does not become

very clear in the theory. Several theorists created models, demonstrating which needs of

Maslow’s hierarchy, lead to what kind of employee behavior. Explaining them here though,

would go beyond the scope and the purpose of this dissertation. Finally, Goodman (1968, p.

55) suggested a different order. According to his operational test, security needs should be lo-

cated above the social needs in the hierarchy. Generally, he suggested that managers should be

very careful applying Maslow’s theory to the operation. The engineers and assembly workers

he tested, proved to be rarely motivated by one dominant need. (EHIOBUCHE, 2013, p. 23 &

24; GOODMAN, 1968, p. 55).

McClelland’s theory of needs is based on a huge amount of data and self-executed studies. It

takes situational factors into account and is easy to use in motivational methods. However,

many of the studies used for this theory were focusing on either male students or businessmen

(MCCLELLAND, 1967, p. 40, 1963, p. 493). There exists a possibility that women, and men

in other positions or life stages, have different achievement motives. Moreover, the practical

application of the theory is rather limited, because of the subconscious character of McClel-

land’s main needs for affiliation, power and achievement (WINTER, 2002). This means, a per-

son might have a high need for power, but it does not appear to her or to others in an obvious

way. Very time-consuming, specialized tests could help, but they are quite expensive and most

organizations desist from this approach. Therefore, these needs are hard to recognize, to meas-

ure and to act upon.



22

Herzberg’s two-factor theory is easy to understand and very practical. However, it is not repli-

cable with different methods. Furthermore, the data Herzberg used is lacking a weighting sys-

tem to figure out the relative importance of the factors. Therefore, the results could be biased.

The coding system, which Herzberg did use, was criticized by other motivation theorists like

Vroom, because it goes through two subjective evaluations (from respondents and coder). The

clear separation of the two factors in the theory leaves the question to the manager about the

relative importance of the motivators compared to the hygiene factors. Herzberg does also not

offer a clear definition of job satisfaction, which would differentiate it substantially from job

dissatisfaction. Finally, critics argue that the results show simply the need for social approval

of the respondents. People, who were in a position, where they did not need to be approved by

society, gave answers inconsistent with the two-factor theory. A very thorough investigation of

supportive and non-supportive studies of the two-factor theory and an own investigation led

Wall and Stephenson (1979, p. 64) to conclude that they do not find the theory tenable to de-

scribe determinants of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. (EHIOBUCHE, 2013, p. 24; WALL &

STEPHENSON, 1979, p. 45-64).

Vroom’s expectancy theory is one of the first well-known process theories and it enjoys a lot

of approval. “First, the theory has been subjected to rigorous academic testing and has been

shown to have strong support. Second, the theory is straightforward and easily understood.”

(FUDGE; SCHLACTER, 1999, p. 296) However, the theory seems to be quite focused on the

Western culture, where people are more competitive than collaborative. Therefore, managers

working with an expectancy model, deal with employees considering valence rather than team-

work (EHIOBUCHE, 2013, p. 24). Even Mausner (1965, p. 118), who seemed to admire

Vroom’s approach a lot, criticised his lack of taking culturally-derived values into account.

Robbins et. al. (2013, p. 226) called the theory “idealistic”, because it strays from reality but

does offer a solution for the low-effort workforce. Furthermore, the subjectivity of each em-

ployee considered in the theory, makes it difficult for managers to analyse and predict their

employees accurately (EHIOBUCHE, 2013, p. 23).

“McGregor’s belief in encouraging individuals to develop their potentialities in the organiza-

tional setting” has been widely accepted according to Warren G. Bennis (MCGREGOR, 1972,

p. 133). McGregor introduced a new approach (Theory Y) to motivate employees by giving

them more responsibility. His theory offers the right management style for two different kinds

of employees. Nevertheless, it is not generally applicable for a large number of employees,

since they will not be homogeneous in their motivational needs (EHIOBUCHE, 2013, p. 26).



23

Using different styles for different people, is both difficult and dangerous; employees might not

agree with the different treatment and receive it as unfair. Kopelman, Prottas and Falk (2010)

assign no validity at all to McGregors two theories of assumptions due to the lack of evidence.

Locke’s goal-setting theory is neither “an ultimate explanation of human action”, nor one of the

“most fundamental motivational” concepts (LOCKE, 1978, p. 599). It only offers the process,

of what to do with the knowledge gained by the main theories of needs. In a managerial context,

the theory is applicable and of great use, “since goals are the most immediate regulators of

human action and are more easily modified than values of sub-conscious premises” (LOCKE,

1978, p. 599). His theory states, goals must be difficult enough, but reachable. This is the hard

part and the reason why Ehiobuche (2013, p. 23) describes the theory as not being universal.

He adds that the needs of people change over time and, as it is the drawback also for expectancy

theory, people are different. Therefore, each employee needs diverse goals, which are adapted

over time. This leaves the application quite complex and time-consuming.

Ramlall (2003, p. 53) defined that “motivation requires a desire to act, an ability to act, and

having an objective”. McClelland’s and Maslow’s theories of needs focus on the “desire to act”,

so does Herzberg’s two-factor theory. McGregor and especially Locke did their research on

“having an objective”. Vroom considered all three aspects in his expectancy theory, with the

“ability to act” as one of the deciding factors (self-efficacy test). As mentioned previously,

“motivating people is still a challenge for the simple reason that everyone is different” (EHI-

OBUCHE, 2013, p. 26). Different people have different needs and they change over time, the

same behavior can have several meanings.

Landy and Becker (1987) did an evaluation of the theories regarding mainly predictive strength,

turnover and productivity. They see no validity in theories of needs as explaining motivation.

Goal-Setting Theory increases productivity but fails to take absenteeism, employee turnover

and satisfaction into account. Expectancy theory offers a good explanation of performance var-

iables, but is not universally applicable.

The question in the end stays: What motivates employees the most? The motivation theorists

Maslow, Herzberg and McClelland agreed on autonomy being a crucial motivator (RAMLALL,

2004, p. 58). Vroom and Locke also “include the person as an active participant in deciding

how they will be motivated” (EHIOBUCHE, 2013, p. 23). McGregor’s main finding in 1957

was, to give more responsibility to subordinates in order to increase performance motivation

and therefore company benefits. Still, there are profound differences between the theories.

While a person with a high need for power (MCCLELLAND) aims for controlling others to



24

reach company performance, one believing in expectancy theory would use her own efforts to

attain the organization’s goals. Maslow and McClelland focus on psychological factors like

needs. Vroom, McGregor and Locke took a different approach by trying to find the perfect way

for management to motivate employees. In the end, there must be a mixture of both: Taking

psychological needs into account and using the right methods to stimulate employee’s best per-

formance. Separately, none of the theories is complete nor a recipe for motivating one’s em-

ployees. Each one of them reveals some information about motivation and knowing all of them

provides a great basis. (EHIOBUCHE, 2013, p. 23-27).

2.3 Emotional Intelligence (EI)

Different from motivation, emotional intelligence is a rather recent concept to increase perfor-

mance in organizations. Salovey and Mayer (1990, p.185) first defined emotional intelligence

as “a set of skills hypothesized to contribute to the accurate appraisal and expression of emotion

in oneself and in others, the effective regulation of emotion in self and in others, and the use of

feelings to motivate, plan, and achieve in one’s life”. Goleman (1998, p. 317) defined EI as “the

capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for

managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships”. He explained further, the cere-

bral difference between emotional intelligence and intellectual intelligence; while the former

requires the primitive sub-cortex or in a simpler word: experience, the latter is produced in a

fresh manner in the neocortex. Recently, a more general definition of EI was made: “Emotional

intelligence is the ability of a person to solve personal, business and social problems” (GOEL;

HUSSEIN, 2015, p. 49). Everybody feels his/her own emotions; an emotional intelligent person

recognizes and understands emotions, his/her own and those of others. Furthermore, EI is about

remembering and learning emotions. Savel and Munro (2016, p. 104) describe EI as a “struc-

tured approach to being aware of and modifying our emotions and reactions to them”. Very

important here is that EI skills are not simply a personal trait, they are mostly learnable. EI is

especially important in the service sector (GOEL; HUSSEIN, 2015, p. 49; RATHI, 2014, p.

57), thus its relevance to this case study.

2.3.1 Mixed Models vs. Mental Ability Models

Mixed models consist of emotional ability, social skills, motivation and personality traits (RA-

THI, 2014, p. 56). They are called mixed models, because they include learnable abilities as

well as personality traits or dispositional elements. Goleman (1998), an American psychologist,

is one of the most cited authors constructing a mixed model. He figured that Emotional Intelli-

gence is not enough to perform extraordinarily; emotionally intelligent people need to know



25

how to use their EI. He called this capability of using EI for achievement, emotional compe-

tence. His model includes five elements or competencies: self-awareness, self-regulation, and

motivation, which he further categorized as personal skills, as well as empathy and social skills,

which he both sub-grouped as social skills. For a better understanding of these elements, they

are presented in the model below.

Figure 9 - A Mixed Model of EI (GOLEMAN, 1998)

The personal skills are about managing ourselves, while the social skills are about managing

relationships. Self-awareness is about knowing one’s emotions, strengths and weaknesses,

and being self-confident. Self-regulation is often mistaken for simply limiting our own emo-

tional responses. However, this is only one part of self-regulation called self-control, which

means controlling disruptive emotions and impulses (GOLEMAN, 1998, p. 73-104). Self-reg-

ulation also focuses on taking responsibility for one’s performance, being open for new things

and being trustworthy. Therefore, when a close family member just died and you act as if

nothing had happened, it is not a sign of self-regulation. Motivation, in this context, is intrin-

sic and means striving for achievement and demonstrating commitment. Motivated people

take initiative and spread optimism. Learning from mistakes instead of giving up is another

sign of motivation. Empathy is about a certain service orientation. A person, who can sense

others’ emotions and is aware of their needs and concerns, possesses empathy. Leveraging di-

versity and detecting power relationships in groups, belong to empathy as well. Finally, social

skills are about being able to exert influence on others, to manage relationships and conflicts.

A person with social skills knows how to collaborate and cooperate. Creating synergy is one

of the social skills, which is very difficult to attain. Managing change and communication

skills, also belong in this category. (GOEL; HUSSEIN, 2015, P. 50; GOLEMAN, 1998, P.

15-29; RATHI, 2014, P. 56; SAVEL; MUNRO, 2016, P. 104).

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Competence

Personal Skills

Self-Awareness

Self-Regulation

Motivation

Social Skills

Empathy

Social Skills



26

Mental ability models are more about “the ability to mentally adapt one’s own and others’ emo-

tions (RATHI, 2014, p. 56). Salovey and Mayer (1990, p. 189 - 198) were the first to deeply

study the mental ability models. They structured the different mental processes in three areas:

appraisal and expression, regulation and utilization of emotion in adaptive ways (see Figure

10). At first sight, this model looks quite similar to the one from Goleman. However, the big

difference is that, according to Salovey and Mayer, these elements are all part of the mental

ability to use emotional information and thus, learnable. Personality traits are not part of this

conceptualization of emotional intelligence.

Figure 10 - A Mental Ability Model of EI (SALOVEY; MAYER, 1990)

Appraising and expressing emotions, means knowing how to process emotions from within

(yourself), assess emotions from others correctly and choose an appropriate behavior in re-

sponse (SALOVEY; MAYER, 1990, p. 193 & 195). Both can be done verbally as well as

nonverbally. Realizing that a person is sad, even though she did not express her sadness ver-

bally, is a very common example of reading the emotions of others. Showing empathy by re-

sponding in a warm and genuine matter, would be the second step. The regulation of emotion

is closely related to mood states, which should be enhanced (Ibid., p. 198). Regulating or

managing emotions, can lead to motivation for reaching goals, again for oneself and for oth-

ers. Using EI in a negative way though, when managing emotions of others antisocially, this


Appraisal and Expression of

Emotion

Self

Verbal

Non-Verbal

Other

Empathy

Non-Verbal Perception

Regulation of Emotion

In Self

In Other

Utilization of Emotion

Flexible Planning

Creative Thinking

Redirected Attention

Motivation



27

can result in manipulation. Finally, emotions should be used in adaptive ways to solve prob-

lems and create considerate and respectful behavior (Ibid., p. 199 - 200). With “flexible plan-

ning” Salovey and Mayer basically explain the positive side-effect of mood swings. People

experiencing mood swings, will consider various future outcomes and prepare for those. Fur-

thermore, a positive mood leads to a “clarity in categorizing information” and creative think-

ing (Ibid., p. 199). Redirected attention means allocating attention correspondent to emotional

priority. They give the example of a divorcing salesperson, who focuses her emotions on the

divorce rather than on trivial problems at work. Furthermore, an emotional intelligent person

has usually more interest in whether she likes a job, than in what she earns (Ibid., p. 200).

Positive attitudes can lead to persistence and motivation, and the imagination of negative out-

comes, when failing to perform, can do the same. Generally, Salovey and Mayer (1990, p.

201) link EI to a positive mental health.

2.3.2 Emotional Labor

The term emotional labor was introduced by Hochschild (2003, p. 7) in 1983 and means labor,

which “requires one to induce or suppress feeling in order to sustain the outward countenance

that produces the proper state of mind in others”. Hochschild explains that a person needs to

coordinate feeling and mind for this labor. He gives the example of a flight attendant, who

should create a hospitable and safe environment for the guests on board. He estimated the per-

centage of jobs requiring emotional labor (dealing with people) at thirty-three in the U.S. in

1983. In 2014, the number of jobs in the service sector was at 80 percent in the U.S. with a

slightly growing tendency (BLS, 2016). There are three elements to the emotional labor con-

cept: labor, display and emotions. Hochschild looks at the labor, where employees must deal

with people. The display concerns emotional rules, which the organization gives to its employ-

ees. Regarding emotional labor, the third element is about the management of emotions of one-

self and others and, as discussed earlier, extremely complex. (HOCHSCHILD, 2003, p. 9-11).

Rathi (2014, p. 58) commented on this display of organizations, that it requires employees “to

express certain positive emotions and supress negative emotions during interactions with cus-

tomers, irrespective of their actually felt emotions”. Hochschild (2003, p. 185-198) also ques-

tions the authenticity of the emotional labor from employees in his last chapter. He distinguishes

between the “real” self and the “on-stage” self and describes this division as protective and

problematic at the same time (Ibid., p. 183 & 184). The “real” self is protected through the

creation of the “on-stage” self. However, it is problematic, because this mental division might



28

have a dissociative effect on personality. Emotional labor does not imply using exclusively the

“on-stage” self though.

There are two main strategies for executing emotional labor: surface acting and deep acting

(HOCHSCHILD, 2003; RATHI, 2014). Surface acting is fake acting, emotional labor without

actually feeling the emotions. This does not mean that it is always recognizable as fake, it in-

volves facial expression, tone and body language. An employee using the surface acting strat-

egy, does not experience the emotion he or she is expressing to comply with the display of the

organization. Therefore, surface acting lacks authenticity. Deep acting is contrary to surface

acting; it is authentic and genuine. Employees using this strategy experience and feel the emo-

tion they portray. They do that by adjusting their felt emotions in order to merge their real

feelings with the specified display. Deep acting seeks consistence and requires a lot more effort

from the employee than surface acting. Therefore, emotional labor involves using both surface

and deep acting. It is not only personal choice that influences the choice of strategy; “adoption

of these strategies may depend on various situational and individual factors” (RATHI, 2014, p.

59). This means that emotions devolving from someone’s personal life as well as those of the

subjectively felt situation play their part in emotional labor. These factors are extremely diffi-

cult to control, because they depend on many different players and other influences. Being tired

or distracted for example, makes it more difficult for employees to conduct deep acting during

their shifts.

Rathi (2014, p. 59) clearly states that “employees with high emotional intelligence use deep

acting more frequently than surface acting”. However, organizations look for people, who are

naturally happy and friendly for their front work positions (HOCHSCHILD, 2003, p. 133).

These people are in a way aligned with the company display that makes it harder for them to

separate the two selves (real and on-stage) and therefore, difficult to apply these strategies. Is it

contra productive, because as a result, their employees do not use their emotional intelligence,

or is it a smart way for companies to have a “happy mannequin” facing the customer? The

literature suggests the former by presenting the positive effect of deep acting on organizational

performance (RATHI, 2014, p. 59).

2.3.3 A Conceptual Model for Service Organizations

Rathi (2014) conceptualized the relations between EI, emotional labor, and desired organiza-

tional outcomes like performance and customer satisfaction specifically for service organiza-

tions. He started with EI and its effects on emotional labor, particularly deep and surface acting.

EI is basically the prerequisite for conducting emotional labor, as it is the ability to choose a



29

strategy and behave in a certain way. Emotional labor is the resulting behavior. EI also influ-

ences job performance directly, since it enables employees to effectively regulate their emo-

tions. Furthermore, EI results in more authenticity, which creates customer satisfaction. A cus-

tomer obviously prefers being smiled at for real reasons than knowing the smile of the employee

is just a fake act, because smiling is required by company rules. Surface acting, when discovered

as that by the customer, can even have a negative effect on customer satisfaction (Ibid., p. 62).

