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MUSIC TEMPO & EXPERIMENTAL PARADIGM

Jeremy Morris

Advisor: Brian H. Jackson, Ph.D.

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Introduction

With more interest placed on sport and exercise, athletes are searching for anything that will give them a competitive advantage. (Schie, Stewart, Becker & Rogers, 2008)

Items that offer advantages: Type of shoes Pre-workout supplements Music

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General Background

Four factors contributing to motivational qualities of music (Karageorghis & Priest, 2012) Rhythm response Musicality Cultural Impact Association

The study of music has resulted in three main hypotheses (Karageorghis & Terry, 2014) Narrowing person’s attention Can alter psychomotor arousal Person has predisposition to respond to musical rhythm

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Music & HR

Using a cycle ergometer, distance, pedal cadence, and HR depended more on the tempo

(Waterhouse, Hudson & Edwards, 2009)

HR was significantly higher with soft/slow music(Karageorhis & Terry, 2014)

No significant difference in HR (Schie, Stewart, Becker & Rogers, 2008)

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Music & RPE (Rate of Perceived Exertion)

At low intensity exercise with music, RPE was significantly lower (on cycle ergometer) (Yamashita et al., 2006)

Soft/slow music causes RPE to be significantly lower (Karageorghis & Terry, 2014)

It’s suggested that music is more effective in lowering RPE during submaximal exercise than anaerobic threshold. (Karageorhis & Terry, 2014)

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Music Tempo & Time Estimation

Cognitive-time model theory (Mailov, 2011)

Explains how music tempo can affect time estimation and memory

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Experimental Paradigm & Time Estimation

Time estimation is experimentally studied using prospective and retrospective paradigms

Prospective Paradigm Informed they will be asked to make judgements

regarding time after task (Ziv & Elad, 2010)

Retrospective Paradigm Not informed they will be making

judgements (Ziv & Elad, 2010)

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The purpose of this study is to further examine the effect of music tempo on performance and perception. Specifically, to examine the effect of

music tempo and/or experimental paradigm (prospective or retrospective) has on HR, perception of exertion, and perception of time (time estimation)

No article has combined music tempo and experimental paradigm conditions

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Hypotheses

HR and RPE will increase at high music tempo and time estimation will decrease

Prospective paradigm (as opposed to a retrospective paradigm) will cause longer time estimations because participant will be focusing on the time of the task

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Methods

24 participants 12 F, 12 M: 18-51 years old

Task Pedal on recumbent bike for three 15 min.

trials Listen to slow tempo (110 bpm), fast tempo (150

bpm), or no music during the trials

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Methods

Music Conditions Each condition (slow tempo, fast tempo, no music) applied to one of

three trials Music conditions fully counterbalanced

Experimental Paradigms Group A: Prospective, Retrospective, Prospective Group B: Retrospective, Prospective, Retrospective

Each group had tempo conditions applied to the paradigms.

Paradigm order was consistent, tempo order changed

3 songs that were non-vocal and obscure (Songs looped throughout the trials)

Borg RPE Scale

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Procedure

1. Resting Heart Rate

2. Paradigm Consequences: Prospective

Participants were told they would be asked to estimate how long the trial lasted

Retrospective 1st trial – Participants given no prior

information 2nd or 3rd trial– Participants told they

would be asked about their motivation level

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Procedure

3. Headphones given, trial begins

4. Recorded Distance person pedaled, RPM & HR at specific time, and RPE (every 3 minutes)

5. Follow-up questions

6. Breaks to return to Resting/Baseline HR

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Data Analysis 3 x 2 x 5 Repeated Measures ANOVAs

Distance RPM HR RPE

Univariate Analysis of variance Time Estimation

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Results

No significant differences in: HR Distance RPE Time Estimation

Significant interaction of music condition (fast, slow, no music) and time for RPM (F=6.302, p=.003)

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How could this be?

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Discussion

Possible Reasons: RPM was measured at specific times Distance accumulates over each 3 min. span Attention to music and task when present Condition effects of RPM

Fast tempo: pedal faster Slow tempo: pedal slower No music: pedal faster to relieve boredom

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Conclusion

Results did not support the hypotheses: HR and RPE would increase during high tempo music Time estimation would decrease at a high tempo Prospective paradigm (as opposed to a retrospective paradigm) will

cause longer time estimations

Our research has found that fast music tempo, while engaged, influences RPM while pedaling on a recumbent bike.

Future research suggestions? Apply to real world setting Lengthen trial times Give more music Have more variety of music (e.g. different genres) Possibly assessing genre

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Selected ReferencesKarageorghis, C.I. & Priest, D. (2012). Music in the exercise domain: a review and synthesis (Part 1). International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 5(1), 44-66.

Karageorhis, C.I. & Terry, P.C. (2014). The psychophysical effects of music in sport and exercise: a review. Journal of Sport Behavior, 20(1), 54-68.

Mailov, L. (2011). The effects of musical tempo on time perception and memory. The University of Buckingham, 1-19.

Schie, N. A., Stewart A., Becker, P. & Rogers, G.G (2008). Effect of music on submaximal cycling. South African Journal of Sports Medicine, 20(1), 28-31.

Waterhouse, J., Hudson, P. & Edwards, B. (2009). Effects of music tempo upon submaximal cycling performance. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20, 662-669.

Yamashita, S., Iwai, K., Akimoto, T., Sugawara, J. & Kono, I. (2006). Effects of music during exercise on RPE, heart rate and the autonomic nervous system. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 46(3), 425-430.

Zakay, D. & Block, R.A. (2004). Prospective and retrospective duration judgements: an executive-control perspective. Acta Neurobiol Exp, 64, 319-328.

Ziv, N. & Elad O. (2010). Music and time: the effect of experimental paradigm, musical structure and subjective evaluations on time estimation. Psychology of Music, 39(2), 182-195.

QUESTIONS?