Morphological, chemical and mineralogical characterization...

An International Journal ofMINERALOGY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY GEOCHEMISTRYORE DEPOSITS PETROLOGY VOLCANOLOGYand applied topics on Environment Archeometry and Cultural Heritage

DOI 1024512012PM0008Periodico di Mineralogia (2012) 81 1 131-143

PERIODICO di MINERALOGIAestablished in 1930

Introduction

Historical background The necropolis of ancient Thebes is located on

the western bank of the Nile River of the city ofLuxor (about 650 km south of Cairo Egypt) Thewell-known Nobles tombs of Thebes are scatteredalong the eastern slopes of the Theban Mountain

between the Queenrsquos Valley and the KingrsquosValley There are around five hundred privatetombs - there are at least 415 cataloged tombsdesignated TT for Theban Tomb - belonging toofficials of the New Kingdom (c15701070 BC)(Kamil 1976) The private tomb of Kheruef(Kheruf) TT 192 in the Assasif necropolis is thelargest such private tomb on the West Bank of

Morphological chemical and mineralogical characterization of deteriorationproducts from the tomb of Kheruef (TT192) (Luxor Egypt)

Hussein H Marey Mahmoud

Department of Conservation Faculty of Archaeology Cairo University 12613 Giza Egyptmarai79hotmailcom

Abstract

The present paper aims at characterizing some deterioration products formed on thedecorated walls of the tomb of Kheruef (TT192) El-Assasif district El-Qurna necropolis(Luxor) Upper Egypt Mainly the deterioration phenomenon occurring in the area is closelyrelated to the crystallization of salts The local supply of salt ions usually comes from theabundance of soluble salts in the bed-rock and ground layers The morphology and themicroanalysis of the contained mineral phases in the damaged layers were carried out usingscanning electron microscopy (SEM) equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray detector(EDS) The mineralogical composition of the samples was determined using X-ray powderdiffraction analysis (XRPD) while the petrographic examination on the prepared thin-sectionswas carried out using polarized light microscopy (PLM) The results show that the limestoneconsists of fine-grained calcite crystals embedded in a micritic matrix rich in quartz and fossils(eg foraminifera) Also the results allowed the determination of the main deteriorationmechanisms affecting in the tomb Based on the results of these analyses different saltminerals were identified as halite (NaCl) gypsum (CaSO4middot2H2O) and bassanite(CaSO4middot05H2O) The obtained results will be used in the conservation-restorationinterventions of the tomb

Key words Tomb of Kheruef Luxor Salts SEM-EDS XRPD Petrographic examination

mahmoud_periodico 180412 1236 Pagina 131

132 Hussein H Marey MahmoudPeriodico di Mineralogia (2012) 81 1 131-143

Luxor (The Epigraphic Survey 1980) The tombwas first explored by the German EgyptologistAdolph Erman in 1885 In the 1940s AlanGardiner also worked the tomb and then after itwas robbed in the 1940s the EgyptianDepartment of Antiquities in association with theEpigraphic Survey of the University of Chicagocleared recorded and finally published theirresults in 1980 Kheruef also called Senaa wasldquoSteward of the Great Royal Wife Tiyerdquo ldquoRoyalScriberdquo and ldquoFirst Royal Heraldrdquo during the reignof Amenhotep III (1388-1348 BC) andAmenhotep IV (Akhenaten 1360-1343 BC)

The tomb complex is very large as befits a manin his exalted position but was unfinished at thetime of his death (he was never buried in thetomb) and most of the inner rooms of thestructure are closed off Kheruefrsquos tomb isentered down a staircase and passage whichleads to a large open court leading to severalother later tombs (httpegyptsiteswordpresscom20090207tomb-of-kheruef-tt192)

Figure 1 shows a map of the West bank area atLuxor and the arrow refers to the location of thetomb investigated in this work

Figure 1 A map of the West bank area at Luxor and the arrow refers to the location of the tomb investigated inthis work (after httpwwwtouregyptnetmap18htm)