Luckily, an emotionally intelligent employee knows better how to manage his/her own emo-

tions and choose the right emotional labor strategy. Generally, employees with high EI exert

deep acting more often than surface acting, different from those employees with low EI. Figure

11 exhibits these relationships in a straight manner.

Figure 11 - Conceptual Model of EI on Outcomes in Service Organizations (RATHI,

2014)

Rathi’s (2014, p. 61-64) conceptual model is built on five main propositions, which were briefly

explained before. First, in service organizations EI leads to a more frequent use of deep acting

than surface acting. Second, the prevalence of deep acting increases job performance and third,

it also enhances customer satisfaction. Fourth and fifth, the relationships between EI and both

job performance and customer satisfaction, are mediated by either deep acting or surface acting.

This model demonstrates several implications for the management of service organizations.

Clearly, a display requiring positive emotions from employees influences customer satisfaction,

and subsequently loyalty, in a favourable way. However, a fake smile is not worth much, when

the customer sees it is lacking authenticity. Therefore, managers should promote deep acting,

and the human resource department should filter for people possessing EI, rather than for who

smiles most. As mentioned earlier, EI is not (or at least not exclusively) a personality trait. This



30

means organizations can and should train their workforce facing customers in deep acting and

generally, in managing emotions well. (RATHI, 2014, p. 64-65).

Deep acting seems like the solution for every situation in service organizations, so why did

Rathi keep surface acting in his conceptual model? First, deep acting all the time at work would

be extremely tiring, both emotionally and cognitively, for the employee (RATHI, 2014, p. 59).

Second, as deep acting involves actually experiencing the emotions, which are displayed, there

are a few situations, in which surface acting is the better strategy for the overall outcome. An

example would be when the customer personally attacks an employee using unbearable lan-

guage. In that case, the employee genuinely feeling the attack would create a disaster for the

service organization. Keeping calm and treating the customer politely through surface acting,

according to display requirements, would be the better option in this case.

2.4 Critical Discussion of Emotional Intelligence

The definition and description of EI sound very logical and rather simple. Critics question the

need for a concept of EI and its validity as a specific performance booster (SAVEL; MUNRO,

2016; STOUGH, 2004). One argues that there is no difference between EI and personality com-

bined with IQ (FEATHER, 2009). Others mention the “limited ability to be proved or meas-

ured” of EI (SAVEL; MUNRO, 2016, p. 105). Next to measurement and definition, application

of EI is being criticized because it is difficult to replicate in organizations (SPECTOR, 2005).

Furthermore, EI supposedly lacks sufficient scientific data for being a viable concept and of-

fering valid measures (SPECTOR, 2005). This criticism is one, which has nothing to do with

the concept of EI directly, but with the amount of studies available and it should be considered

as motivation for further research. Evidently, since the making of this critique a lot of new

research on EI has already emerged.

Daus and Ashkanasy (2005) summarized the critics made regarding EI and refuted those as

possible. The first claim was described as follows: “Emotional intelligence is dominated by

opportunistic ‘academics-turned-consultants’ who have amassed much fame and fortune based

on a concept that is shabby science at best” (DAUS; ASHKANASY, 2005, p. 455). This claim

is not wrong per se. It is true that several people misused the term EI, mixed it up with general

strategies of well-being, and developed models far from any academic context. Nevertheless,

the ability model of EI provides sufficient academic evidence and legitimacy. The differentia-

tion needs to be made between those EI models developed by “opportunistic” individuals mix-

ing up different things and valuable constructs based on solid facts. (Ibid., p. 455-456).



31

The second claim regards the instrumentality of EI: “The measurement of emotional intelli-

gence is grounded in unstable (they change all the time), psychometrically flawed instruments,

which have not demonstrated appropriate discriminant (particularly from the Big Five and gen-

eral cognitive ability) and predictive validity to warrant/justify their use” (DAUS; ASH-

KANASY, 2005, p. 456). They discuss each critic in this claim particularly. The authors con-

sistently defend the ability model of EI. Changes over time are both normal for rather new

instruments and necessary for the development process of those. Furthermore, the Multifactor

Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) (MAYER; CARUSO; SALOVEY., 1999), which is the

main instrument for the ability-model, does offer psychometric properties including consistency

and discriminant. Finally, the predictive validity is not given by any EI model and surely not in

mixing them up (as several critics did). However, the MEIS holds strong evidence for the ability

model of EI and clearly differentiates EI from personality and cognitive ability. (DAUS; ASH-

KANASY, 2005, p. 456-458).

The last claim is about the usefulness for organizations: “There is no (or weak) empirical evi-

dence that emotional intelligence is related to anything of importance in organizations” (DAUS;

ASHKANASY, 2005, p. 458). This claim would make the entire research regarding EI worth-

less, if it were true. The authors chose the following three forms of application: leadership, job

performance and emotional labor. The effect of EI on leadership has been studied in many

forms. Research shows the relationship between transformational leadership and EI, how EI

predicts leadership emergence, and that leaders with high EI can recognize emotions better than

those with low EI. Furthermore, vision and employee commitment are creations of managers

possessing EI. These managers also know better to evaluate themselves critically. Individual

job performance is clearly correlated to EI, in jobs, which logically require high levels of EI, as

for example police officer or service employee. Research on analysts and clerical workers re-

vealed the same. Studies in different job types, demanding little EI, would be interesting. In-

quiry also revealed a connection between EI and group performance, again without offering

saturation for the topic. Emotional labor is managed better by people with high EI, but the whole

construct with all its effects (customer satisfaction, supervisor evaluation and emotional load

for employee) is rather complicated and clear definitions of the linkages could improve with

additional research. (Ibid., p. 458-462).



32

2.5 Examples of Contemporary Studies regarding Motivation and Emo-

tional Intelligence

In the following pages, chosen contemporary studies will be described. They were chosen ac-

cording to relevance and fitting into the service sector. These studies are especially interesting,

because they have been tested in our society, how it works today. First, the different motivation

techniques, resulting from classical motivation theories, will be discussed and evaluated ac-

cording to usefulness. Second, the focus will shift from the company to the employee perspec-

tive. More specifically, the work-life balance will be analysed and how it is affected by EI.

Third, the role of informal networks will be discussed. Forth, the question, how to motivate

ethical behavior, will be answered, and the effect of ethical behavior on organizational perfor-

mance will be briefly mentioned. Fifth, the differentiation will be made between egoistic and

altruistic motivation. Sixth, age will be considered and its role regarding EI. Finally, the re-

search goes back to the company perspective. Shared purpose between the company and its

employees is the key for reaching common goals.

2.5.1 Evaluation of Motivation Techniques

There are several studies available comparing the main motivation theories in practice. A con-

sultant from San Francisco, William B. Miller (1981), chose companies with the same func-

tional structure, trying to reach identical goals, and tested on those different motivation tech-

niques. However, the companies differ in their sector (aerospace, trucking and computer indus-

try) in order to increase generalizability of the findings. The goal was, to find out, which ap-

proach to motivation works best. For the study, the main motivation theories were categorized

in three groups: the moralists, the behaviorists and the pluralists (MILLER, 1981, p. 47-48).

The first group, the moralists, contains Herzberg’s two-factor theory among others and “is

based on an optimistic view of man” (Ibid., p. 47). Theorists with this optimistic view believe

that people have an intrinsic motivation for achievement. The second group, the behaviorists,

is almost opposite to the first. They believe, “behavior is completely determined by external

stimuli, and that our goals essentially are to achieve pleasure and avoid pain” (Ibid., p. 48).

Therefore, this group suggests that management tools like positive reinforcement lead to an

improved job performance. The pluralists hold that people have different characteristics and

need to be grouped accordingly. One motivation technique does not fit all. McClelland’s clas-

sification of the three needs would be an example of how to group employees, before choosing

the right motivation strategy.



33

The outcomes of this study were tested quantitively and qualitatively. There was one case of

decentralization in a company during the testing phase; the regional teams were empowered,

while the corporate team got reduced to the minimum. This had an intense effect on general

motivation, none of the measures worked on the corporate group due to their feeling of con-

tempt through the change. Conversely, the regional teams reacted positively to all measures,

since they were anyway very enthusiastic about the recently gained control. Therefore, in cer-

tain circumstances (especially regarding change processes) motivation techniques will not have

much of an effect since employees focus on the specific situation. (MILLER, 1981, p. 51-52).

When summarizing all results, it was impossible for Miller to generalize about anything but

accepting that people differ from each other and so do business situations. He essentially con-

cluded that “none of the theories or techniques is applicable to all individuals or all circum-

stances” (MILLER, 1981, p. 52). Managers should act upon that knowledge and try to know

the individual differences, as well as the circumstances, in order to use the strengths of each

employee for better organizational performance. Miller (Ibid., p. 52) compares the work of a

manager with the one of a sports coach, constructing the strategy around the players’ charac-

teristics. Therefore, he already knew, what today is taught in every management school; capi-

talizing on diversity is the key.

Two American academics, Martin J. Kilduff and Douglas D. Baker (1984), analyzed past re-

search about motivation on its viability for raising job performance. Surprisingly, they found

the theories from Maslow and Herzberg to be “unproven in the critical area of predicting em-

ployee performance” (Ibid., p. 56). They focused on five theories, which supposedly have more

ground on improving performance. The achievement motivation theory (McClelland) states that

people with a high need for achievement will outperform others. Therefore, an organization

should choose its employees accordingly. Admittedly, these people with a high need for

achievement are small in number and not easy to identify. Also, the organizational setting must

be right, otherwise those people will not perform. This means, individual effort needs to lead

to success, which is clearly defined through feedback. A future orientation should exist and

innovative ideas should be embraced by the organization. (Ibid., p. 56-57).

The goal-setting theory (Locke) supposes that goals motivate people and lead them to perform

better. The authors mention again the effect of feedback; “research indicates that by providing

feedback on goal accomplishment, managers can further enhance employee productivity”

(KILDUFF; BAKER, 1984, p. 57). Management should set goals, which are difficult but at-



34

tainable at the same time. These goals should be set separately for each individual, since com-

pany-wide goals are not as effective. The resulting intrinsic feeling of accomplishment, when

reaching a goal, can be more effective than an extrinsic, monetary reward. (Ibid., p. 57-58).

Expectancy theory (Vroom) shows the three links, valence-instrumentality-expectancy or ef-

fort-performance-reward, which create high productivity when the rewards coincide with the

personal goals of an employee. The theory is based on the assumption that “people attempt to

maximize pleasure and minimize pain” (KILDUFF; BAKER, 1984, p. 58). Very similar to the

previous goal-setting theory, this means employees need to be provided with attainable goals

by management. Feedback is everything. Furthermore, when an employee performs better, this

should logically lead to higher rewards. An open-pay policy could be the solution. However,

diversity makes people value different rewards with different intensity. A “cafeteria compen-

sation system, which allows employees to design their own pay and benefit packages” is a pos-

sible way for dealing with diversity (Ibid., p. 59). Unfortunately, this system is only feasible in

large scale companies. (Ibid., p. 58-59).

Equity theory looks at the comparing character of the human mind. Individuals compare their

input/output ratio with the one of their colleagues or other references. This process of compar-

ison can result in feeling under-, over- or equitably rewarded. When an employee feels the

condition of “overreward inequity” and he/she cannot rationalize it away, this could result in a

ratio adjustment (e.g. reducing the working hours or increasing work quality). Employees adjust

themselves easier to this inequity, regarding the new reward level as normal. The contrary sit-

uation, “underreward inequity” usually makes an employee increase the outcomes or decrease

the inputs. Equity is the goal, avoiding contra productive behavior and offering a clear ratio.

Therefore, managers should reinforce equitably. This is much easier said than done, because

people have different understandings of what is equitable. One way for managers to tackle this

issue, would be to try balancing the outcome-input ratios of their employees. (KILDUFF;

BAKER, 1984, p. 59-60).

Finally, organizational behavior modification means that people behave according to conse-

quences. Punishment and reinforcement can be used to change employee behavior. Basically,

this means that human behavior is manipulatable. This could be the reason why the authors

suggest this technique for managers overseeing employees with simple tasks in an easy con-

trollable environment. (KILDUFF; BAKER, 1984, p. 60-61).

In conclusion, the clearer the individual and organizational goals are, the easier to perform ac-

cordingly, and feedback plays an important role in the process. An example for an effective



35

motivation technique “would be to clearly establish a performance-outcome link and explicitly

tie rewards to performance” (KILDUFF; BAKER, 1984, p. 61). The authors offer the

knowledge about the theories and how to use them for a better outcome. However, whether to

use one technique or a mix, they leave up to each manager.

2.5.2 EI’s Effect on the Work-Life Balance

The expression “work-life balance” has gained in popularity over the last years in many differ-

ent contexts. It means “an individual’s ability to meet their work and family commitments, as

well as other non-work responsibilities and activities” (DELECTA, 2011, p. 186). Both re-

searchers and executives demonstrate deep interest in the topic. Of course, anyone juggling

with career and family is also very keen on new insights. Logically, time spent for one (work

or personal life) is usually a trade-off for the other, unless the two are interrelated. The perfect

allocation of time, labor, and thought, differs from individual to individual. Subjective ratios

go from one extreme, working only for necessity, to the other, living for work. The work-life

balance covers the following components: Individual, family, work and organization, and social

environment. The individual brings the subjectivity to the equation, whether he/she is well bal-

anced, lazy or a workaholic. The extreme commitment to one component always has negative

effects on the other components. Family responsibilities include spouse support, caring for the

elderly, and raising children. They depend not only on the specific setting but on the cultural

and individual customs. Organizations should try to offer an organizational culture, which is

friendly to adaptations regarding work in order to facilitate also the fulfilment of personal re-

sponsibilities. This can take many forms; flexible working hours is just one example. (Ibid.,

186-188).

Monoshree Mahanta (2015), an Indian professor, studied the relationship between work-life

balance and EI. He did his research in Indian private service companies, testing their executives.

Just like in other countries among the globe, in India, “individuals are finding it difficult to meet

the commitments of both work and home, and the result is job dissatisfaction, life dissatisfac-

tion, absenteeism, high turnover, stress and other health-related problems” (Ibid., p. 42). Today,

it is hard for people to be sufficiently committed, and fulfil their responsibilities in their work

and their personal life at the same time. Organizations cannot leave this problem up to their

employees anymore, because the effects of work-life imbalance on the organization are tremen-

dous. Absenteeism, high employee turnover, low motivation, low productivity, and disharmony

in teams, can all result from such an imbalance among employees. Additionally to the direct



36

relationship, the study tested the effects of gender and age on the two variables (EI and work-

life balance).

As shown below in Figure 12, EI was categorized in three components for the test: emotional

competency, emotional sensitivity and emotional maturity. Emotional competency measures

how well people know to use their EI capabilities for job performance. Emotional sensitivity is

defined closely to empathy; it describes whether someone understands others and can offer

them a comforting, humane response. Emotional maturity represents the ability to manage one’s

own emotions and those of others. The work-life balance was also put into three categories:

Work interference with personal life, personal life interference with work and work/personal

life enhancement. (MAHANTA, 2015, p. 44-46).

Figure 12 - The Relationship Between EI and Work-Life Balance (MAHANTA, 2015)

EI and work-life balance showed to be positively correlated. Furthermore, intensity has its ef-

fect; people with high EI have a better work-life balance than those with low EI. All dimensions

of work-life balance were tested separately to come to this conclusion. The results revealed that

EI depends on neither gender nor age. The work-life balance is also independent from age and

gender. The author concludes that due to the significant effect of EI, organizations should aim

for recruiting people with high EI and provide training in EI for their employees. (MAHANTA,

2015, p. 47-53). A different perspective regarding the relation between age and EI will be pre-

sented in item 2.5.6.

Emotional Competency

Emotional Sensitivity

Emotional Maturity

Work-Life

Balance

Work interference

with personal life

Personal life inter-

ference with work

Work/personal life

enhancement



37

2.5.3 The Role of Informal Networks and Communication

The informal network can be described as “relationships that employees form across functions

and divisions to accomplish tasks fast” (KRACKHARDT; HANSON, 1993, p. 104). The word

fast has a key role in this definition. This informal network, once revealed, shows the connec-

tions of employees to answer the question: Who do you go to, when you need to get something

done fast? It is very different from the official organizational diagram, which every big com-

pany neatly constructs. Inside the organization, the network acts like a “central nervous system

driving the collective thought processes, and reactions of its business units” (Ibid., p. 104).

These informal relationships usually appear in unexpected situations, when problems arise,

which employees are not used to deal with. Krackhardt and Hanson (Ibid., p. 105) differentiated

three specific relationship networks as seen in Figure 13. Mapping these networks can give

managers a great overall picture and something to work with strategically.

