MOTIVATION

Swati Vispute

Cases1. Anjali Sharma gets cheque for her contribution to the

development of the organization. She is neither motivated nor there is any progress in her performance.

2. Ronny and Johnny studies together, joined same organization, had same years of experience and performance. Ronny gets promotion while Johnny was denied the same.

3. Mr. Gautam, working with reputed organization for last 10 years at a high position. Good co-workers, good working conditions, incentives. Decides to leave organization at the age of 40 to start NGO for underprivileged children.

Motivation Motivation is the willingness to exert high

levels of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.

By Stephen Robbins

Elements Motivation consists of three interacting and

interdependent elements Needs Drives Incentives

The Motivational Process: A General Model

The The EmployeeEmployee

I.

Need Need deficienciesdeficiencies

II.

Search for ways Search for ways to satisfy needsto satisfy needs

III.

Goal-directed Goal-directed behaviorbehavior

IV.Performance Performance (evaluation of (evaluation of goals goals accomplished)accomplished)

V.

Rewards or Rewards or punishmentspunishments

VI.Need Need deficiencies deficiencies reassessed by reassessed by the employeethe employee

Theories of Motivation Content or Need Theories

Attempt to identify and prioritize the needs and drives that motivate people at work

‘what’ of the motivation

Process Theories Deal with cognetive antecedents that go into

motivation ‘how’ of the motivation

Contemporary Theories

Motivation TheoriesNeed or Content Theories

Process Theories Contemporary Theories

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Equity Theory

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

The Porter-Lawler Model

Attribution Theory

Herzberg’s Two-Factor (Hygiene-Motivator) Theory

Agency Theory

McClelland's Theory of Social Motives

Need/ Content TheoriesCommon Assumptions Motivation originates from “within” We seek out situations that can satisfy our

needs To “motivate” others, we must provide

opportunities to satisfy their needs

Hierarchy of Needs Theory Abraham Maslow People have hierarchy

motivational of needs Satisfied needs is no

longer a motivator

Maslow’s Need

Hierarchy Related to

the Job

Receiving a sufficient salary to live onHaving sufficient food and drink available

Working in a comfortable environment

Receiving regular salary increasesHaving medical and disability insuranceWorking in a hazard free environment

PHYSIOLOGICAL

SAFETY AND SECURITY

Being accepted by personal and professional friends

Working in groups that are compatibleHaving supportive supervision

BELONGINGNESS, SOCIAL, AND LOVE

Receiving a high-level promotionEarning an outstanding reputation among peers

Winning a coveted award for performance

ESTEEM

Starting a successful new business

Developing and mentoring othersUsing business skills to start a charity

that helps homeless childrenSELF-ACTUALIZATION

Two- Factor TheoryFrederick Herzberg Assessed job satisfaction and

dissatisfaction of the respondents Critical incident method Interviewed 200 accountants and engineers Good feelings are associated with job

content and experiences Negative feelings are associated with job

context factors

Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryNo jobNo jobsatisfactionsatisfaction

High jobHigh jobSatisfaction Satisfaction

(Job Content)(Job Content)

No jobNo jobdissatisfactiondissatisfaction

High jobHigh jobDissatisfactionDissatisfaction

(Job Context)(Job Context)

Based on MotivatorsBased on Motivators•Feeling of achievementFeeling of achievement•Meaningful workMeaningful work•Opportunities for advancementOpportunities for advancement•Increased responsibilityIncreased responsibility•RecognitionRecognition•Opportunities for growthOpportunities for growth

Hygiene FactorsHygiene Factors•PayPay•StatusStatus•Job securityJob security•Working conditionsWorking conditions•Employee benefitsEmployee benefits•Policies and proceduresPolicies and procedures•Interpersonal relationsInterpersonal relations

Herzberg View of Job Satisfaction

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory:Job Enrichment

The process of building personal achievement, recognition, challenge, responsibility, and growth opportunities into a person’s job

Has the effect of increasing the individual’s motivation by providing him/her with more discretion and accountability when performing challenging work

ERG TheoryClayton Alderfer

Alderfer proposes a hierarchy involving three sets of needs:

1. Existence: needs satisfied by such factors as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions

2. Relatedness: needs satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships

3. Growth: needs satisfied by an individual making creative or productive contributions

Alderfer’s ERG Theory: Management Application

If a subordinate’s higher-order needs (e.g., growth) are being blocked, perhaps because of a company policy or lack of resources,

Then it is in the manager’s best interest to attempt to redirect the subordinate’s efforts toward relatedness or existence needs

McClelland’s Learned Needs TheoryAchievementAchievement

(n Ach)(n Ach)McClelland contends

that when a need is

strong in a person, its

effect is to motivate

the person to use

behavior that leads to

its satisfaction.

McClelland contends

that when a need is

strong in a person, its

effect is to motivate

the person to use

behavior that leads to

its satisfaction.