Geological backgroundFigure 2 shows a geological map of the studied

area The tomb of Kheruef is built of stone typesbelonging to the limestone formations of ThebesMountains These Mountains are composed of350 m thick Eocene marls and limestonesoverlying the 60 m thick Esna shale Formation(Said 1962) The lower levels of the ThebanFormation are composed of slightly clayey sub-chalky limestone which serves to enclose a fewbedrock layers of flint nodules and becomesmore massive at greater depths (Guillaume andPiau 2003)

Deterioration factors All the materials used in the construction of

wall paintings undergo degradation whenexposed to aggressive environments The rateand symptoms of such process are influenced bya number of factors including the properties ofthe material itself the natural factors and humanactions The climatic conditions of the area playan important role to enhance several deteriorationmechanisms affecting the monuments found inthe West bank of Luxor The monthly average ofair temperature at the studied area rangesbetween 12 and 32 ordmC the maximum relative

133Morphological chemical and mineralogical Periodico di Mineralogia (2012) 81 1 131-143

Figure 2 A geological map of the studied area (after Geological Survey of Egypt)


humidity (RH ) reaches 50 in December and29 in August The most significantenvironmental process occurring in the site is thecrystallization of salts Crystallization of salts inbuilding materials produces a destructive effectas under favorable conditions some salts maycrystallize or re-crystallize to different hydrateswhich occupy a larger space and exert additionalpressure producing cracking powdering andflaking (Rodriguez-Navaro and Doehne 1999Pel et al 2002) According to Kotulanovaacute et al(2009) there are several potential sources ofinorganic salts in wall paintings Perhaps mostobviously are the materials used for the artworkitself stones bricks plaster and mortar can allcontain inorganic salts Salts can be transportedin porous building materials only if they aredissolved in water and they may crystallize onsurface of the stone with various forms andhabits or below the surface producing differentpressures on the inner matrix (Arnold andZehnder 1987) According to Marey Mahmoud(2010) the biggest hazard to the area is the floodwater that penetrates into the structuresFurthermore the deterioration becomes moreeffective in the presence of swelling clayminerals and soluble salts in the geologicalstructure In the Valley of the Kings the stormscaused the flooding of several tombs the tombof Bay was the most heavily hit inspectorsmeasured 140 m of water in its lower chambersThe tomb of Setnakht (KV 14) the tomb of SetiII (KV 15) the tomb of Amenhotep II (KV 35)and the tomb of Horemheb (KV 57) among theothers received smaller amounts of rain anddebris (El-Bayomi 2007) Adsorption of gasesand vapors in the internal surface of pores andcapillaries plays a fundamental role in the decayprocess Adsorption causes the molecules ofwater vapor and airborne pollutants to penetratethe internal micro cavities There condensationoccurs before the environmental relativehumidity reaches the 100 so that manyphysio-chemical processes may occur such as

the chemical weathering of carbonate stones andlime mortars which leads to the formation ofgypsum crystals inside the carbonatic rocks (DelMonte and Sabbioni 1984 Camuffo andValcher 1986 Ausset et al 1999) The mainobjective of this study was to characterize somesalt encrustations formed on the walls of thetomb of Kheruef (TT192) El-Assasif district El-Qurna necropolis (Luxor) Upper Egypt In thiswork SEMndashEDS XRPD and the petrographicexamination were utilized to study the samples

Figure 3 shows the decorations anddeterioration aspects on the walls of tomb ofKheruef (TT192) (a) the salt layers cover thepainted bass releifs of the tomb (b) hard crustsare observed on the surface (c d) macro-cracksspread on the surfaces

Materials and methods

SamplingThe observation of the damaged walls led to

diagnose the main weathering forms such asblistering disintegration of stone and formingof different crusts on the walls Specific materialdata about the geological structure themetrological data of the region and the historyof conservation projects of the studied tomb werecollected in order to clarify the deteriorationphenomena affecting the tomb Micro-samplesof the different crusts were carefully collectedusing two methods firstly fragments wereremoved with a scalpel especially from thefriable crusts secondly few powders have beenscraped off from the hard crusts

Analytical techniquesScanning electron microscopy with an EDSmicroanalysis detector (SEM-EDS)