Figure 13 - Types of Informal Networks (KRACKHARDT; HANSON, 1993)

In order to analyse the informal network of an organization, the authors suggest three steps.

First, management should launch an employee survey, finding out details about informal rela-

tions. Then, the answers must be crossed-checked through direct comparison, reaching a group-

based network rather than the opinion of an individual. Finally, the information should be pro-

cessed in a mapping program. After considerable analysis and regard to all aspects (also non-

social facts as e.g. specific work abilities of employees) a manager can redesign the organiza-

tional structure in a way that enhances specific strengths of the informal network. He should

also consider flattening the hierarchy for easier access among employees, which results in more

efficient problem-solving. (KRACKHARDT; HANSON, 1993, p. 106-111).

Common configurations could appear through a deeply sophisticated analysis of informal net-

works. Isolated communication in specific departments can stand for imploded relationships.

This could be resolved through new policies or systems encouraging contact outside of the

department. The opposite, irregular communication patterns, could also be a problem for an

Advice Network

• Problem-solving

• Technical information

Trust Network

• Delicate political information

• Backing in a crisis

Communication Network

• Work-related matters

• Regular contact



38

organization. In this case, group building and team spirit are the solution. This can be achieved

through numerous management strategies. Fragile structures exist, when different divisions are

not sufficiently acquainted for working productively together in projects. Networking events

could strengthen the needed interrelations. The same could solve holes in the network, where

important connections are lacking. Another configuration in informal networks is the “bow tie”,

an individual as the network centre for a group of employees. This individual obviously is very

powerful, as many other depend somehow on him/her. Depending on the situation and position

of the employee, that is not a problem. However, when the individual cannot deal with the

power responsibly, feels pressured or leaves, it becomes a problem. In these cases, management

should try to diffuse the power in time. Management can also use the informal network map of

its organization as a simulation for strategic decisions, more specifically for testing organiza-

tional change. (KRACKHARDT; HANSON, 1993, p. 110-111).

Many of these configurations lead back to interpersonal communication. A case study (HYNES,

2012), conducted in the IT-division of a large U.S. company, also revealed the effects of inter-

personal communication on employee well-being, which, as argued in section 2.5.2, impacts

job performance significantly. Communication training inside the division led to the develop-

ment of new communication skills, of which seventy-five percent of the participants make use

during their work (Ibid., p. 471). Furthermore, the company considers communication as one

of the key performance indicators. Therefore, employees improving their skills through the pro-

gram could also expect financial rewards.

The question might arise, what do these informal networks and communication skills have to

do with motivation or emotional intelligence? EI is what creates and maintains these networks.

Furthermore, as mentioned in part 2.3.1, communication skills are an important part of EI. Only

employees possessing EI, are able to create harmony among group members, when working

together. This harmony is what makes group performance efficient, enabling the synergy of

competences and specific knowledge. This is extremely important, because different skills

among a group are worthless, if they are not used in synergy. Furthermore, the harmony gener-

ates room for creativity. Resentment, non-participation and dominance are the counterparts of

this harmony. Therefore, it is not enough to have just one member with high EI in a group. All

members should promote cooperation and empathize with each other. (ABRAHAM, 1999).

2.5.4 Motivating Ethical Behavior

“The worth of both individuals and corporations is ultimately measured not by their bank ac-

counts and capital equipment but by their values” (PATTAN, 1984, p. 17). Having moral values



39

and behaving accordingly is important in personal lifes as well as in business. Pattan (Ibid.)

argued for a clear connection between ethical values and organizational performance. Fortu-

nately, he is not alone with this view, several authors followed his lead (AGUILAR, 1994,

DARNALL; HENRIQUES; SADORSKY, 2008, SEN, 1993, VERSCHOOR, 1998, WEBLEY;

MORE, 2003). Fudge and Schlacter (1999, p. 295) created a model for “motivating employees

to act ethically”. They mentioned negative effects like insider trading scandals and global

warming as examples for organizations with unethical behavior among employees and man-

agement. Today, many more examples could be mentioned on this topic as e.g. corruption scan-

dals in Europe and Brazil, widely published in the media. Clearly, these effects should be pre-

vented. The model of Fudge and Schlacter (Ibid.) is based on expectancy theory. The basic idea,

is to teach employees how to reason morally, and to create an ethical culture throughout the

organization. This culture can be created through encouragement and rewards for ethical be-

havior. Executives and managers should, therefore, motivate their employees to act ethically.

Two main components are needed for increased ethical behavior in organizations according to

Fudge and Schlacter (Ibid., 298-301). The first component is the development of moral reason-

ing skills. Employees need to know the main principles of ethics and be able to apply those in

their daily work. The second component is the motivational environment; organizational culture

must fit the ethics code, which the organization promotes.

Moral reasoning skills can be developed by applying two steps (FUDGE; SCHLACTER, 1999,

p. 298-300). First, the ethical knowledge must be provided to the employees and they should

be trained in how to use that knowledge appropriately in the work environment. This means

“practice at applying moral principles to particular cases” (Ibid., p. 299). This step regards the

effort-performance expectancy, in a sense that employees will learn what kind of effort is

needed in order to perform well and within the ethical guidelines of the organization. Some

guidelines are suggested as fundamental ethics principles. One example, employees should al-

ways choose the action, which produces the greatest amount of pleasure instead of pain (among

all affected). Another example the authors give, is to “act in such a way that you treat humanity,

whether in your own person or in the person of another, always at the same time as an end and

never simply as a means” (Ibid., p. 299). Both ethical behavior ability and problem-solving

should be included in the ethics training. Furthermore, it should offer employees an opportunity

of comparison, for when they find themselves in a similar actual situation. If they already ex-

perienced the ethical behavior in training, it is much more probable that they will behave in a

similar manner in a real situation on the job.



40

Second, an “ethical organizational climate” should be nurtured (FUDGE; SCHLACTER, 1999,

p. 298). This step includes three main procedures: creating valence, expectancy and instrumen-

tality. To create valence, the organization should discover the desired rewards of its employees.

Not only, is it important to know, which are the desired rewards, but which of them are most

valued. The right expectations need to be in place, therefore ethical norms must be defined and

communicated. Employees need to understand, which behavior is desired of them: the clearer,

the better. This can also be done implicitly, when management behaves as a role model. Finally,

to build instrumentality, good employee performance should lead to the rewards, which the

employees value. Questionable behavior on the other hand, should be recorded and, in specifi-

cally bad cases, punished. Often, employees value intrinsic rewards, which are not as easy for

management to link to ethical behavior. Nevertheless, the authors argue that doing good itself

gives a certain intrinsic satisfaction (Ibid., p. 301). The motivational environment is quite com-

plex to create. However, without the encouraging culture, ethical behavior is rarely motivated.

When undertaking these two steps, the development of moral reasoning skills and the creation

of an ethical culture inside the organization, employees are motivated to act more ethically.

Executive development, orientation, training and performance review are the parts included in

the process. (FUDGE; SCHLACTER, 1999, p. 303).

2.5.5 Egoistic and Altruistic Motivation

Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) was primarily defined by Organ (1988) as a vol-

untary assistance in the workplace without any promise of getting rewarded for it, from which

the organization benefits in some way. Job satisfaction is described as the main predictor of

OCB. A Brazilian case study (MASCARENHAS; ZAMBALDI; VARELA, 2013) found both

egoistic and altruistic motivation responsible for OCB, or more specifically corporate volun-

teering, altruistic motives seemed to prevail though.

Lemmon and Wayne (2015, p. 129) did more extensive research on the predictors of OCB with

a comparison between egoistic and altruistic motivations. They distinguished further between

OCB toward the organization (OCBO) and toward the supervisor (OCBS). The argument for

this distinction is the following; an employee has different relationships with the two and these

relationships influence the motivation for OCB (Ibid., p. 130). The egoistic motivation is de-

scribed as a felt obligation with self-serving reasons behind it. For example, when somebody

sees someone else in need and helps, simply not to feel guilty afterwards, or because of a reward

expectancy. Research about this egoistic motivation led the authors to the hypothesis that the



41

felt obligation positively relates to both OCBO and OCBS. They further assumed that the al-

truistic concern also leads to each type of OCB. The hypothesized model of the study is observ-

able in Figure 14.

Figure 14 - Hypothesized Model of Organizational Citizenship Behavior (LEM-

MON;WAYNE, 2015)

Additionally to the direct influences of felt obligation and altruistic concern, Lemmon and

Wayne (2015) tested whether these egoistic and altruistic motivations are actually mediators

between other important factors and OCB. These so-called antecedents are displayed on the left

of the model in Figure 14. The perceived organizational support is characterized as the level to

which employees feel valued, cared for, and supported by the organization. It can affect both

the felt obligation and the altruistic concern for the organization. The person-organization fit

describes the congruence between fundamental characteristics or values of the two. “When em-

ployees share the organization’s goals and values, they can think from the organization’s stand-

point and are thus more altruistically concerned about the well-being of the organization” (Ibid.,

p. 134). Leader-member exchange defines the relationship with the supervisor, how well the

employee identifies with him/her and is concerned for his/her welfare. High leader-member

exchange induces high obligation toward the supervisor. Furthermore, the exchange creates



42

trust, commitment and personal affect, which leads to altruistic concern for the supervisor. Su-

pervisor-subordinate similarity is about corresponding interests and preferences rather than the

relationship itself. They associated the similarity with altruistic concern, because it increases

helping behavior. “Organizational members who perceive themselves as similar to the organi-

zation are more likely to be able to take the perspective of the organization, developing concern

for the organization over time” (Ibid., p. 142). Impression management was used as a control

variable, since it’s effect on OCB has been studied widely. Impression management describes

the motivation for the behavior of an employee, which makes him appear favourably. The study

was conducted through a survey with almost 600 respondents, one third of them were supervi-

sors and the rest employees.

Figure 15 - Results of the Study (LEMMON;WAYNE, 2015 & AUTHOR, 2016)

The results are summarized in Figure 15. The green check mark means that the relation is sig-

nificant and the red tilde mark stands for no significant relation. Therefore, only altruistic con-

cern significantly influences OCBO, while OCBS is predicted by both felt obligation and altru-

istic concern. An explanation for that the felt obligation impacts OCBS more than OCBO could

be the following: An employee’s supervisor usually has the direct power over the rewards, this

~ ~

~

~



43

increases the egoistic motivation of obligation toward the supervisor rather than the organiza-

tion. Whether leader-member exchange nor supervisor-subordinate similarity significantly pre-

cede the altruistic concern for the supervisor. However, the leader-member exchange precedes

the felt obligation toward the supervisor, which creates OCBS. “Employees with deeper con-

nections to their supervisor will feel more obliged to him or her and will consequently be more

likely to engage in OCB directed at their supervisor to fulfil obligations inherent in higher qual-

ity relationships” (LEMMON; WAYNE, 2015, p. 141). Furthermore, the altruistic concern for

the organization mediates between OCBO and both the perceived organizational support and

the person-organization fit. This altruistic concern of employees “may also stimulate them to

engage in behaviors beyond their job description that benefit the greater interest of the com-

pany” (Ibid., p. 141). This can be explained well through the example of environmental values.

If an organization values the environment and displays this in different ways, an employee also

valuing the environment (person-organization fit), will be motivated not only to strive regarding

this value, do his work environmentally friendly, but also to do altruistic work generally for the

organization. This is because the organization contributes to the employee’s value and, there-

fore, earns his or her altruistic contribution. (Ibid., p.136-142).

What do these results implicate for organizations and supervisors? “In the recruiting and selec-

tion process, HR practitioners need to hire those who understand and share the kind of beliefs

and values of the organization” (LEMMON; WAYNE, 2015, p.143). Furthermore, supervisors

should emphasize their relationships with subordinates and increase the quality-exchange with

them, since this motivates employees to perform well and go the extra mile or “beyond job

requirements” (Ibid., p. 144).

2.5.6 The Relation Between Emotional Intelligence and Age

As mentioned in part 2.5.2 there are studies, which see “no significant relation” between age

and EI (MAHANTA, 2015). Sliter et al. (2013) have a different perspective and found the re-

lation to be significant in their cross-sectional survey questioning 519 service employees. Their

incentive were several studies showing the relation between age and different parts of EI, as for

example, reducing negative emotions. Furthermore, they mentioned the awareness of limited

time from older adults, which leads to a present-day focus on satisfaction and positive emotions.

This search for positivity could bring older adults to use more deep acting than younger unex-

perienced adults do. Additionally, they argue that EI can be enhanced through practice. There-

fore, the more experience someone has, the more EI he or she should have as well.



44

Just like in part 2.3.3, Sliter et al. (2015, p. 466-472) included emotional labor in their model

and separated it into surface- and deep acting. EI is one of the precedents of these two ways of

emotional labor. Positive affectivity, or the experience of positive emotions, is another prece-

dent, which they put in the model “to determine if EI has added value in explaining the age-EL

relationship”, EL being emotional labor (Ibid., p. 471). Emotional labor finally affects em-

ployee well-being, positively and negatively from surface- and deep acting correspondingly.

Employee well-being here includes job satisfaction and emotional exhaustion. As visible in

Figure 16, these elements are all directly influenced by age according to their propositions. The

authors assumed also that age increases deep acting and decreases surface acting. Furthermore,

they believed that age is positively related to EI and to well-being directly. EI additionally takes

the role of a mediator between age and the emotional labor strategies in their hypothesized

model.

Figure 16 - The Effect of Age on EI and Well-Being (SLITER ET AL., 2013)

The study revealed that the authors assumptions were true and all the relations of the model in

Figure 16 are significant (SLITER ET AL., 2013, p. 474-477). One especially interesting find-

ing was that the positive relation between deep acting and well-being is stronger than the neg-

ative relation between surface acting and well-being. Generally, the results show the correlation

between age and EI, both leading to a better emotional labor strategy, or in other words, to more

deep acting, which leads to the well-being of the employee and eventually also the organization.

Positive affectivity served its cause as a control variable and was not tested further individually,

as it would go beyond the purpose of the study, which focused on the relationship of EI and



45

age. However, the study was persecuted with workers of service organizations obeying positive

display rules. Therefore, results cannot be generalized for different industries and service situ-

ations as for example debt collectors.

There are important implications of these results for management in service organizations. “The

working population is aging rapidly, making it increasingly important to understand how age

relates to other workplace constructs” (SLITER ET AL., 2013, p. 475). Employee selection

should regard the findings on EI, the ones on age are more difficult to include in practice be-

cause of legal issues. If organizations manage to hire emotionally intelligent employees, which

will enjoy more well-being in their positions than others, the company could increase customer

service and lower the health costs. (Ibid., p. 475-476). Focusing on employee retention might

offer a path to include these findings about age/experience as an advantage of a service organ-

ization.

2.5.7 Shared Purpose

In service organizations, it can be especially important for employees to “live the brand” in

order to connect the customer experience to the brand of the company. A comparative case

study from the UK (MAXWELL; KNOX, 2009, p. 899) found four main categories of attributes

to be relevant in employer branding, namely “employment, organisational successes, construed

external image, and product or service characteristics”. Attributes in these categories motivate

employees to stay inside the company and to portray the brand image through their actions

(Ibid., p. 895). However, “living the brand” is just one aspect of a shared purpose. The following

case study offers a more holistic approach regarding the shared purpose between company and

employees.

Customer service can have different approaches; either employees go strictly after protocol or

they have the liberty and ability to interact differently with each customer in the way they be-

lieve is appropriate (BHATTACHARJEE; MORENO; ORTEGA, 2016). Taking the example

of a Disney theme park, customer service is extremely individualized and comes from a sys-

temic culture rather than a corporate script. This means that Disney workers try to engage emo-

tionally with their customers. “Emotionally engaged customers are typically three times more

likely to recommend a product and to purchase again” (Ibid.). The first step, for an organization

to achieve such a systemic service culture, is to get the front workers to understand what kind

of customer experience management envisions. The key is the emotional connection with the

customer, leaving him/her with a positive experience through every interaction.



46

In service organizations, frontline employees are often more important for success than the

actual products and services. Employees should be hired according to attitude rather than apti-

tude. They must be motivated and empowered to interact spontaneously. This can be done

through commitment of the organization to the work of employees (rather than the employee

him-/herself) and with motivation techniques as for example rewards. The goal is to “build

motivation by instilling shared purpose in frontline workers rather than by applying behavioral

rules” (BHATTACHARJEE; MORENO; ORTEGA, 2016). This shared purpose requires au-

tonomy and responsibility for employees, then they can use their creativity and increase attitu-

dinal strengths. Finally, it is really important that supervisors listen to their employees and care

for their needs. In return, employees will care for the needs of the organization and in the case

of frontline workers, directly for the needs of their customers.

The results of such a shared purpose program are impressive, a Latin American Bank had dou-

ble-digit growth in profitability and around fifteen percent less churn after a two-year period of

focusing on customer experience (BHATTACHARJEE; MORENO; ORTEGA, 2016). The

first year, the bank invested in the creation of the new customer experience, the second was

directed towards the realization. This involved the development of a certain culture within the

organization, providing employees with the skill-set and motivating the different behavior. The

program did not only redesign the customer value proposition but also the one for employees.