AffiliationAffiliation

(n Aff)(n Aff)

PowerPower

(n Pow)(n Pow)

McClelland’s Theory: Key Points1. Needs are learned through coping with one’s

environment2. Since needs are learned, behavior which is

rewarded tends to recur at a higher frequency3. As a result of the learning process, individuals

develop unique configurations of needs that affect their behavior and performance

A Comparison of Internal Need Theories of Motivation

Maslow’s Alderfer’s Herzberg’s McClelland’s Hierarchy ERG Two Factor Acquiredof Needs Theory Theory Needs Theory

Self- AchievementActualization Growth Motivator

Esteem Power RelatednessBelonging Affiliation HygieneSecurity ExistencePhysiological

Process Theories Deals with cognitive antecedents that go

into motivation or effort, and more specifically, with the way cognitive antecedents of an individual relate to the another.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Motivation is a process governing choices

among alternate forms of voluntary activity

Most behaviors are considered to be under the voluntary control of the person and consequently are motivated

Expectancy Theory: Key Terms Instrumentality

The perception by an individual that first-level outcomes (performance) are associated with second-level outcomes (rewards)

Valence The preferences for outcomes as seen by the

individual Expectancy

The individual’s belief regarding the likelihood or subjective probability that a particular behavior will be followed by a particular outcome

Easily thought of as a probability statement

Expectancy Theory: Key Terms First-Level Outcomes

First-level outcomes resulting from behavior are those associated with doing the job itself

They include: productivity absenteeism turnover quality of production

Second-Level Outcomes Those events (rewards and punishments) that the first-level outcomes

are likely to produce, such as: merit pay increases group acceptance or rejection promotion termination

EffortEffort PerformancePerformance

First-level outcome

First-level outcome

First-level outcome

Second-level outcome

Second-level outcome

Second-level outcome

Second-level outcome

Second-level outcome

Second-level outcome

Expectancy Theory

E P EXPECTANCY

Perceived probability of Perceived probability of successful performance, successful performance, given effortgiven effort

E O EXPECTANCY

Perceived probability of Perceived probability of receiving an outcome, receiving an outcome, given performancegiven performance

Guidelines for the Use of Expectancy Theory Practical use of the theory by managers:

Determine the primary outcome each employee wants.

Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals.

Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible.

Link desired outcomes and desired performance. Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations. Make sure the rewards are large enough. Make sure the overall system is equitable for

everyone.

The Porter-Lawler Model Since its original conception, the expectancy

theory model has been refined and extended many times.

Although conventional wisdom argues that satisfaction leads to performance, Porter and Lawler argued the reverse: If rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead to satisfaction.

In addition to the features included in the original expectancy model, the Porter-Lawler model includes abilities, traits, and role perceptions.

The Porter-Lawler Model

As per Porter-Lawler Model Performance depends on An employee should have desire to perform The employee should have the abilities and

skills required to successfully perform the task

Clear perception of his role in the organization and an accurate knowledge of the job requirements

Contemporary Theories of Motivation Recent theories commanding most of the

research attention.

Equity Theory by J. Stacy Adams Employees compare their efforts and

rewards with those of others in similar work situations

Based on the assumption that individuals are motivated by a desire to be equitably (fairly) at work

The individual works in exchange for rewards from the organization

Forming Equity Perceptions

People in organizations form perceptions of the equity of their treatment through a four-step process.

Step 1Step 1A person A person

evaluates how evaluates how he or she is he or she is

being treated being treated by the firm.by the firm.

Step 1Step 1A person A person

evaluates how evaluates how he or she is he or she is

being treated being treated by the firm.by the firm.

Step 2Step 2The person The person

forms a forms a perception of perception of

how a how a “comparison“comparison

other” isother” isbeing treated.being treated.

Step 2Step 2The person The person

forms a forms a perception of perception of

how a how a “comparison“comparison

other” isother” isbeing treated.being treated.

Step 3Step 3The personThe person

compares hiscompares hisor her ownor her own

circumstancescircumstanceswith those ofwith those of

the comparisonthe comparisonother.other.

Step 3Step 3The personThe person

compares hiscompares hisor her ownor her own

circumstancescircumstanceswith those ofwith those of

the comparisonthe comparisonother.other.

Step 4Step 4On the strengthOn the strengthof this feeling,of this feeling,

the person maythe person maychoose tochoose to

pursue one or pursue one or more more

alternatives.alternatives.

Step 4Step 4On the strengthOn the strengthof this feeling,of this feeling,

the person maythe person maychoose tochoose to

pursue one or pursue one or more more

alternatives.alternatives.

Compares his/her input/outcome ratio to reference person’s (RP) inputs (I) and outcomes (O)

and perceivesand perceivesOP ORP IP

IRP

equity=

OP ORP IP

IRP

inequity<

OP ORP IP

IRP

inequity >

or

or

IP: Inputs of the personIP: Inputs of the person

OP: Outcomes of the personOP: Outcomes of the person

IRP: Inputs of reference personIRP: Inputs of reference person

ORP: Outcomes of reference personORP: Outcomes of reference person

A person (P) with certain inputs (I) and receiving certain outcomes (O)

The Equity Theory of Motivation

The choices an employee likely to make… Change in inputs Change in outcomes Distort perceptions of self Distort perception of others Choose different referent Leave the field

Equity theory and organizational justice

Attribution Theory It explains individual motivation and relationship between

personal perception and interpersonal behaviour It explains ‘why’ aspect of motivation and behaviour Assumptions:

They try to provide a logical explanation to all that is happening They attribute actions of individuals to internal and external

causes Theories propose that individuals follow a fairly logical

approach in making attributions

Attribution Theory The perceived attributes are important in

determining the individual’s behaviour, and not the actual attributes

‘Locus of control’ attributions - refers to the chief source of factors that creates a result or gives rise to an outcome in the employee’s perception

Outcome can depend on internal or external factors

‘Locus of control’-

Those who believe that there is an internal control for all outcomes feel that they have the power to change or influence the outcomes by means of their ability, skills and efforts.

Those who believe that there is an external control for all outcomes feel that they are in no position to control them.

Agency Theory Theory is developed on the basis of some

concepts in financial economics. An agency relationship is said to exist

when one or more individuals, i.e. the principal engages another person, i.e. agent, to perform some activity on his or their behalf.

Agency Theory It helps in understanding how principals

can reduce conflicts between their interests and those of agents by establishing rewards or incentives for agents when they achieve the desired results.

Discuss following case studies Star Salesperson What Do They Want? Tom, Dick, and Harry