The microstructure and the morphologicalfeatures were determined by a JEOL JSM-840Ascanning electron microscope in thebackscattered electrons mode (BSE) Themicroanalysis was carried out using an energy




Figure 3 The decorations and deterioration aspects on the walls of tomb of Kheruef (TT192) (a) the salt layerscover the painted bass releifs of the tomb (b) hard crusts are observed on the surface (c d) macro-cracksspread on the surfaces


dispersive X-ray (EDS) Oxford ISIS 300 microanalytical system with a detection limit of lessthan 1 depending on the element Theaccelerating voltage was of 20 kV the probecurrent of 05-45 nA the working distance of 20mm and the counting time of 60 s real time Thematrix correction protocol was ZAF correctionbeing provided on-line The samples were coatedwith carbon using a Jeol JEE-4X vacuumevaporator Analyses in the backscatteredelectrons mode (BSE) on polished cross-sectionswere used for elementary semi-quantitativechemical study of the layers

X-ray powder diffraction analysis (XRPD)In order to determine the mineralogical

composition of the damaged layers the collectedsamples were ground into powder in an agatemortar and were studied by XRPD using aPhilips PW1710 diffractometer with Ni-filteredCuKα radiation on randomly oriented samplesStep size 001deg 2θ 3ndash63deg 2θ angular range and002deg 2θsec scan speed The XPowder analyticalsoftware was used for the semi-quantitativedetermination of the mineral phases byautomated processing of the diffraction data

Polarized Light Microscopy (PLM)The prepared thin-sections were observed

using a Leitz Orthoplan polarizing microscopein order to characterize their structure texturegrain size and mineralogical association

Results

The EDS microanalysis and the mineralogicalcomposition determined by XRD method of thestudied samples are reported in Tables 1 and 2respectively

Petrographic examinationThe photomicrographs obtained on polished

thin-sections of limestone samples collectedfrom the bed-rock of Theban Mountain are given

in Figure 4 The microscopic observations showthe fine-grained calcite embedded in a micriticmatrix rich in amorphous silica and fossils (egGlobigerina sp) (Figure 4a) Foraminifera largegrains of quartz can be observed (Figure 4b)Typical planktonic foraminifera embedded in abiomicritic matrix are clearly seen in Figure 4cSome veins in the matrix were re-filled withsparry calcite grains (Figure 4d)

Morphology and microanalysis Although both operating modes (secondary

electron ldquoSErdquo and backscattered electronsldquoBSErdquo) are complementary when working withpatinas and crusts the latter mode usuallyprovides more information than the formerTherefore the different grey range aconsequence of the atomic numbers of thechemical elements constituting the minerals letus distinguish the different layers with differentelemental composition (Vazquez-Calvo et al2007) Analyses in the backscattered electronsmode (BSE) on polished cross-sections are usedfor elementary semi-quantitative chemical studyof the layers of the patina SEM analysis in thesecondary electron mode (SE) on unpolishedsections or pieces is used for microscopicobservations of the microstructure and thetexture of the damaged layers Figure 5 displayssome of the SEM and BSE micrographs obtainedon the damaged layers The SEM investigationof the external surface of the hard crusts (Figure5a) shows gypsum crystals embedded in clayeyclusters and crystallization of salts mainly ofhalite (sodium chloride) The BSE imageobtained on a cross-section of the sample (Figure5c) shows an irregular and heterogeneous layerwhich is partially detached from the stonesubstrate below This layer is composed mainlyof crystals of gypsum scattered within the layersSEM investigation of a salt layer (Figure 5b)shows the crystallization of different salts withwaxy and hollow-faced halite covering the stonesurface The BSE image obtained on a cross-




section of the sample (Figure 5d) shows thefairly thick layer of salt lying on the stonesubstrate The microanalysis spectrum of the saltlayer (Figure 6a) obtained by EDS shows quitehigh concentrations of chlorine and sodium andlow concentrations of sulfur calcium siliconaluminum and titanium The microanalysisspectrum of the hard crust (Figure 6b) shows thatsilicon aluminum sulfur and calcium are theprevailing ions with minor chlorine potassiumiron and sodium content Traces of magnesiumand titanium were also detected