Management tried to deeply understand the needs of the organization’s frontline employees.

New HR-practices were launched to increase the employees’ feeling of belonging, as for ex-

ample celebrations, promoting symbols and a peer-recognition portal. Transparency was en-

couraged through role-modeling of management (revealing sales numbers). By listening to em-

ployees and segmenting their work attitude (active or passive) as well as their commitment to

organizational goals, the bank was able to motivate more interactive behavior with customers.

Shared purpose was gradually created. Ideas from employees were always received warmly and

implemented as useful.

How does the bank achieve this focus on employee attitude, how do they instill them with

purpose and reinforce their creativity? First, they evaluate customer service already during the

recruitment process by testing the employee’s service attitude in a realistic setting. Honesty and

integrity are emphasized. Customer satisfaction among those attended by the newly recruited

employees rose on average eight percent. Second, the bank works with a bottom-up approach

to change the frontline behavior. The employees themselves choose a team, which creates the

common purpose, a meaning for the work regarding the fulfillment of customer needs, and sets



47

the service criteria. These criteria include concrete behavioral tips regarding image, safety and

customer proximity. However, employees are always motivated to adjust their behavior to the

specific customer and situation. Employees, which connect especially well with customers and

satisfy those on a constant basis get rewarded with pins. The bank also conducts biannual idea

contests and weekly problem-solving sessions to boost employee creativity and keep the cus-

tomer experience improvement process going. The authors admit that technology plays a sig-

nificant role today in the customer’s experience, “but for companies looking to improve their

performance, the personal interaction between customer and frontline employee may still be

the most important link of all” (BHATTACHARJEE; MORENO; ORTEGA, 2016).

2.6 The Impact of Motivation and Emotional Intelligence on Performance

The relationships between motivation, EI and performance are rather complex. Therefore, they

are explained separately in the beginning. First, the relationship between motivation and per-

formance will be described, how motivation impacts performance and the opposite relation.

Second, the focus will be on EI and performance, does EI influence performance and if yes, in

what way? Unfortunately, to the best of our knowledge, no reliable research on the reverse

relationship was found. Third, the relationship between motivation and EI will be described,

whether and how they influence each other. Finally, the conjunction of the relationships will be

demonstrated.

As mentioned in chapter 2.5.1, the right motivation technique clearly impacts performance pos-

itively (KILDUFF; BAKER, 1984). Goal-setting theory, expectancy theory and organizational

behavior modification, among others, have been thoroughly tested and prove the connection

between motivation and performance. Another, quite simple explanation is the following: “Mo-

tivated employees are in a state of tension and to relieve this tension, they exert effort” (RAM-

LALL, 2004, p. 53). Furthermore, Ramlall (Ibid., p. 59) explained how motivational theories

build the basis for employee retention, which, in the long run, leads to better organizational

performance (saving the turnover costs). Therefore, motivation has a direct impact on job per-

formance and an indirect effect on organizational performance.

Tampu (2015) researched further on this relationship between motivation and performance and

differentiated among extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. He found that “extrinsic motivation

does not imply outstanding performance in the long term”, but can be efficient in the short-run

to boost reward-oriented work (Ibid., p. 51). Intrinsic motivation tactics on the other hand, en-

hance the efficient use of labor by removing disruptive factors rather than offering rewards.



48

Turning the perspective around, performance also has its effect on motivation. The intrinsic

feeling of accomplishment, when an employee reaches one of his/her goals, offers motivation

for further achievements (KILDUFF; BAKER, 1984, p. 57-58). However, this only happens,

when the goals set are very clear or there is feedback involved. “The intrinsic feedback of a job

well done or a goal attained will reinforce the behavior” (Ibid., p. 58). Basically, motivation

leads to performance and the feedback of the good performance increases motivation. In the

best-case scenario, the first motivator starts an ever-increasing circle of performance.

Emotional intelligence also directly impacts performance (ABRAHAM, 1999, DAUS; ASH-

KANASY, 2005, GOEL; HUSSEIN, 2015, OTHMAN; ABDULLAH; AHMAN, 2009, and

RATHI, 2014). Abraham (1999) explains how EI can lead and has led to the development of

new products, which later became very successful. She gives the optimism of people with EI

the credit for enhancing performance and backs that finding up with solid statistics. Further-

more, she argues that people with high EI make better decisions and again, substantiates her

knowledge with several studies. Rathi (2014) studied the effect of EI on job performance and

customer satisfaction, which highly impacts the organizational performance of a service enter-

prise. As thoroughly described in chapter 2.3.3, the author separated emotional labor into sur-

face- and deep acting. EI increases deep acting, which not only impacts job performance but

also leads to higher customer satisfaction. However, the research lacks empirical testing (Ibid.,

p. 66). Finally, Goel and Hussein (2015) provide the empirical data regarding the relationship

of EI and performance in service companies from a management perspective. “EI gives the

strength to take quick decision-making power and the abilities to handle the work place situa-

tions” (Ibid., p. 52). Furthermore, EI positively affects group performance or in other words, a

group member with high EI increases the organizational performance (OTHMAN; ABDUL-

LAH; AHMAN, 2009, p. 2). As mentioned in part 2.4, through a deliberate literature review

Daus and Ashkanasy (2005, p. 460) also concluded that EI positively affects both individual

and group performance in an organization.

As mentioned at the beginning of this section, it is difficult to find studies about the reverse

relationship between EI and performance. However, as research on EI suggests that it is im-

proved through experience (see part 2.3), one could argue for the positive experience offered

from job performance. Future research could consider this relationship and test the possibility

of performance impacting EI.

Based on the evidence currently available, it seems fair to suggest that EI influences motivation

in various ways (OTHMAN; ABDULLAH, AHMAN, 2009, p. 3-11). Othman, Abdullah and



49

Ahman (Ibid.) studied how work motivation affects the relationship between team role effec-

tiveness, a performance indicator, and different EI factors. They conducted a survey, answered

by 188 diverse (regarding demographic variables) service employees from 40 different service

companies in Kuala Lumpur. In their study, work motivation was separated into positive and

negative drive. While the positive drive had a significant correlation with all variables of EI,

negative drive had no significant correlation with those variables (p. 5). However, the negative

drive showed a significant correlation with the positive drive. Therefore, all aspects of EI,

namely emotional appraisal of oneself and others, regulation of emotion and use of emotion,

are strongly correlated with motivation. Nevertheless, these relationships are a bit more com-

plex, than the ones exposed previously. As the graphs in Figure 17 show, different levels of the

EI aspects offer different levels of a supervisor’s performance evaluation within a team, con-

sidering the strength of the positive drive of the employee.

Figure 17 - Graphs Regarding the EI-Motivation Relation (OTHMAN; ABDULLAH;

AHMAN, 2009)

This means, the best combinations for team role effectiveness would be moderate self-emo-

tional appraisal with a high positive drive and moderate other’s emotional appraisal with a low

positive drive (OTHMAN; ABDULLAH, AHMAN, 2009, p. 8-9). This makes it seem very

hard to select employees accordingly or motivate them properly. The best way to do it, would

be to classify employees according to their positive drive, whether it is low or high, and then

equip the ones who have a low one with certain EI skills (Ibid., p. 10). However, the authors

sum up all different scenarios and show how high EI abilities generally increase employees’

team role effectiveness. Furthermore, a positive drive lowers the importance of EI abilities.



50

Therefore, the authors advise managers to offer training that enhances EI competences and in-

centive systems, which take those competences into consideration. Motivation is also recog-

nized as a clear efficiency booster.

Rathi’s conceptual model (2014) suggests the same for management. Good performance, re-

sulting from high motivation and EI, leads to customer satisfaction in service organizations.

Therefore, the goal of a manager should be, to choose employees according to their levels of

motivation and EI and to further increase motivation and EI through training and incentives.

Figure 18 - Motivation, EI and Performance (AUTHOR, 2016)

In conclusion, motivation, EI and performance are all positively linked. Motivation and EI in-

crease performance, performance increases motivation and motivation and EI also impact each

other positively. The arrow from EI to performance was cautiously kept one-sided, since there

is no research on the reverse impact.

2.7 The Main Theoretical Takeaways that Apply to Our Case Study

The literature review began with the classical motivation theories. Some might appear outdated,

but they still offer relevant knowledge regarding basic human behavior. Maslow’s theory of

needs for example, could give managers a sense of what needs should be satisfied in an em-

ployee’s life, before he/she will strive for achievement or even creativity. There is no sense in

motivating an employee to create new service offers, when he/she is worried about being able

to pay the bills. Furthermore, Maslow offered important preconditions for his theory, which are

still valid today. An enterprise must guarantee freedom of speech and fairness. An environment

based on honesty is another requisite for the satisfaction of employee’s basic needs. (see section

2.1.1 for details)

Perfomance


Motivation



51

Similarly, McClelland’s theory of needs portrays how individual the needs of people are. Dif-

ferent employees will have the needs for achievement, power and affiliation in different inten-

sities. Social activities inside the organization might be sought by some employees, while others

see them as a waste of time. Some people value authority while others value their own auton-

omy. Knowledge regarding the individual needs of employees (including management) can be

of great value for an organization. Given this point, it is possible to fit the work and the moti-

vation technique the individual needs of the person. (see section 2.1.2 for details)

Herzberg raises a different topic: what does motivate employees and in what way? The differ-

entiation between hygiene factors and motivators indicates, no matter whether it is the right

classification or not, that there are many possible incentives and they might influence employee

behavior in different ways. For a manager, it could be quite relevant to know, which factors

will actually increase employee performance. Furthermore, organizations should become

aware, whether they have a hygiene problem on which employees focus constantly. (see section

2.1.3 for details)

Setting clear goals can be the key for motivation, as the theories from Vroom and Locke portray.

This is a more tangible takeaway compared to the ones before. Management from the leisure

park must set individual goals for each employee, which are difficult but attainable and then

provide feedback on the achievement of those goals. Adjustments over time are necessary, since

the employees needs and drives evolve constantly. The goals must depend singularly on the

performance of the employee and on no random factors, as for example the number of custom-

ers entering the leisure park during the shift. Obviously, these goals should be aligned with the

corporate goals. Furthermore, the organization should offer an incentive system, which pro-

vides the right incentives for the right employee. This requires previous research regarding em-

ployees’ needs. (see sections 2.1.4, 2.1.6 and 2.2 for details)

McGregor offers again insights regarding the diversity of employees drives. Independent of

believing in those two types of employees he described, a certain sensibility of managers re-

garding the subordinates’ motivational energy cannot hurt the organization. This enables the

service provider to capitalize on the differences between its employees. (see section 2.1.5 for

details)

Research into emotional intelligence, as presented in section 2.3 and 2.4, is extremely relevant

for the case study. The service sector can especially profit from knowledge regarding EI. Fur-



52

thermore, different from IQ, emotional intelligence is learnable. That makes it even more inter-

esting for the case study, since companies can train their employees to become more emotion-

ally intelligent. Taking it to the extreme, EI could offer a service company a source of compet-

itive advantage. However, only a few measurement tools have been proposed and their validity

has been debated over.

When looking at the mixed model of EI in section 2.3.1, only some parts are considered learn-

able and can be enhanced in the already existing employees. For companies with a high em-

ployee turnover or those growing strongly, the personality traits can also be useful. The human

resources department could try to hire accordingly. The mental ability models on the other hand,

include only learnable skills and are therefore more useful for companies, which try to retain

their employees and grow slowly.

Emotional labor describes very well, the everyday performance of a front worker in any leisure

park. The controversy of display rules should be taken into consideration and the time employ-

ees spend “on stage”. Distraction at the front desk should be avoided. The management of ser-

vice companies should define a clear strategy regarding emotional labor, choosing between

“happy mannequins” and people with high EI, offering more deep acting. (see section 2.3.2 for

details)

As discussed in part 2.5.1, today’s companies need to deal with diversity. A manager needs to

have great EI abilities in order to read the employees and know the needs and strengths of each

one. Moreover, the employees’ outcome-input ratio should be balanced. Clear goals and con-

structive feedback are key for motivating employees to perform well. Finally, the corporate

strategy should be built on the combination of employees’ strengths.

Nowadays, work-life balance is something every company needs to consider. It has huge effects

on an employee’s job performance. Emotional intelligence impacts the work-life balance of

employees significantly. Therefore, companies should pick employees accordingly and train

their EI skills continuously. (see section 2.5.2 for details)

Motivation is not only a performance booster, it can also be used for promoting ethical behavior.

The importance of ethical behavior needs not to be repeated. In the long term, it is the only way

of survival for companies. Two main steps are suggested, to motivate ethical behavior through-

out an organization: Developing employees’ moral reasoning skills and creating an ethical cul-

ture. (see section 2.5.4 for details)



53

Part 2.5.5 revealed how important it is for supervisors, to have high quality interaction with

their subordinates. Management needs to listen to their employees. Furthermore, organizational

citizenship behavior is higher, when employees share the values of the company. The same was

explained in section 2.5.7. A so called “shared purpose” can lead to more profits and a lower

churn rate. Attitude and creativity might become more important than aptitude.

Finally, employee well-being impacts job performance a lot. Emotional intelligence usually

raises well-being both directly and indirectly. Regarding age, there were different opinions pre-

sented. After considering the research methods of the different sources, strong belief can be

held in favor of age as a positive factor. Therefore, companies should value both EI and expe-

rience of their employees. (see section 2.5.6 for details)



54

3 Methodology

This section describes the research methodology of the proposed case study. The underlying

worldview is mentioned and the research type is described. Furthermore, universe, sample and

interviewee selection are revealed. Data collection and analysis are presented. Finally, limita-

tions of the method are unfolded, and a framework for the interpretation of results is proposed.

To give more guidance through the methodology, the research question from the introduction

is repeated:

Which are the main drivers of success that can be identified in the selected leisure-service

organization when considering the concepts of employee motivation and emotional intelli-

gence?

3.1 Type of Research

The main goal of socio-scientific studies is to understand and explain human behavior, with its

internal processes and resulting effects (GLÄSER; LAUDEL, 2010, LEE, 2014). Our study

tries to understand employee motivation and emotional intelligence in service organizations.

Both motivation and EI of front workers are a desired result of the management of service

companies. Human behavior and certain thought processes of employees, could explain the

resulting effects. The research perspective of this study is constructivism, meaning the

worldview is made of social constructs and history (CRESSWELL, 2009, CROTTY, 1998,

GRBICH, 2007). The idea is to generate knowledge for business practitioners from service

organizations regarding motivation and emotional intelligence. The process is developed as a

co-construction of motivational narratives between participants and the researcher (GRBICH,

2007). Focusing on context-specific factors, and connecting those with the meaning of the sto-

ries told, offers a way of creating new knowledge (FLICK, 2009).

Qualitative research was chosen, because it fits the research question and offers the best way of

finding the knowledge that is quested (CRESSWELL, 2009, GLÄSER; LAUDEL, 2010). In

the literature, there are several different definitions of the term “case study” (DUL; HAK, 2008,

STAKE, 1995, YIN, 2014). Therefore, there is compelling reason to state, what is meant with

the term “case study” in this paper. This case is defined as one specific work unit, namely the

front desk workers of the leisure park, and its particularities regarding the research topic. This

is an exploratory case study (YIN, 2014), meaning that new insights were sought to be discov-

ered about motivation and emotional intelligence. Furthermore, “the case study method gains



55

relevance, the more in-depth explanations and descriptions are required” (GOG, 2015, p. 38).

Employees’ inner drives and emotional processes are extremely complex, and thus conducting

a case study, seems the appropriate strategy to research this topic.

This qualitative research is designed inductively. It starts with in-depth interviews, and after

analyzing the data collected, the study ends with a generalization about the findings from the

case (CRESSWELL, 2009, p. 71). Interviews describe characteristics of certain situations, ra-

ther than just stating facts (WEIERS, 2008, p. 8). In-depth interviews do also reveal background

stories, emotional vibes and opinions (BAUMERT; REICH, 2012, p. 107). Furthermore, using

interviews to collect data has an ethnographic character and involves the intersubjectivity of

researcher and interviewee (HAMPSHIRE ET AL., 2014, p. 215).

The individual, semi-structured interviews were conducted and recorded via Skype using both

camera and sound to make the situation and contact as real as possible. The informants are

located in Switzerland and the researcher in Brazil, therefore personal meetings were not feasi-

ble. Due to previous knowledge of the people being interviewed and their work setting, the

proximity between researcher and procured content is only partially restricted by the physical

distance at the moment of the interview conduction.

3.2 Universe, Sample and Interviewee Selection

In order to contextualize and better understand the universe and sample considered in this re-

search, a brief description of the leisure park is also provided in this section.