Mineralogical characterization Representative XRPD patterns of the studied

salt samples are given in Figure 7 XRPD analysisof the salt layers shows that they consist mainlyof bassanite (CaSO405H2O) Minor amounts ofquartz (SiO2) halite (NaCl) and gypsum

(CaSO42H2O) were also observed (Figure 7a)XRPD analysis of the hard crust samples (Figure7b) shows that they consist mainly of quartz(SiO2) and gypsum Traces of bassanite were alsofound XRPD analysis of damaged stone samplesshows that they consist mainly of calcite(CaCO3) with minor amount are halite anhydrite(CaSO4) and quartz Traces of clay mineralswere also found XRD data of a soiling layercovering the walls shows that the sample isconsists mainly of quartz with minor halitecalcite plagioclase (albite NaAlSi3O8) Traces ofpotassium feldspar (microcline KAlSi3O8)graphite and clay minerals were also observed

Discussion

The morphological microanalytical andmineralogical analyses of the deterioration layers

Table 1 Qualitative SEM-EDS analysis (compound ) of the weathered layers

SampleOxide Na2O MgO A12O3 SiO2 SO3 K2O CaO TiO2 Fe2O3 C1

Hard crusts 1-12 1-25 2-75 63-89 174-37 12-138 155-32 0-15 19-79 17-116

Salt layers 11-37 0-15 12-64 72-28 79-19 14-61 62-284 0-23 0-47 86-347

Damaged stone 16-8 0-65 0-43 32-142 10-435 247-52 0-15 0-210 - 33-66

Table 2 The mineralogical composition of the studied samples by XRPD

SampleComponent Gy Ba Q An Cc Ha Kf Pl Cl GHard crusts +++ + +++ minus minus minus minus minus minus minus

Thick salt layers ++ +++ ++ minus minus minus minus minus minus minus

Thin salt layer ++ +++ ++ minus minus minus minus minus minus minus

Damaged stone minus minus ++ ++ +++ ++ minus minus + minus

Soiling layer minus minus +++ minus ++ ++ + ++ + +

Gy=gypsum Ba= bassanite Q=quartz An=anhydrite Cc= calcite Ha=halite Kf= feldspar Pl= plagioclase Cl=clay mine-rals G=graphite ndash = absent + = traces ++ = minor constituent +++ = major constituent


show that the crystallization of different types ofsalts is the main reason of the damage process inthe tomb XRD revealed the occurrence of twocalcium sulphates (the hemi hydrate phasebassanite and gypsum) and the soluble saltsodium chloride (halite) Gypsum probablycomes from the bedrock or the stone itself butthe chemical transformation of the whitepigments of calcium carbonates and the lime-based plasters used for the construction of thewall paintings into sulphates provides another

source of gypsum which will re-crystallize inform of different salt phases (bassanite andanhydrite) depending on the environmentalconditions Transformation of gypsum intobassanite or anhydrite occurs at relatively highambient temperatures andor high brine salinities(eg 45 ordmC at aH2O 088) (Mees and De Dapper2005) The dehydration of gypsum tohemihydrate requires lower relative humiditythan the dehydration of gypsum to anhydriteAlthough gypsum also starts dehydration to


Figure 4 Photomicrographs (CN 65X) of thin-sections prepared on the limestone samples (a) the fine-grainedcalcite embedded in a micritic matrix rich in amorphous silica and fossils (b) Foraminifera large grains ofquartz (c) Typical planktonic foraminifera embedded in a biomicritic matrix (d) Some veins in the matrixwere re-filled with sparry calcite grains