3.2.1 Brief Description of the Leisure Park

The research environment or universe is a leisure park in a small town in Switzerland, where

the researcher worked for approximately five years and thus had access to the company. The

park belongs to one of the largest retail companies in Switzerland, structured as a cooperative

with over two million members and 100,000 employees (RESEARCHED COMPANY, 2017).

One of the philosophies of the company is to value age/life experience and therefore, employees

are paid according to their age next to the position. The park itself employs only about 200

people. Salaries are rather low compared to the market, however the company offers many

extras to employees such as the free usage of certain park areas in their spare time. Most front

employees have a part-time contract and are either former house wives or students. Students

working at the front desk usually are payed per hour, since they have an irregular availability

due to their university schedule. The park offers different sports (squash, badminton, billiard,



56

snooker, bowling, table tennis and minigolf) a restaurant/bar, a fitness area, a wellness area and

a water park with several basins, slides and saunas. The areas of the park have different opening

hours, the water park is opened from 8 a.m. until 10 p.m. 365 days a year. The park usually gets

busier with bad weather and has the biggest crowds of customers during the winter. This can

be explained by the fact that most activities are inside and the outside pools are heated up to

35° Celsius. The experience of swimming in warm water with snow on the boarders of the pool,

and sometimes even falling from the sky upon your head, has a romantic touch to it. The cus-

tomers also vary throughout the day and week. Retired people usually arrive very early and

build already a line, before the park opens, they stay only for a few hours and are mainly inter-

ested in the sauna and the salt-water bath. Wednesday afternoon and in the weekends during

the day, the park is full of families, because at that time children are off school in Switzerland.

At night, the park is obtained by adolescents, couples and single business-men. There is a major

price reduction after 8 p.m., since before, the park used to be rather empty at that time. The park

has customers that visit on a regular basis, and offers them a long-term pass (either for six or

twelve months) for a reduced price. Most customers however, visit from time to time and pay

according to the time they pretend to stay on a given day. Those customers pay first and then

receive a bracelet with a chip, which enables them to enter the park and use the locker. When

they leave, they put the bracelet in a machine, which enables them to exit the park. Each area

has its own front desk team serving the customers, taking calls and reservations (except for the

water park, no booking necessary), and conducting the payment. These front teams consist on

average of ten employees, while the one for sports and water park, which has been united since

a few years, consists of around thirty employees. The water park is the main attraction of the

entire park and the area making the highest contribution to profits. There are six other compa-

rable water parks in Switzerland, two of them are internal competition, as they belong to the

same retail company.

3.2.2 Universe and Sample

The front-line employees of the water park and sports area, serving the most customers daily,

were considered the target universe for this study, as they are of extreme importance for the

general success of the leisure park. The front desk team was chosen as the sample due to its

relevance and expected participation. It includes both long-standing employees as well as new-

comers. The team was informed several months in advance about the research, voluntariness of

participation and anonymity of the interviews. Moreover, to have a deeper understanding of the



57

research context, the team leader of the front desk employees, as well as all the top managers

of the leisure park were interviewed.

Interviewees of the team were selected according to willingness to participate and availability

during March 2017. Most members of that team are female and the age ranges between twenty

and sixty-five years. The sample included interviewees of different nationalities. However, for

the sake of guaranteeing anonymity this information was not included in Table 1 below. A

previously set-up Skype account was offered to participants to use for the interview. In total ten

front-line employees, the team’s supervisor and the three top managers of the leisure park par-

ticipated in the research study, totaling fourteen respondents. Lee (2014, p. 95) argues “in a

qualitative study, more attention should be given to the quality of the dataset instead of the size

of the sample”. The interview manual consists of thirty questions and interviews took, on aver-

age, one hour and a half. The questions covered mainly the personal needs of employees and

their own perception of work. Furthermore, they were asked about their experiences with clients

to find out about emotional intelligence. No questions were designed to make the interviewee

uncomfortable to answer and for the case that someone did still feel that way, the right not to

answer was made clear to participants at the beginning of the conversation. An atmosphere was

created, which allowed participants to speak freely. This small participant research enabled a

deep understanding of the employees’ experiences (CRESWELL, 2009; MERRIAM;

TISDELL, 2015).

3.3 Collection and Analysis of the Data

In-depth interviews were the primary tool of data collection for this study. Open-ended ques-

tions were asked via Skype to both managers and employees. Previously constructed interview

manuals (see appendix), different ones for the two (management and employee), assisted the

researcher with focusing on the topic of interest. The top management of the park changed a

few years ago, however, the supervisor of the team works within the park for almost twenty

years. Table 1 gives an overview of the interviewee characteristics.



58

Table 1 - Interviewee Characteristics (AUTHOR, 2017)

INTER-

VIEWEE POSITION GENDER AGE RANGE

TIME IN

COMPANY

Interviewee 01 Team member Female 35-39 Less than a year

Interviewee 02 Team member Female 40-44 7 years


Interviewee 04 Team member Male 20-24 Less than a year



Interviewee 07 Team member Female 20-24 1 year




Interviewee 11 Team leader Female 50-54 18 years

Interviewee 12 Top manage-

ment

Female 50-54 3 years


ment

Male 35-39 3 years


ment

Male 50-54 3 years

The author transcribed the interviews and analysed them thematically (ALVESSON;

SKÖLDBERG, 2000, BAILEY, 2007). After critically rereading through transcriptions, the

material was coded. The goal was to find underlying meanings through interpretation. This

iterative process enables the emergence of knowledge and the filtration for success factors,



59

namely the key drivers, regarding EI and motivation. The researcher has an active role in cre-

ating the knowledge, since observations and interactions of the same are represented in it (BAI-

LEY, 2007, p. 127). Selected quotes from the interviews were incorporated in this paper to

evidence the findings.

3.4 Limitations

There are several limitations both of the method itself and of this specific study. The quality of

the data was only partially ensured through peer debriefing (LINCOLN; GUBA, 1985, p. 308).

Member checking (Ibid.) was not conducted due to time limitations of the interview partici-

pants. Furthermore, the study analysed only selected participants of one team of front workers

of one organization. The author used to work for that organization for more than five years and

might be biased from her own experiences. This might constrain objectivity in some way. How-

ever, as Hampshire et al. (2014, p. 229) argue for connectivity between interviewer and inter-

viewee, this could also “develop insights and understandings of a kind that would not otherwise

have been possible”.

Specific motivational and EI factors, portrayed in the literature review, are researched in the

case. There might be other relevant factors, which are not taken into consideration. No other

sources from the company as e.g. financial statements or individual performance evaluations

were used. The experience inside the organization is irregularly distributed among manage-

ment, since several employees and the supervisor of the team have been with the company for

much longer than the top management, which started at the organization less than four years

ago.



60

4 Discussion of Results

This chapter portrays the results of deeply analysing the interview transcriptions for common

ground. The following ten topics were considered prevalent: Employees’ perception and re-

sistance to change, the team atmosphere, other motivators, prioritization and its aftermath, the

role of control: motivator or restraint, leadership perception (management vs. front team), grow-

ing a thick skin for customer contact, individuality of clients and front workers, meanings of

ethical behavior and, finally, considerations on employees’ creativity and active participation.

For reasons of simplicity, the team interviewed is called “front team” or “front workers”, even

though it refers only to the front desk employees of the water park and sports area, both com-

ponents of the leisure park.

4.1 Employees’ Perception and Resistance to Change

The water park, the ticketing system, the front desks and some organizational processes mainly

changed during the period 2015-2016. A huge investment was made into water slides for the

park, a new pool for small children and toddlers, and the renewal of the bowling area. Further-

more, the front desks of the water park were redesigned. They used to have a wall in the back,

so that the line of customers formed naturally in front of them. Now, without that natural barrier,

customers can “attack from all sides”. The entire ticketing system changed and the form of

entrance was altered from paper tickets to more modern chip bracelets. The sporadic guests get

the bracelet when entering the park at the front desk, can load them with credit to pay for food

and beverages inside and use it to open and close the lockers for their clothes. Also, the different

areas of the water park are now accessible only with the corresponding pre-paid activities for

the desired area on the bracelet, guests enter a turnstile after granting themselves access with

the right chip. For example, children below sixteen years old are not allowed to enter the sauna

area, also adults can choose to book only one area (either sauna or pools and slides) or both at

the front desk. Furthermore, the prices of the park increased significantly.

The front workers show some resistance to those changes, they feel that generally their job got

more stressful. As the main reason, for the increase in stress at work, they mentioned the new

gathering of the customer crowd all around their front desk. Many times, they do not know the

right order to serve customers. Long-standing front workers complained about the cancellation

of the premium pay for unusual working hours (such as night shift, working on weekends and

holidays), even though, this change happened several years ago. This was a decision made by

the parent company for all its leisure departments. Most interviewees mentioned the increase in



61

prices, but opinions about its rightfulness diverge. Some agree with management, saying that

the offer improved a lot and the new prices fit. Others see a misfit between the strategy to reach

the overall population with a focus on families and teenagers, and the more expensive prices.

Furthermore, they argue that the new system takes more time to load the chips and they are

being idle during this time. Customers show little understanding for the waiting time and this

makes the front personnel feel uncomfortable. Overall there is more front personnel needed

than before, due to both a slower sales process and an increase in customers. Since the launch

of the new system, many times it broke down completely. Front workers have little understand-

ing for these malfunctions, since they directly suffer the consequences in terms of customer

feedback.

“The job used to be really easy and we used to get premium pay after a certain

hour at night, on Sundays and holidays. Now, it’s always busy, customers de-

mand our attention from all sides and the job is much more tiring than before.”

(I03)

“I liked the job more before the changes. We have more customer complaints

now, especially regarding prices, and the system does not work well. Last week,

it broke down for two hours, in that time, we couldn’t let anyone inside, and

people couldn’t close or open their lockers, so they were basically captured in-

side. This was very stressful for me, because of the huge chaos.” (I09)

“The new system is slow and malfunctions on a frequent basis. Especially in the

beginning we had a lot of customer complaints due to these malfunctions and the

price increase.” (I04)

Some smaller changes also took place such as the change from a central internal phone line to

a cell phone for each lifeguard with a different contact number. This affected one essential

support function for the front office, because it took away their direct call option to life guards.

They used that option in case of customer issues, which they could not solve themselves or had

no time to do so (as for example looking for lost things of former guests who call and ask).

Furthermore, several interviewees mentioned the fact that they must get the towels themselves

before their shift, which used to be the job of the cleaning personnel. However, it could be that

many front workers had that specific example in mind, because the decision about it from the

top management was communicated recently before the interviews took place. Either way, both

these examples show, how the front workers have a strong need for collaboration not just among

their team but among all the employees of the leisure park.



62

“The life guards now have cell phones, so you cannot simply speed dial them to

reach anyone. You also cannot connect other calls to them anymore, therefore

you need to give their individual number to the clients, which obviously takes

more time. We also need to get the towels we rent at the front desk ourselves

now. The collaboration between the different teams is not as it used to be.” (I09)

In general, the beautiful design of the new front desks affected the front workers positively, it

was mentioned several times. The manager responsible for that area invited the team leader

(TL) and two team members (one front desk worker and one from the administration) to con-

tribute to the design process, for it to include their wishes and be practical for the work itself.

The two team members were chosen according to the longest time working for the leisure park.

Although management’s perception was extremely positive, some team members seemed to

feel that they were left out of the process. This could be one of the reasons that led to criticism

of the functionality of the new front desk design.

“This triggered a full thrust of motivation. Firstly, the new work space lead to

this, as everything is new and beautiful. Additionally, they were able to bring in

their wishes and the front desk was designed to offer them optimal working con-

ditions.” (I13 - manager)

“I find the work space important. I prefer to work at the third or fourth front desk

rather than the main front, because there you are also reachable from behind by

the customers and never have time for a breather.” (I05)

“So, it looks really nice, but it made the work more exhausting.” (I09)

Thus, the opinions regarding functionality of the new front desks between management and

front workers interviewed diverge somehow. And this might imply a failure in communication

and/or participation of the team members in the selection criteria applied by management.

4.2 Team Atmosphere

Nearly everyone joined the team due to a personal relation with someone in it. Sometimes it is

through a family member or a friend and other times some personal second-grade connection.

This personal connection to one or more team members motivates them to cooperate and behave

well in the team, since personal relations are at stake. The team atmosphere is very good; people

care about each other, work well together and treat one another with respect. They enjoy meet-



63

ing each other for work-related and private occasions. Cooperation rules rather than competi-

tion. This impacts their work efficiency. Before making mistakes, which always take some time

to resolve, they ask their colleagues for help and learn how to do it right immediately and with

joy. Furthermore, this process makes the helping co-worker feel important and boosts his/her

motivation.

“I know many people from the team personally, that’s why even at events like

work meetings we have fun and are glad just to be together. The team atmosphere

has a great impact on my personal motivation at work. Naturally, I can ask others

for advice and people are helpful. Through cooperation less mistakes are made.”

(I06)

Several mentioned how much they appreciate their group chat on a messenger app, which they

use as a shift-switch-opportunity apart from general information exchange. In case of sickness

or other inconvenience, the front worker asks in the chat if someone else would be available

and willing to work on the given day. Then, they arrange the switch and let the registry know,

so it is changed on the official work schedule, too. The team atmosphere also affects the moti-

vation of the team members, as mentioned in items 2.1.1, 2.5.3, 2.5.7 and 2.6, and visible in the

statements of the interviewees. Students feel comfortable to be in such a young team, where

others are in a similar situation and life stage. Factors as collaboration within the team and

patience with each other also have a significant impact. Those are a given in this team, team

members and management mentioned this as a positive aspect.

“The team impacts my motivation very positively; I know that in case of a sud-

den time conflict, there will always be someone willing to do my shift. Since

nearly everyone is studying on the side, they all understand how it is and are very

cooperative. I really enjoy talking with everyone from the team, being in similar

life situations and having the same age, make the contact easy.” (I10)

“The team motivates me a lot, without this team the effort of working here

wouldn’t be worth it for me, it’s great that there are so many young students in

it, we have an excellent team atmosphere.” (I04)

Even though most of the front workers feel comfortable and respected within the team, the

atmosphere somehow changed in the recent past. Some of the front workers who have been

working at the leisure park for several years claim that the harmony turned into a kind of spon-



64

taneous “do what you feel like” situation. The TL also mentioned that and its disruptive conse-

quences that affect efficiency and management, where team members make demands regarding

what tasks they want or don’t want to do, as well as what time and days that they are available.

Two reasons were touched on for the change in atmosphere. First, they used to work almost

always by themselves, now, they are rarely alone at the front. Therefore, they are in much closer

contact with each other, than they were before. Second, the members of the team changed, some

team members left and many new ones joined. The change of the system and the upgrade of the

park itself, required more workers at the front. This is because, as mentioned earlier, the new

system works slower and the upgrade of the park led to an increase in customers. Hence, many

new people were hired, especially before and during the busy winter months. This intake of

new front-workers led to a different team dynamic. Even though the long-standing front work-

ers see positive aspects of new people joining the team, as developing their own competences

by being confronted with different ways of doing things, they complain that the newcomers do

not take the job seriously enough and lack respect for co-workers, customers, and work rules.

Those rules are like a code of behavior, which includes rather obvious things such as no eating

in front of customers, no cell phone use, and freshening up one’s breath when smoking before

the shift. Even the front workers themselves are trying to find reasons and solutions for the, in

their opinion, improper behavior of the newcomers.

“The work schedule is a “do as you like” situation and it’s only getting worse, I

always regard everyone’s wishes.” (I11 - team leader)

“The team atmosphere is positive, especially among the long-standing people it

is great. However, we get new members constantly and have some employee

turnover, which definitely enriches one’s development, but I feel that they do not

respect others, team members and customers, in the same way. They do things

during their shift, which we would never dare, as for example using the cell

phone in front of a customer. We have rules, but no-one really acts accordingly.”

(I02)

“I used to enjoy working there more, it’s just not as ideal as it used to be with

the old team. New members don’t value the job in the same way and work less

seriously, this demotivates me sometimes. I don’t know if the fault is ours, that

we do not train them correctly or if it’s some other problem.” (I09)

Even though the team atmosphere is very good, especially compared with other teams from the

leisure park, there is still some potential for improvement. The verbal separation between those,



65

who work there for many years and the “new ones”, seems a bit alarming. Generally, there were

interviewees demanding for more outside of work activities with the team to strengthen the

togetherness. This might indicate a rather unsuccessful socialization and integration of new

versus long standing front workers due to the increase in hiring and turnover, a side effect of

the changes that were introduced.

4.3 Other Motivators

The value of thanking was mentioned by both management and the employees from the front.

The main idea behind the concept of thanking is that the general responsibility lies with the

management, and one reason for the employees to work well is to please their superiors. There-

fore, managers thank the employees regularly for their efforts. They do this in different ways,

verbal, written or through presents. With the front team, it usually happens by email, because it

is the main communication channel between TL and team members. The team is quite large

and most members work irregularly, therefore email is the simplest way to reach everyone.

Usually, management sends the “thank you for the work at the front” via the TL and does not

address the front team directly. The TL, and sometimes other members of the office, thanks the

front workers after their shift for their work. The members take these words seriously and nearly

all the interviewees mentioned this as a source of motivation.

“I think saying thank you motivates the front workers especially and this is very

important. This can come in different forms, serving free coffee at a meeting,

giving flowers to a team leader and thanking verbally.” (I12 - manager)

“I motivate the front workers through appreciation, thanking them with a hand

shake, verbally or just with a smile. The salary also acts as a kind of appreciation,

but its effects are rather medium-term.” (I13 - manager)

“Furthermore, I think it’s important that we get a thank you, when something is

done well.” (I01)

“I’m always pleased about the mails saying that it was a top day, we reached X

customers and thanking the ones who worked that day” (I09)

Another important factor for work motivation discovered in the interviews is the flow of infor-

mation. For front workers, it is important to be informed before starting the shift, so they won´t

feel embarrassed in front of customers. They want the information to be clear and to be the

same for everyone in the team. They feel terrible when discussing with co-workers about some



66

information, finding out that one was giving the wrong information to customers all day or even

for weeks already. Furthermore, management recognizes how fundamental it is for customers

that they have answers for their questions. It is regarded as one of the main customer satisfiers

in this leisure park, which is clearly linked to the competence of the front workers and the fact

whether they are provided with the right information in time. Management further admits hav-

ing great potential for improvement in this area. This potential became visible, when making

mistakes or simply seeing that the communication was not enough or happened too late. A more

active approach of communication especially towards new workers is suggested by one man-

ager, through directly asking them whether they understood the issue or future proceedings.

“A real difference in the way I work makes, for example, whether the infor-

mation is clear and we all have the same information.” (I08)

“Front workers need to be informed at an early stage, so that they are able to

answer questions of customers correctly. In this regard (communication) we

probably have the most room for improvement. The timing has to be right and

sometimes an informing email or the simple mentioning of something in a meet-

ing is not enough, actively asking about it is needed, especially with new em-

ployees.” (I12 - manager)

It appears somehow irrelevant, but the goodies offered during the shift make a huge difference

in the front worker’s motivation, they say. These goodies, mainly beverages and chocolate, give

them the feeling of being recognized and valued by the person delivering. Furthermore, the

caffeine or sugar in those goodies gives them a boost of energy. The TL, almost like a loving

mother, spoils the front workers with chocolate, fruit smoothies and coffee whenever they have

many customers to deal with, or she realizes that they are having a rough time, for personal

reasons or due to difficult customers. This was mentioned by many front workers as a turning

point during the shift, where they were starting to get annoyed or stressed and the thoughtful-

ness of the TL saved the day.

“For me, one of the nicest things at work is when the team leader brings me

chocolate or beverages to the front.” (I09)

“It motivates me a lot when she brings me a fruit smoothie from the restaurant

during a busy time. This makes me really happy, such a small advertency, which

shows that she sees how hard we are working and really values our efforts.” (I04)



67

There is another more long-term motivator, which evolves through experiences over time. The

front workers expect management to support them in conflicts with customers. This is not an

easy task for managers, since one of their main goals is to satisfy all customers and take care of

the park´s reputation. Satisfying both employees and customers during or after a conflict, re-

quires emotional intelligence as well as good communication skills. Managers clearly recognize

the importance of employees feeling supported. The team leader not only recognizes the im-

portance, but finds a way to give the front workers exactly the backing they need, with custom-

ers as well as other employees of the park. All interviewees adore the TL for this. Admittedly,

interviewees chose to clearly separate between TL and management in this point. They do not

feel the same backing from the top management. One interviewee gave examples of cases,

where more interest and support was expected. After a regular client was extremely rude with

her and completely disrespected the rules of the park, she wrote a long email to the management

describing the situation. While hoping for feedback and consequences for the client, she never

received an answer. Another regular client is famous for his rude and inappropriate behavior.

Team members question management’s backing, since that client is still granted access to the

park, while he never apologized to those deeply humiliated front workers and even continues

to misbehave.

“It is important that they know that we stand behind them also in conflicts with

customers and that we resolve those for them, while asking for their opinions.

Especially when the customer is wrong, open and honest communication is es-

sential.” (I12 - manager)

“The team leader is great, she always has your back. Once there was a terrible

misunderstanding with another worker of the office and when I talked to the team

leader about it, she reacted very well and stood behind me from the beginning.”

(I10)

“Our team leader does a great job, always helps with the difficult customers and

backs us up. However, the regular client, who has been disrespectful to several

members of our team and even threatened a co-worker once, is still granted ac-

cess. How can it be that nothing is done in such a case?” (I09)

The salary and the former premium pay came up several times during interviews with both

managers and front workers, but there is no consensus about it as a mean of motivation. Man-

agers realize that the salary is not a sufficient mean for motivation, and they think that people

working just for the money are at the wrong place in the park. However, from the ten front



68

workers interviewed, eight stated that the salary is their main reason for working at the park.

Furthermore, to the question “what could make you happier at work?” half of the interviewees

answered that a higher salary would. And as mentioned earlier, they still reminisce about the

premium pay, which they used to get at night, on Sundays and holidays. Even though, there is

a desire for a higher pay, most softened this demand by saying that they like their work so much

that the low salary is no reason for them to quit.

“The employee, who only has the job to cash the check at the end of the month

is not right in our park.” (I12 – manager)

“The cancellation of the premium pay had a negative impact on us.” (I02)

“I know that the cancellation left deep wounds and the reimplementation could

boost motivation. However, this is not really in our hands.” (I13 – manager)

Customer contact, which is also a relevant motivator, will be explained in Item 4.7

4.4 Prioritization and its Aftermath

Naturally, management puts a high priority on the job. That became especially clear when ask-

ing them about their work-life balance. During the reconstruction phase of the last year, man-

agement’s work-life balances suffered a lot. Now, they are starting to improve their balance

again. Sport is the main cure mentioned by all superiors to keep them from having a burn-out.

The work in the park is very seasonal, since the number of guests varies strongly according to

weather and spare time of the general population. With part-time employees, this can be man-

aged well. However, the superiors (management and TLs) understandably are needed more

during the busy winter months and less on sunny summer days, which are quite rare in this part

of Switzerland. The TL of the front desk team always gets many hours of overtime during

winter and then takes some time off during summer. When the seasonality fits with personal

preferences, as it is the case of the TL, then it is a win-win situation. Much spare time is guar-

anteed during sunny times and when the weather is bad, there is a lot of work in the park.

“There is potential for improvement in my work-life balance, especially during

the reconstruction time I was exhausted from work.” (I12 – management)

“After this busy winter season, I have 240 hours of overtime, so basically seven

weeks of holidays. I love my job and it clearly influences my life positively.”

(I11 – team leader)



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For superiors, the prioritization of the job does not stop with their own work. When front work-

ers or others need them, both managers and TLs state that they go the extra mile. Helping their

employees, takes priority over their other work duties. Without prejudice, they do any job inside

the park, selling snacks at the bar, cleaning cloakrooms, sales at the front desks or supervision

in the water slide area. One manager described how the employees cannot really relate to the

work, which management has in general, thus they expect management to have time and step

in as needed, when they are in the building. Superiors see it as their responsibility to work more

hours, in case their help is needed by employees or colleagues. The same attitude is expected

from the front workers by management and TL.

“The employees appreciate it a lot that I help when it’s needed. They find it

awesome, when I help supervising in the water slides or cleaning the cloak-

rooms.” (I14 – manager)

“I stay longer if a front worker needs my help. It’s mutual, I expect it from them

and they can expect the same from me.” (I11 – team leader)

Front workers differ in their prioritization; they usually have other, more important “jobs” in

their life, either studies or being a mother. There are two main reasons for most front workers

to do this job at the park. First, as mentioned before, they need the money, so the reason they

started the job was the salary. It is relevant that this was the reason to start the job. When some-

body takes a job, due to financial needs, and the salary is rather low compared to the market,

then usually the person only stays until he/she finds a better payed job. Several front workers

started with this plan and then liked working there, for the TL and in this team, so much that

they stayed far beyond their planned time. Second, they like the job variation to their priority

(studies or taking care of children). The work differs a lot from studying at a university or taking

care of children. The interviewees claim that the simple work creates balance in their life. Some

even say that during the shift, they are able to turn off their brain and have a break from their

usual busy life, and after shifts they come home being more relaxed than when they left for

work. Basically, most front workers do not prioritize the job at the park, but they do give it

value, more than one would expect. And a large part of that valorisation comes from the positive

relation with their TL. Many of them go so far as saying that in case the TL would leave the

job, so would they.

“When the team leader asks me to work longer I usually say yes, unless I have

a really important appointment.” (I05)



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“My kids are my priority. When they are taken care of, I always agree to stay

longer at work.” (I02)

“Actually, I took this job as a temporary solution, but since I like it a lot and it’s

very practical as part-time during my studies, I’m staying.” (I06)

“At work, I can turn off my brain and I’m a machine (laughs).” (I09)

“I do it, because the team leader does so much for us. It’s a mutual courtesy.”

(I10)

“I work at the park because of the team leader. If she would leave, I would too.”

(I09)

4.5 The Role of Control: Motivator or Restraint

Top management often counts on its function as a controller. By controlling, they mean check-

ing that things are working smoothly and that employees are performing their tasks properly.

To motivate employees, management states that, within limits, they grant them as much free-

dom as possible. This granting of freedom requires that employees feel empowered. So, accord-

ing to managers, controlling is understood as checking that empowerment is taken seriously;

otherwise management would not do their job and be involved in the steerage of the park. They

believe that this kind of softly controlling their employees also leads to motivation, because it

shows that they care about the work being done and being done right. Furthermore, it fosters

accountability, knowing that the superior will check the work. Managers see their main func-

tions as decision-making, supporting the TLs and controlling the work of the areas they are

responsible for. One described how he gives a certain goal to the TLs and then gives them

freedom on how to reach that goal. If they need his support, he helps them with ideas, if not, he

only does the controlling by results or outcomes. Since the TL is the direct contact and respon-

sible of the front team, managers usually do not interfere by giving direct orders to the team.

However, they do check the work at the front from time to time, since the work at the front desk

is of extreme strategic importance for the park. Often, the way the front worker treats the client

determines whether the latter will visit again. The controlling of the work at the front desks

happens in the form of sampling; the manager stands next to the front desk and watches how

the employee handles the clients.

“Motivation can be created through granting freedom, which naturally requires

a strong activation of the control function.” (I12 – manager)



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“I mainly do the controlling and support the team leaders, the control always

takes place, even when they don’t need my support.” (I13 – manager)

“The front workers are our calling card.” (I12 – manager)

How does this controlling in fact affect employee’s motivation? Unfortunately, from the em-

ployees’ perspective the controlling does not motivate the front workers, as intended by man-

agement. Some of them even feel uncomfortable, when one of the managers stands near the

front desk to check their work. In general, the front workers feel less free or independent in

their work with the “new” management. The following example was given by an interviewee:

Once there was a mistake with a 10/20 Swiss Franc voucher. Those vouchers used to be valid

simply with a front worker’s signature and stamp of the park. Management changed that to bar

codes, which must be validated through scanning from the computer system, when vouchers

are sold. This already gave some front workers the feeling of mistrust from management, be-

cause it changed from trusting in the front worker’s ethics to controlling via a computer system.

So, when there was a mistake with a voucher, the front worker sent the client to the administra-

tion, since he/she could not solve the problem anymore at the front. The manager was involved

and then called the front worker at home, who sold the voucher, to check, whether he/she just

printed the voucher and gave it, without the client paying for it. This kind of incident really

hurts the trust relationship between management and front workers. Some employees feel over

controlled, and as if management took away part of their work competence. This is because

problem-solving with angry clients used to be in their competence, if they knew how to, and

now shifted completely to the administration.

“One manager always comes near the front desk to control us.” (I08)

“They control everything now. We have no more freedom to conciliate furious

clients with vouchers for example.” (I03)

4.6 Leadership Perception (Management vs. Front Team)

This controlling by the leadership is closely related to a certain distance between managers and

front workers. Management seems to be aware of that distance and reasons with the simple fact

of being the superior. The distance can have both positive and negative effects on employee

motivation. A positive effect is for example, when managers give the employees feedback, it is

taken very seriously and appreciated a lot. A negative aspect is the lack of trust described pre-

viously. Furthermore, management can be perceived as cold rather than caring, especially in

comparison to the “mothering” TL, who has a very close relationship with the team. Front



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workers also described the managers as business-minded, which in the given context has a neg-

ative connotation to it, basically putting it in competition with being people-minded.

“My contact with the front workers is very pleasant, but of course, I’m the boss,

which naturally creates a certain distance.” (I13 – manager)

“I really appreciate the feedback from management.” (I02)

“The team leader is very fair and humane. Management is rather cold and busi-

ness-minded.” (I07)

There appeared to be contradictions between intention from management and perception from

front workers. Managers would like to show their interest and appreciation towards the front

workers. They try to be a lot at the front, talk with employees also about private topics, always

be available, take the employees seriously, and be loyal to them. Clearly, they have the best

intention to be there for the employees and to motivate them. At the same time, front workers

feel the distance described before and a lack of interest. They argue that management is not

really present for them and does not care about them as people, rather as a means to an end.

When the front workers were asked about the situation of crying at the front desk, how they

imagine the managers would react, they again claimed a lack in empathy. Conversely, the man-

agers answered the same question directed at them with a lot of empathy, wishing to help the

front worker.

“I think, the honest interest in the person is important. Thus, a conversation with

them can have private topics as well.” (I13 - manager)

“I’m a lot at the front, talk a lot with the employees, my door is always open for

them and I’m available for problems. I believe that loyalty is really important for

the front workers, also when their word is contrary to the one of the client.” (I14

- manager)

“It’s important that we take them seriously, when they say something.” (I12 -

manager)

“I feel that management is not really interested in what we do, maybe because I

barely see them.” (I03)

“If I would sit crying at the front desk and one of the managers would walk by?

I think they would just continue walking.” (I08)

“They show little empathy.” (I07)



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Various statements were made from front workers about all the things that the TL does to mo-

tivate them. The TL is their role model in how to attend clients, helps them at the front, brings

them sweets and beverages from time to time, takes time to talk with them, thanks and compli-

ments them, and basically lets them decide when they want to work. However, when I asked

the TL about what she does to motivate them, the TL gave all the credit to the front workers

and the job itself. The TL believes that they do not need anyone motivating them, they already

arrive motivated at work. Both parties giving the credit to the other, shows that the relationship

between front workers and TL is very respectful and selfless. The TL does a great job at moti-

vating the front workers and is not even aware of her positive influence.

“The team leader motivates me, always helps out at the front, makes the work

schedule according to all our wishes, always has time for us if we need to talk

and brings us these tasty juices.” (I03)

“I don’t need to motivate my employees a lot. They come to work motivated,

because they have a great job.” (I11 – team leader)

Having the perfect motivation plan in theory does not always make it right in practice and the

other way around.

4.7 Growing a Thick Skin for Customer Contact

Emotional intelligence is of extreme relevance for the front workers, they need to be able to

manage their own emotions and the ones of their clients. Generally, it was easier to obtain

information on how they influence the emotions of clients than the reciprocal effect. This could

be due to the general preference of Swiss people to talk about others rather than about them-

selves. The most common stories were about children and elderly, who appreciated the front

worker’s kindness when given a present, special attention, or simply a generous smile. The TL,

who has a lot of experience at the front, recognizes this power of the front workers over the

clients’ emotions. At team meetings, they are reminded to receive clients with a smile and a

positive attitude. Therefore, showing more positive emotions, and holding back, or avoiding

negative ones, is the goal. As one of the interviewees recognized, speech is easy to control, non-

verbal elements are a bit harder to keep in check and at least as important. If a front worker says

nice things while rolling his/her eyes, no client will feel respected. Interviewees appeared con-

scious about the different means of communication and their proper use at work.

“When working at the front desk you naturally influence the emotions of the

clients.” (I11 – team leader)



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“I try to repress my negative emotions at work, especially the non-verbal. The

facial expressions for example, are really important.” (I07)

The reciprocal effect, the client influencing the employee’s emotions, was a rather uncomfort-

able topic for the interviewees, but touching stories came through. The most common emotions

that the front workers feel at work are happiness, sympathy and being disrespected by clients.