Morphological chemical and mineralogical 139

form the hemihydrate (bassanite) at 42 ordmC(Carbone et al 2008 Ballirano and Melis2009) and only in few instances has this saltbeen found in nature such as in semiarid gypsumdeposits in south Tunisia due to the extremeconditions in this area where temperatures canrange up to 70 or 80 degC with very low humiditycan explain this formation (Charola et al 2007)As a result of the arid climate in the studied areaand the very low humidity in summer monthssimilar reactions are expected In addition thepresence of solutions of other salts such as halite(NaCl) which also was found in all the studied

samples can lead to the dehydration of gypsumas a result of the lower water vapor pressure ofthese solutions Because of its low mobilitygypsum tends to accumulate in large pores andin an enhanced moisture retention thusfacilitating gypsum re-crystallization anddevelopment of larger crystals (Steiger 2003)Halite sodium chloride was identified in all thestudied samples According to Wuumlst andSchuumllchter (2000) the source of the salts in theThebes area is mainly the bedrock Sodiumchloride is a highly mobile and easy soluble salt(Leisen et al 2008) Salts have long been known

Periodico di Mineralogia (2012) 81 1 131-143

Figure 5 Some SEM and BSE micrographs obtained on the damaged layers (a) SEM micrograph of the externalsurface of the hard crusts (b) SEM micrograph of a salt layer shows the crystallization of different salts waxyand hollow-faced halite covers the stone surface (c) BSE image obtained on a cross-section of the hard crusts(d) BSE image obtained on a cross-section of the salt layer


Hussein H Marey Mahmoud140

to damage porous materials mainly through theproduction of physical stress resulting from thecrystallization of salts in pores Salts can alsodamage stone through a range of othermechanisms such as differential thermalexpansion osmotic swelling of clays andenhanced wetdry cycling due to deliquescentsalts Surface soiling phenomena are caused bysoot particles embedded in the black crusts ontothe surfaces of buildings Graphite was alsodetected in the black layer which plays a drivingrole in surface soiling and black crusts formation(Grossi et al 2003 Sabbioni 2003)

Conclusions

The application of SEM-EDS XRPD and thepetrographic examination allowed thecharacterization of the main deterioration layersformed on the wall of the tomb of Kheruef(TT192) El-Assasif district El-Qurna necropolis

(Luxor) Upper Egypt The results showed thatthe deterioration processes of the tomb aremainly caused by salt crystallization The decaycan be observed through the accumulation ofchloride and sulphate salts particularly gypsumThe results have shown that the crystallizationof soluble salts of sodium chloride (halite NaCl)as the predominant salt affecting the site and theprecipitation of two phases of sulphates(bassanite CaSO4middot05H2O and gypsumCaSO4middot2H2O) The climatic conditions of thearea enhance the crystallization of different saltsinside pores of stone or in form of hard crustsBased on the field study to the tomb it waspossible to observe the distribution of saltswithin the walls High concentrations of sodiumchlorides appear mainly in the higher and lowerareas of the walls while gypsum is mainlyconcentrated in the higher parts it was suggestedthat the mobility of gypsum to these zones mayhave been enhanced by the presence of NaClAccording to Smith (1994) salts can cause


Figure 6 EDS spectra recorded on the damaged layers (a) EDS spectrum obtained on the salt layer (b) EDSspectrum obtained on the hard crust



damage to stones and wall paintings throughdecay pathway includes differential thermalexpansion crystallization pressure hydrationpressure through salt crystal growth andenhanced wetdry cycling caused by deliquescentsalts The expanding salt crystals exert a pressure

on the walls causing blistering stonedisintegration micromacro cracks and the backweathering of the substrate

In conclusion the results obtained in this studycould to be useful for establishing a conservationplan of the tomb Wall paintings are an integral


Figure 7 Representative XRPD patterns of the studied salt samples (a) XRPD pattern of the salt layers (b)XRPD pattern of the hard crust sample The identified minerals were labelled as follows Ba = Bassanite Gy =Gypsum Ha = HaliteQ = Quartz