Happiness is contagious they say, when clients come excited and cannot wait to enter the park,

it influences the front worker positively. Sympathy many employees feel for the disabled cli-

ents, or those who can barely pay the admission fee. Finally, they feel disrespected, or some-

times even hurt, when clients attack them personally. Usually the comment, resulting in this

emotion, is about the nationality or appearance of the front worker. Managers mentioned the

frequent case of regular customers, who complain a lot. Front workers also talked about those,

but they do not leave deep wounds like those who attack them personally. They are able to

differentiate, whether the client is upset about the park or with them. The more experienced

front workers mentioned their learning curve with difficult customers over time working at the

leisure park. Learning from one another and experience makes them know better how to react

in different situations. One strategy mentioned by an interviewee, is to show the client her hu-

manity or vulnerability in a friendly manner, hoping that this way, they care and treat her re-

spectfully. The theory mentioned in section 2.3.3 suggests the opposite, employees should use

surface acting in these situations to not feel the personal attack. Another important aspect to not

be vulnerable for those “mean” clients is self-confidence. Those front workers having a high

self-esteem were questioning the reasons for becoming emotional over a reaction of somebody

who does not know them.

“The front probably is influenced more by the clients than the other way around,

especially regular clients, they say plainly what they dislike in a cranky way. So,

the front workers need emotional intelligence to react and answer correctly and

have the strength to not take this stuff personally.” (I12 – manager)

“I’ve learned how to deal with stressed clients by watching the long-standing

workers, I just put on a smile and attend them calmly.” (I05)

“Over the years, I’ve learned not to let the clients get to me so easily. I make

them realize that I’m human and have feelings, too. Of course, I stay friendly.”

(I06)



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When the front workers know how to deal with the customer’s emotions and see the results of

their own emotional efforts, this gives them a real boost of motivation and positivity in general.

It is almost like a virtuous circle, the more they learn to manage emotions, the more positive

experiences they have, the happier they are, and the better they attend clients. The example two

interviewees mentioned, was turning an annoyed customer into a happy one, who will probably

visit the park again after the conversation or experience at the front desk. For the front workers,

the smile or positive reaction of the client in the end, feels like when somebody says: “you have

made my day”. That creates also more self-confidence regarding their emotional intelligence

skills.

“I feel that I’m able to manage their emotions. One example is, when I turn a

client from being really angry, to become calm and even willing to visit the park

again.” (I10)

“When I’m patient with complaining customers, and tell them that I’m sorry,

then I witness how their negative emotions turn into positive ones and they leave

with a smile on their face.” (I09)

4.8 Individual Clients, Individual Workers

Emotional intelligence is also required to recognize each customer’s individual needs. Is the

client looking for a special offer, a fast visit, or a day to remember? Does he/she want more

information and help in deciding or already know exactly what he/she wants? Front workers

should answer these and other questions, when a client approaches their front desk. Manage-

ment sees the advantages of treating every client individually and emphasizes this in the com-

munication with the front team. Different clients want different things. One manager clearly

positions himself that a script for the front workers would not be in his interest, front workers

would lose their authenticity and would not be able to react individually with each client. The

TL also supports giving them freedom rather than a set of straight rules. However, some doubts

became clear, whether the front workers really do address each client individually. One man-

ager thinks that although the front workers think that they already do it, they could tailor or

individualize the contact even further.

“Clients differ from one another and need different kinds of solutions.” (I14 –

manager)



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“I do not support having a script at the front desk, maybe some guidelines, but

with a script the authenticity and naturalness would get lost and the individual

reaction with clients.” (I13 – manager)

“Whether they address clients formally or not I leave up to the front workers.”

(I11 – team leader)

“It is hard to get the front workers to address each client individually, because

they think that they already do that.” (I12 – manager)

The front workers interviewed actually pursue the goal of increasing the individuality of their

client contact. They even prioritize pleasing the client from doing the most business or getting

the most money out of the client for the day, since they know a returning customer can be much

more valuable than one high sale. Management’s desire for them to individualize the client

contact is well understood. Even, when stumbling on embarrassing situations, front workers

realize that, as there are very positive experiences through individualized contact, it is only

natural to have some negative ones as well. Sometimes the front workers misjudge the age of

the clients and address them informally. Some clients take it as a compliment about their age,

others feel disrespected and complain. This can lead to embarrassment for the employee at the

front, in which case a convenient response requires emotional intelligence. Apologizing and

laughing about their own mistake with the clients, is one way to turn the weird situation in a

positive experience for both the client and the front worker.

“My goal is to treat each client individually and to pursue their wishes.” (I07)

“I react individually and sell clients what is best and cheapest for them.” (I08)

“I think, management wants us to treat clients individually.” (I02)

“I address clients individually. Sometimes it gets me into trouble, as when I ad-

dressed the 16-year old son of a woman informally. I was very ashamed, when

she asked me whether I address everyone in that way. But usually, even when I

get it wrong, clients laugh with me about it.” (I05)

Just as the customers need individual treatment, so do the front workers. When leading the

conversation towards their needs and wants at work, answers varied a lot. One wants the clients

to be simple, fast and in a good mood, another prefers the clients to stick around to always be

busy. One has a strong need for fairness, another for affiliation, and yet another for harmony at

the place of work. The need for affiliation is the most common among the front workers. Some



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mentioned a certain need for achievement, but most said that they satisfy this need in another

occupation in their life (e.g. studies). No front worker interviewed feels the need for power in

this job, which makes sense, since there is little opportunity for gaining power within the park.

“I like fast and intelligent clients, who are in a good mood.” (I03)

“I want to be busy always, for me there is nothing worse than sitting around.”

(I02)

“For me it’s important that our team leader distributes the work shifts fairly

among all front workers, so that everyone gets to work.” (I06)

“Primarily, I need to earn money. I also like the contact with people.” (I04)

“I need a nice place of work and a good team atmosphere.” (I08)

The managers are aware of the diversity among the front workers and their employees in gen-

eral. Diversity may refer to front workers of different ethnic origin and/or religion. Managers

try to meet the employees’ individual needs as well as possible. The main process mentioned

to find out, how to best approach the front workers individually, was listening to them in indi-

vidual conversations. With experience, the managers learned, which employees are motivated

in what ways and how to best deliver negative feedback without hurting anyone personally.

They mentioned that empathy is the key for good leadership, which is compatible with the

learnings about emotional intelligence described in chapter two.

“I always inform them via individual conversations, team events, per mail and

in meetings.” (I11 – team leader)

“Everyone is different, so I motivate them individually as well.” (I13 – manager)

“I approach every employee individually, because all have a different character

and are motivated in different ways. Especially negative things you can tell some

people directly and for others you need to package the message so that they won’t

take it personally. (I14 – manager)

4.9 Meanings of Ethical Behavior

Motivating ethical behavior within the company is one way of improving performance and thus,

achieving success, as explained in item 2.5.4. A first step towards this direction, would be to

adopt a common code of ethics. Therefore, the understanding of ethics was analysed among the

interviewees.



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Managers reacted differently, when asked about ethical challenges. Generally, they all associate

ethical challenges with the existence of different cultures, values and norms. While one man-

ager does not regard this as an important issue in the park, others see great relevance. They see

cultural differences among front workers, other employees and clients. Those managers try to

act as role models and guide the front workers to embody the values of the mother company of

the park, such as trust and respect. The park needs to position itself regarding certain topics,

and as front workers are considered the park’s calling card, they take an important role in that

positioning. Different cultures should not be excluded, thus women with burkinis are allowed

to enter the park. If disabled people need assistance, their chaperone gets a discount and life

guards facilitate their visit. The front team is informed per mail about the position it should

portray for clients. A new challenge mentioned, was the decision, whether to allow a transsexual

client to enter the sauna exclusively accessible by women.

“Most of our customers are Swiss and very few disabled, since the park is not

specially handicapped accessible. Therefore, front workers don’t face a lot of

ethical challenges.” (I14 – manager)

“We have many different cultures, already among the front workers, thus there

are ethical challenges among employees as well as with clients.” (I13 – manager)

“It is our job to portray certain ethical principles, which are predetermined by

the mother company. The principles include trust and respect, we live those.

This means, respecting our employees and our clients. As an example, we allow

Arab women to wear burkinis in our park. We don’t want to exclude anyone,

neither for a different culture nor a disability. I usually inform front workers per

mail about how to position themselves.” (I12 – manager)

These statements of the managers show a clear intention of motivating ethical behavior. How-

ever, the interviewed front workers appeared confused rather than motivated, when discussing

ethics. Some remembered situations, where they would have needed more help or guidelines

from management. Examples are cases of sexual harassment in the sauna or of clients obviously

lying to the front personnel. Another front worker did not understand at all, how ethics are

related to either their job or that of management, putting the responsibility on the security per-

sonnel. Several questioned the meaning of “ethically correct”, when the topic was introduced

during the interview. Then they went on explaining what it means to them, and with which

ideas they personally do not agree. Those disagreements were mostly about the pricing strategy,

which clients get the family discount, and at which age people are considered adults. The same



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questioning happened, when they were asked about the values, they share with the mother com-

pany; most asked “what values?”. This indicates a great potential for motivating ethical behav-

ior, and with it improving performance, by simply clarifying the ethical principles and values.

“Especially regarding the sauna, we face some ethical challenges like sexual har-

assment, more information of management about how to position ourselves and

how to handle such situations could be helpful.” (I05)

“Ethical behavior is not motivated by managers; it’s not of their interest. We

have the security guy, who takes care of that.” (I02)

“I think there are different definitions of what is ethical. Making 16-year old

children pay the price of an adult for me is not ethical.” (I03)

“The question is, what means ethically correct?” (I07)

4.10 Considerations on Employees’ Creativity and Active Participation

Front desk workers were questioned about their contribution to the park´s performance and

success outside their contractual duties. Some of them are not interested at all in any extra

responsibility; they come to perform the job and not to reflect about possible improvements for

the park. Others really like to be involved and think of ideas to improve their work and the

experience for clients. Management counts on motivating the front workers by implementing

some of their ideas. The TL involves them in the decision-making process by asking their opin-

ion and listening to their suggestions and thoughts.

“I prefer not to participate in the decisions regarding changes, I rather just do my

job.” (I05)

“I like responsibility and to bring in my ideas.” (I01)

“I motivate them by implementing their ideas from time to time, this is the great-

est motivation.” (I13 – manager)

“I ask them what they think and take them seriously, when they have ideas.” (I11

– team leader)

These motivation strategies sound quite promising. When employees can bring in their ideas

and actively participate in the decision-making processes, this boosts their motivation in the

long term. However, this verbal exchange almost exclusively takes place during scheduled team

meetings, where front workers come up with creative proposals. Such meetings usually occur



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every two months. Managers delegate the responsibility, to incentivize front desk workers to

come up with and share their ideas, to the TL. This might be another reason for the leadership

distance perceived by employees. Front workers also mentioned the focus on the team meetings

for superiors’ listening to their ideas, rather than at any time. This can have positive effects, as

people can filter their ideas until the day of the meeting, as well as negative ones, as some ideas

might get lost due to the restricted communication possibility. However, some employees do

feel heard by their superiors and say that their ideas are taken seriously.

“They have ideas every two months at the team meetings.” (I11 – team leader)

“They usually go directly to their team leader with ideas, unless we have specific

meetings.” (I13 – manager)

“The team leader is responsible for motivating the front workers, being open for

their ideas and communicating upward.” (I12 – manager)

“They are interested in what we have to say at team meetings and our ideas are

taken seriously.” (I10)

The content of the suggestions that are prone to be implemented seems to be restricted to simple

and generally inexpensive plans. One idea coming from a front worker was for team members,

with the required certifications and willingness to work more, to help as lifeguards in the new

slides area, where they were short of personnel. This idea was a win-win situation; willing

students could get more shifts and the company had a solution for a pressing issue without

spending much time and money for the search and training of new employees. Therefore, the

idea received great appreciation from management. Other interviewees claimed that only sim-

ple ideas are implemented. Several front workers mentioned that they do not even communicate

their big ideas anymore, since they know that they will not be implemented. Negative experi-

ences, where management/TL summarily rejected more complex suggestions, led to this per-

ception. Furthermore, the team expects superiors to come up with an alternative, when turning

down its ideas. The TL argues that there is little room for change, boundaries are set by the

mother company and other circumstances.

“I had the idea that some of us would help the lifeguards in the new slides area,

since they were short of personnel there, and they loved the idea.” (I06)

“The most ideas I propose are implemented, because they are no momentous

changes.” (I03)



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“The simple ideas get implemented, but more complicated things are usually

dismissed without offering reasonable alternatives.” (I07)

“When we have our own ideas, they usually say that it won’t work.” (I04) “Un-

fortunately, most things are a given, there is not much room for change.” (I11 –

team leader)

The interviews revealed that there is room for improvement in the openness of top management.

Front workers go as far as saying that they need courage to make propositions. This shows a

strong perception of hierarchical barriers together with a lack of real openness. Furthermore,

when asking about general changes, a front worker suggested top management should more

actively encourage employee participation. Luckily, potential in this area has been recognized

by managers. They do have the intention to appreciate participation and offer reasonable feed-

back. However, for active employee participation, appreciation and feedback is not enough.

Employees need to feel that their superiors want them to participate and are really listening.

“It takes courage to propose changes to managers.” (I02)

“If we would be motivated more to propose our ideas, that would be great.” (I08)

“We need to give feedback in the right way and show our appreciation for their

willingness to participate. Clearly, we still have room for improvement in this

regard.” (I12 – manager)

Finally, an idea regarding the new chip bracelets was mentioned by two of the interviewees,

which got rejected by management/TL without a sensible reason: When clients leave the park,

they must put the bracelet into a machine to liberate the turnstile. They need to fold the bracelet

in a certain way, otherwise, the machine does not accept it. Therefore, all clients visiting the

park for the first time ask the front desk personnel, which is usually busy attending the arriving

clients, how the machine works. The solution offered by one of the front workers was to create

a short video clip on how to put in the bracelet, which would be played constantly on a small

display on the machine. Obviously, this idea would involve quite an investment. Nevertheless,

the team is missing a reasonable excuse or alternatives to solve the issue; they feel that the

problem and offered solution were simply ignored. Similarly to the TL, management admits

that not all proposals can be implemented, and sometimes they do not explain this to the team.

Another argument for not implementing ideas, is the lack of the overall picture of the park,

which employees from specific areas are missing in the opinion of one manager. Furthermore,



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some motives cannot be communicated openly within the organization. This is a serious prob-

lem for the relationship between management and employees.

“X had this amazing idea […]. Probably it didn’t get implemented, because it

would be too expensive. But then they should at least offer an alternative, be-

cause the problem remains unsolved.” (I07)

“Many notions from employees are coming from only their perspective, not tak-

ing the whole picture into account. Many times, implementation is impossible

and sometimes we cannot explain the contradictory motive, because it’s an in-

ternal thing, which we don’t want to put forth.” (I12 – manager)



83

5 Conclusion

5.1 Brief Summary

This study analyses the concepts of employee motivation and emotional intelligence focusing

on the service sector. The main classical motivation theories stated in chapter two, such as

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Vroom’s expectancy theory, build the basis for understanding

human behavior. The emotional intelligence concept is essential for analyzing relationships

within the company as well as with clients. Furthermore, these concepts impact both the job

and the company performance in the long term. An organization can increase its overall perfor-

mance by motivating its employees to work more efficiently and by training them to become

more emotionally intelligent. Establishing clear goals and providing constructive feedback is

required to motivate employees. Since front-line staff of service providers execute emotional

labour constantly, it is advisable that new employees are filtered according to their EI skills.

This practice of emotional labour is supposed to be recognized and enhanced by managers as

the use of their own EI allows them to sense employees’ individual needs. Therefore, they are

able to capitalize on this knowledge and the differences among the employees.

The main goal of this study was to elucidate the potential contribution of how the concepts of

employee motivation and emotional intelligence can help the management of a service organi-

zation to succeed. In-depth interviews with some front desk workers and the managers of a

leisure park have been conducted so as to increase the knowledge concerning the given subject.

The analyzed company scenario is of organic growth and some resistance to change, as stated

by long-standing employees and some managers. However, the employees’ financial needs,

added to the satisfaction derived from customer contact, reflect in long standing front personnel.

Furthermore, they expressed a strong sense of belonging and emotional commitment to their

team leader. The interviews also revealed that not only do the front desk employees’ attitudes

affect customers, also the customers’ behavior influences employees. The extent to which both

parties are emotionally affected by their interactions depends on each of the parties’ EI compe-

tences and other circumstantial effects, such as mood and modality. Emotional intelligence

helps employees to manage both their and customers’ emotions. Using this knowledge for em-

ployee retention as well as increasing efficiency could allow cost saving of employee turnover

and concomitant increase overall organizational performance.



84

5.2 Main Findings and Conclusions

As discussed in section 1.3, findings regarding the relationships among motivation and emo-

tional intelligence in the service sector are relevant in research as well as in practice. The fol-

lowing section describes thoroughly conclusions that academics and managers may come to

from the present study. The ten topics described in chapter four were aggregated and five key

success drivers were selected (main team motivators, distinct internal communication, sociali-

zation of newcomers, a visible ethics culture and active employee participation). Each one will

be explained below:

First, some of the main motivators for front desk workers were identified. Those include more

obvious factors as team atmosphere, positive customer contact, gratitude from superiors and

management support and other rather surprising factors as proper flow of information and bev-

erages during the shift. Financial recognition, despite being well-known for its contextual char-

acter, is of great importance for the team. These financial needs or expectations are not fully

met currently. A different remuneration system based on experience within the company as well

as on accomplished goals would be able to foster and increase motivation. Throughout all in-

terviews with employees the strong ties to the team leader (TL) were emphasized. On one hand,

workers experiment a certain obligation towards the TL: since their leader gives them a lot of

attention and is considerate to them, they are supposed to reciprocate. Basically, the positive

consequences of a kind treatment towards the TL are known by the employees. On the other

hand, the workers also express an altruistic concern for the TL, showing genuine care for their

leader’s well-being. As explained in section 2.5.5, both felt obligation and altruistic concern

lead to organizational citizenship behaviour, which increases the organizational performance.

Hence, since this behaviour is bound to a person rather than to the organization, the TL becomes

an important strategic asset. It is advisable that this sort of behaviour is established and main-

tained also towards the organization in the long-term, since it may become a source of compet-

itive advantage.

Second, internal communication is essential for both organizational and individual job perfor-

mance. Organizational performance in the service sector suffers either when customers are not

provided with the sought information or when inaccurate information is provided by employees.

This may go as far as becoming a reputational disaster for the company. Job performance is

affected in various ways through communication; feedback, positive reinforcement and build-

ing commitment are merely a few examples. Communication also builds the basis for the fifth



85

finding about active participation. Management decisions must be communicated to the front

workers in time and through the right channel. Communication via email might not be the most

efficient solution since all front workers mentioned the huge amount of information held by the

front desk and the importance of being aware of relevant information. Therefore, a different

communication tool is suggested as an alternative to emails: A shared online-booklet with all

information orderly portrayed and continuously updated, made available to team members,

team leader and management. The content of this booklet includes important regulation, special

offers and behavioral suggestions. The data would be portrayed in one place and on a sheet

instead of several emails printed on A4 sheets displayed at the front desk. This would facilitate

finding accurate information besides offering an opportunity for clarification (all members

would hold and share the same information despite the possibility of not having received or

read some of the emails).

Third, the case revealed a problem of socialization and integration of new front desk workers

as it was possible to notice by a strong verbal segregation between longstanding employees and

newer ones. Therefore, it seems that the newcomers are not well integrated into the established

team. As comments from the interviews revealed, the reason for this deficiency in socialization

does not seem to be the unwillingness of the longstanding workers. The problem might reside

within the current process of initiation and training, where the entire responsibility lies within

the co-workers rather than within the management. Those co-workers training the newcomers

might be willing to make the latter feel welcome rather than to scold them with behavioral rules.

Furthermore, there appears to be no previously set process or rulebook for training newcomers,

each co-worker improvises the training as he/she sees fit. This leaves room for interpretation

and the arousal of an “everyone does what he/she likes” culture. A higher leadership involve-

ment in the training process could lead to improvement in this field. Selecting new staff con-

sidering required emotional intelligence competences, is an additional suggestion to improve

socialization and individual job performance. As mentioned in section 2.3, this means having

self-awareness, motivation, redirected attention and social skills, among others. It is possible to

recognize these skills in answers to “what would you do in this or that situation?”. Another sign

of high EI competences would be that employees know how to keep a healthy work-life balance.

Fourth, ethical behavior needs to be clarified and motivated, since according to Pattan (1984)

and several other authors mentioned in part 2.5.4, ethical behavior increases organizational per-

formance. Regarding the leisure park, management does have the intention to motivate such

behavior, although the interviewed front desk workers have diverse understandings of the term



86

ethical and do not feel sufficiently guided by management through this aspect. As discussed in

section 2.5.4, there are two main measures to motivate ethical behaviour throughout an organ-

ization: Developing employees’ moral reasoning skills and building an ethical culture. It is rec-

ommended that management develop ethical guidelines and communicate them clearly

throughout the company. Furthermore, ethical training would provide the practical experience

for employees, a way to analyse the applicability of that ethical knowledge to their work envi-

ronment. Needless to say, managers are supposed to act as role models and recognize ethical

behavior with rewards focused on employees’ interests. Additionally, ethical matters observed

throughout the interviews would be easily resolved with an increased and better communica-

tion. It is advisable that ethical regulation is communicated clearly. This guideline could be

integrated in the proposed online booklet for general communication, avoiding an unnecessary

search for different sorts of information in diverse places.

Fifth, employees are supposed to take part actively in decision-making processes and in the

business as a whole. Thereby, managers would be able to increase employee commitment and

create a shared purpose as described in section 2.5.7. Rather than simply handing off the infor-

mation, managers are recommended to explain the rationale behind their decisions, so that front

workers are not only aware but also understand the changes resulting from those decisions.

Specific examples of the case are decisions to change the ticketing system, whom to involve in

the redesign of the front desk, to cut the premium pay, and how to deal with disrespectful clients.

Changing the ticketing system was basically a trade-off between making it more customer-

friendly and keeping it simple for the employee, since the chip bracelet method requires more

effort from the front desk workers. If management justified their decisions from the clients’

perspective and simultaneously tried to build a straightforward process for the front workers

the amount of complaints made by the employees would probably decrease. This practice

would entail making all front workers feel as active participants in the change process and not

merely at the receiving end of already made decisions. Similarly, cutting the premium pay was

communicated as an order from top management and no reasons behind the decision were given

in order to make employees comprehend it and reduce complaints. This also applies for dealing

with disrespectful clients. An employee might understand the reason why managers do not

abandon a client from the park for being disrespectful with a staff member; there must be a

sensible reasoning, though. The messenger itself is also important, and delegating most com-

munication to the team leader might not be the best option. Management’s efforts to motivate

front desk workers would be perceived in the direct contact. This could involve an “open doors”



87

policy, listening to employees and taking their ideas seriously. In the case of an unreasonable

idea, it is not supposed to be ignored, as the absence of an answer is usually more frustrating

than a negative response. Reasons and alternatives should be part of an exchange, where the

proposal is answered. As one of the managers perceived correctly, employee contact should be

individualized to boost motivation. Also, knowing the strengths of each employee is valuable

for managers as they could capitalize on those individual competences. Such individualized

contact demands a lot of personal one-on-one communication. This communication would also

provide managers a better understanding of already existing EI competences of employees.

Managers are supposed to be aware that at times front workers feel treated as a means to an end

rather than as human beings.

In summary, there are a few common motivators for the front desk workers in this case. Some

of these motivators were managed to be found, whereas others are still missing or could be

significantly improved. Superiors’ expression of gratitude, refreshments during the shift and

TL’s support are well established positive influences. The good team atmosphere is present as

well, although it appears to be on thin ice due to the problem of integration. Positive customer

contact was found and depends mainly on the EI skills of each employee. Accurate flow of

information and financial recognition clearly have room for improvement. Furthermore, a

strong importance lies on the team leader, as front desk workers feel both felt obligation and

altruistic concern towards her; this impacts performance positively. Communication within the

organization could be improved and might resolve several issues including the misunderstand-

ings between management and front desk workers. Leadership involvement in the training pro-

cess of new front desk workers could resolve the current integration problem. A clear code of

ethics and its motivation would increase organizational performance even further. And finally,

active participation of the front workers could become a source of competitive advantage for

the park. Additionally, communication and EI skills of managers and team leader could be used

to capitalize even further on the individuality of team members. These findings may only be

applicable to similar organizations in the service sector.

In other words, the importance of an active employee participation, interdependence and inte-

gration of the different hierarchical levels (in lieu of a fractured perception), the need for clear

goals, communication and shared expectations, the need for the organization to be perceived as

one big team where every member is committed to achieve the same goals and feels valued to

be part of such enterprise, all signal the value of this research. Thus, the contribution of the



88

present study rests on the interplay among some of the main challenges regarding motivation,

emotional intelligence and the organization´s success in the leisure service sector.

5.3 Recommendation for Future Research

This study treats the concepts of motivation and emotional intelligence as key predictors of

organizational success and, thus, of enhanced performance. In-depth interviews were conducted

to know more about the motivators and use of emotional intelligence from both front desk em-

ployees and managers of a Swiss leisure park. As only the selected theories on the concepts of

motivation and emotional intelligence from chapter two were analysed, there is available liter-

ature treating different constructs, which could be the focus of future research. Examples for

such topics are the relation between those concepts and organizational growth, EI training in

relation with job performance or including job satisfaction in the research. As mentioned in

section 2.6, there is also a lack in literature about the impact of performance on EI. Besides,

similar studies in different service organizations could provide more relevance to the findings

of this study or contradict those. Future research could consider specific performance indicators

of service organizations and analyse the way they are affected by the mentioned concepts. One

main performance indicator for service companies is customer satisfaction. Therefore, empiri-

cal tests could be made, whether customer satisfaction is actually affected positively by emo-

tionally intelligent front desk personnel.



89

Appendix

Appendix 1: Interview Script

Management & Team-leader

Introduction (making interviewee comfortable) – Could you please describe your position? (e.g.

How does your normal day look like and how many subordinates do you have? Also: general

information regarding time with company and age)

1. How do you motivate your employees generally? Do you motivate all of them in the

same way? Elaborate…

2. What do you do on “bad/empty” days to motivate your employees? And on

“great/full” days?

3. Do you feel that motivation helps employee productivity? Explain. Considering differ-

ent forms of motivation, which one do you feel is most effective and why?

4. Which needs do you believe your employees have? How do you try to satisfy those

needs? How do you identify your employees’ needs (systematic or more informal

way)?

5. If you must put the need for power, achievement and affiliation into order, what do

you think are the priorities of the front-line workers? Why?

6. What do you think is important for making the employees comfortable in the work en-

vironment? What do you believe makes a real difference in the way employees work

(e.g. the way they interact with clients)? Elaborate.

7. When you see a front worker able to shorten the waiting line in a very fast manner

(while still being friendly), do you recognize his/her work in some way and if yes

how?

8. What are your goals at work? What are your goals regarding the front team? Explain

what you do in order to achieve those goals. What do you think are the organizational

goals?

9. What kind of recognition (verbal, visual, financial…) do you think the front workers

value most? How do you usually recognize special efforts of employees? Why?

10. What rewards do you think are efficient? Why?

11. Do you think the front workers are ambitious and seek responsibility or do you believe

they dislike work and must be directed to perform? Exemplify.



90

12. In which situations, do you think the front-line workers are overcharged? What could

you do about that? And when e.g. the students feel underchallenged with the front

work, what solution do you have or suggest?

13. How do you deal with your emotions? Do you manage other’s emotions? Exemplify.

What about the front workers? Would you see sense in training their emotional intelli-

gence capabilities? Why?

14. What customer strategy would you like the front workers to pursue and why? (e.g. sell

the most possible, get the customer what he/she really wants to avoid complaints,

smiling and being friendly/likable)

15. Are you in favor or against clear display rules for front workers? Explain why.

16. How would you describe your work-life balance? Has your work ever interfered with

your personal life or vice-versa? What about the work-life balance of the front work-

ers? Exemplify.

17. Do you feel that you know the direct contacts of the front workers? For example, who

do they go to looking for advice? And who do most workers like to talk to generally?

Why do you think they go to that person?

18. Do you receive and offer any ethics training? Do you think front workers are ever

challenged ethically? Exemplify. Describe me a work situation in which your ethics

were challenged.

19. What values do you share with the company? Exemplify. Can you think of a situation,

where front workers were questioning company rules/values? Describe.

20. How would you describe your interaction with the front workers? Would you stay ex-

tra time in case a front worker asks you for help? Exemplify.

21. Do you see a difference in the way older front workers treat the customers compared

to the way of younger front workers? Elaborate.

22. How often do front workers talk to you about new ideas (example)? In what ways do

you encourage them to do that? Are you giving the front workers the freedom to inter-

act differently with each customer? If yes, how?

23. Do you think motivation increases job satisfaction in general? Why (not)? Would you

like to improve employee motivation? In what ways?

24. (Team-leaders) Do you consider the employee’s personal life situation for the working

schedule? If yes, how?

25. Consider the following situation: You pass by the front desk and see the employee,

who just started his shift with teary eyes. How would you handle this situation?



91

26. How are you motivated? How does your personal life influence your motivation at

work? Do you mix your personal with your professional life (meeting colleagues/sub-

ordinates outside of the work environment)? Exemplify.

27. Give me an example of a situation in which you felt disrespected by your colleagues

or subordinates? And one in which you felt respected? How does the team atmosphere

influence your motivation?

28. What did you learn in the team-building workshop from XX regarding motivation?

How do you think this process affects general atmosphere and motivation in the fu-

ture?

29. What things would you like to improve? What would you do in a different way? Why?

Are there any barriers to introducing changes? Exemplify

Employees (Front Desk Personnel of Water Park & Sports Area)

Introduction (making interviewee comfortable) – Could you please describe your position? (e.g.

How does your normal day look like and do you work full-time/part-time (%)? How long do

you pretend to work at the company? Also: general information regarding time with company

and age)

1. Why do you work at the company? Do you enjoy the work? Why (not)?

2. How are you motivated? How can your boss affect your motivation, both positively

and negatively?

3. What needs are you trying to satisfy at work? If you must put the need for power,

achievement and affiliation into order, what are your priorities and why?

4. What is important for you to be comfortable in the work environment? What makes a

real difference in the way you work (e.g. the way you interact with clients)? Explain.

5. When you manage to attend customers faster on busy days, do you expect any kind of

recognition or is it enough to intrinsically know that you’re working better? Why?

6. When Elvira recognizes your good work verbally to you, does it motivate you? And

when she recognizes the work of you or others in the group meetings, how do the two

situations make you feel? What kind of recognition (verbal, visual, financial…) do

you value most and why?

7. What are your goals in this job? How do you plan to achieve them? What do you think

is expected of you at work? How do you know that?



92

8. Are team members working especially hard sufficiently rewarded for their efforts?

Why (not)? Exemplify.

9. How do you feel about being given extra responsibility (e.g. Elvira gives you a spe-

cific task which is not part of your job description)? Why? Do you like being involved

in certain decisions at work or prefer just doing your job and going home without

much extra thinking? Elaborate.

10. Do you ever feel overcharged at work or under challenged? Tell me more about those

situations and their frequency.

11. How do you manage your emotions (verbal and non-verbal) at work? Give me an ex-

ample.

12. Do you sometimes feel as if you are managing the emotions (verbal and non-verbal) of

the customer? If yes, give me an example.

13. What is your customer strategy? (e.g. sell the most possible, get the customer what

he/she really wants to avoid complaints, smiling and being sympathetic…)

14. In which situations, do you feel emotionally exhausted after your shift?

15. If you could decide about display rules (clothing, make-up…), what would you

change? Would you put any display rules? Why (not)?

16. Describe a situation in which you were being fake (smile, say friendly things which

you don’t mean) to a customer, because you had to act according to certain display

rules?

17. Do you prefer approaching all customers in the same way or acting different with each

customer depending on his/her behavior? Why? Are you able to interact differently?

Exemplify.

18. Can you remember a situation, in which you felt some kind of emotion (sorry, in-

trigued, respected, happy…) with a customer? Tell me about it.

19. How does the team atmosphere (e.g. respect and consideration) influence your motiva-

tion? Who do you talk to most from work? Who do you trust with personal issues?

Who do you go to for advice regarding work?

20. Do you feel that your superiors always act ethically? Do you feel that ethical behavior

is rewarded? Describe me a work situation in which your ethics were challenged.

21. How do you fit with the company, what values do you share? Explain.

22. How is your interaction with Elvira? Do you feel that she cares about you as a person?

Why (not)? When she asks you to stay extra hours, do you do them and if yes with

what feelings?



93

23. Is management open for your ideas? Are you thinking of ways to improve the cus-

tomer experience in the company? Exemplify.

24. How is your speed and generosity/patience with clients influenced? Exemplify. What

could make you happier at work?

25. How would you scale your motivation level from one to ten on “bad/empty” days and

on “great/full” days? Explain.

26. Imagine the following situation: You hit a deer on the way to work and are completely

in shock. Your eyes are teary and you are just starting your shift, then your boss passes

by and sees you in that state. How would you expect him/her to react? How would you

like him/her to react?

27. Now imagine this situation: The weather was sunny outside and you were prepared for

a calm shift, where you could continue reading your journal. Suddenly, masses of peo-

ple come in, because the weather changed. You have a really busy shift. How would

you feel?

28. How do you think your personal life influences your motivation at work? And how

does work affect your personal life? Do you mix your personal with your professional

life (meeting colleagues/managers outside of the work environment)? Why (not)?

29. What did you learn in the team-building workshop from XX regarding motivation?

How do you think this process affects general atmosphere and motivation in the fu-

ture?

30. Finally, what changes would you suggest in order for your motivation to increase and

for you to know even better how to interact well with customers?

31. In general, what things do you think should improve? What would you do in a differ-

ent way? Why? Are there any barriers to introducing changes? Exemplify



94

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