part of the building or structure Therefore theirconservation should be considered together withthe fabric of the architectural entity andsurroundings For consolidation of thedeteriorated releifs alkoxysilane-basedformulations such as methyltrimethoxysilane(MTMOS) and tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) couldbe used for stone materials consolidation Alsoacrylic silane mixtures such as RaccanelloE55050 improve the stone durability to saltweathering (Brus and Kotlik 1996) Afterconsolidation cleaning and removal of the saltcrusts took place using mechanical and chemicalmeans In order to desalinate the soluble salts inthe porous matrix wet poultices (saturated withdistilled water) of Japanese tissue and cellulosepulps are used (Marey Mahmoud 2010) For thehard crusts the poultice known as AB57 couldbe useful this poultice consists of ammoniumbicarbonate (30 g) sodium bicarbonate (50 gr)distilled water (100 ml) (carboxy methylcellulose) (60 gr) and EDTA(ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid 10) (25 gm)(Mora et al 1984) Uncontrolled public uses ofmonuments and sites with wall paintings canlead to their damage this may necessitate thelimitation of visitors and in certain casesinvolve temporary closure to public access Inmany cases the hourly capacity of monumentsor types of resources can be increased by addingand restoring new areas or sites In other casesthe capacity of areas can be increased by addingadditional resources such as additional tombs inWest Bank areas (Luxor Upper Egypt) thiscould be accomplished by opening new tombs inexisting areas or by opening areas which do notnow receive visitors (Abraham et al 2000)

Acknowledgments

The author is grateful to Mr S Oikonomidis Schoolof Geology Aristotle University of ThessalonikiGreece for SEM analysis The paper benefited by theofficial reviews by Paolo Ballirano and oneanonymous reviewer

References

Abraham G Bakr A and Lane J (2000) - Thecomprehensive development of the city of Luxorproject Egypt-Final structure Plan Vol 2Supplementary Documents Cambridge Preparedfor Ministry of Housing Utilities and UrbanCommunities Research and Studies Organization1-169

Arnold A and Zehnder K (1987) - Monitoring WallPaintings Affected by Soluble Salts In theConservation of Wall Paintings In Cather Sh(Ed) Proceedings of a Symposium organized bythe Courtauld Institute of Art and the GettyConservation Institute London 103-135

Ausset P Del Monte M and Lefegravevre RA (1999) -Embryonic sulphated black crusts on carbonaterocks in atmospheric simulation chamber and in thefield role of carbonaceous fly-ash AtmosphericEnvironment 33 (10) 1525-1543

Ballirano P and Melis E (2009) - Thermal behaviourand kinetics of dehydration of gypsum in air fromin situ real-time laboratory parallel-beam X-raypowder diffraction Physics and Chemistry ofMinerals 36 (7) 391-402

Brus J and Kotlik P (1996) - Conservation of stoneby mixtures of Alkoxysilane and acrylic polymerStudies in Conservation 41 109-117

Carbone M Ballirano P and Caminiti R (2008) -Kinetics of gypsum dehydration at reducedpressure an energy dispersive X-ray diffractionstudy European Journal of Mineralogy 20 621-627

Camuffo D and Valcher S (1986) - A dew PointSignaler for Conservation of works of ArtEnvironmental Monitoring and Assessment 6 165-170

Charola AE Puumlhringer J and Steiger M (2007) -Gypsum a review of its role in the deterioration ofbuilding materials Environmental Geology 52339-352

Del Monte M and Sabbioni C (1984) - GypsumCrusts and Fly Ash Particles on CarbonaticOutcrops Arch Met Geoph Bioct Ser B35 105-111

El-Bayomi GM (2007) - The GeomorphologicalHazards in the Archaeological Area West of QenaBend Journal of Applied Sciences Research 3 (3)175-184




Grossi MC Esbert RM Diaz-Pache F and AlonsoFJ (2003) - Soiling of building stones in urbanenvironments Building and Environment 38 147-159

Guillaume A and Piau J-M (2003) - Stability of thetomb of Rameses II (Valley of the Kings LuxorEgypt) Numerical models and reality Bulletin desLaboratoires des Ponts et Chausseacutees 242 15-47

Kamil J (1976) - LUXOR A Guide to AncientThebes 2nd edition London

Kotulanovaacute E Bezdička P Hradil D Hradilovaacute JŠvarcovaacute S and Grygar T (2009) - Degradation oflead-based pigments by salt solutions Journal ofCultural Heritage 10 367-378

Leisen H Plehwe-Leisen EV Verbeek C JuumlrgensC and Krause K (2008) - Aspects of conservationin the excavation site of the Athribis temple inEgypt Environmental Geology 56 689-697

Marey Mahmoud H (2010) - Archaeometric andpetro-mineralogical remarks on damaged Egyptianwall paintings El-Qurna necropolis Upper EgyptArcheometriai Műhely 2 149-156

Mees F and De Dapper M (2005) - Vertical variationsin bassanite distribution patterns in near-surfacesediments southern Egypt Sedimentary Geology181 225-229

Mora P Mora L and Philippot P (1984) -Conservation of wall paintings Rome ICCROMLondon Butterworth

Pel L Huinink H and Kopinga K (2002) - Iontransport and crystallization in inorganic buildingmaterials as studied by nuclear magnetic resonanceApplied Physics Letters 8 (5) 2893-2895

Rodriguez_Navarro C and Doehne E (1999) - SaltWeathering Influence of Evaporation rate supersaturation and crystallization Pattern Earth SurfaceProcesses and Landforms 24 191-209

Said R (1962) - The geology of Egypt Elsevier pressSabbioni C (2003) - Mechanisms of air pollution

damage to stone In Brimblecombe P (Ed) TheEffects of Air Pollution on the Built EnvironmentAir Pollution Reviews Imperial College PressLondon 63-106

Smith BJ (1994) - Weathering processes and formsIn Abrahams AD and Parsons AJ (eds)Geomorphology of Desert Environment RoutledgeChapman amp Hall London 39-63

Steiger M (2003) - Crusts and salts InBrimblecombe P (Ed) The effects of air pollutionon the built environment Air pollution reviews Vol2 Imperial College Press London 133-181

The Epigraphic Survey (1980) - OIP 102 The Tombof Kheruef Theban Tomb 192 The OrientalInstitute Of The University of Chicago

Vazquez-Calvo C Alvarez de Buergo M Fort R andVaras MJ (2007) - Characterization of patinas bymeans of microscopic techniques MaterialsCharacterisation 58 1119-1132

Wuumlst RAJ and Schuumllchter C (2000) - The Origin ofSoluble Salts in Rocks of the Thebes MountainsEgypt The Damage Potential to Ancient EgyptianWall Art Journal of Archaeological Science 27(12) 1161-1172

Submitted November 2011 - Accepted March 2012





Luxor (The Epigraphic Survey 1980) The tombwas first explored by the German EgyptologistAdolph Erman in 1885 In the 1940s AlanGardiner also worked the tomb and then after itwas robbed in the 1940s the EgyptianDepartment of Antiquities in association with theEpigraphic Survey of the University of Chicagocleared recorded and finally published theirresults in 1980 Kheruef also called Senaa wasldquoSteward of the Great Royal Wife Tiyerdquo ldquoRoyalScriberdquo and ldquoFirst Royal Heraldrdquo during the reignof Amenhotep III (1388-1348 BC) andAmenhotep IV (Akhenaten 1360-1343 BC)

The tomb complex is very large as befits a manin his exalted position but was unfinished at thetime of his death (he was never buried in thetomb) and most of the inner rooms of thestructure are closed off Kheruefrsquos tomb isentered down a staircase and passage whichleads to a large open court leading to severalother later tombs (httpegyptsiteswordpresscom20090207tomb-of-kheruef-tt192)

Figure 1 shows a map of the West bank area atLuxor and the arrow refers to the location of thetomb investigated in this work

Figure 1 A map of the West bank area at Luxor and the arrow refers to the location of the tomb investigated inthis work (after httpwwwtouregyptnetmap18htm)



























Results














Discussion




Hard crusts 1-12 1-25 2-75 63-89 174-37 12-138 155-32 0-15 19-79 17-116

Salt layers 11-37 0-15 12-64 72-28 79-19 14-61 62-284 0-23 0-47 86-347

Damaged stone 16-8 0-65 0-43 32-142 10-435 247-52 0-15 0-210 - 33-66






















Conclusions















Acknowledgments


References




























































Results














Discussion




Hard crusts 1-12 1-25 2-75 63-89 174-37 12-138 155-32 0-15 19-79 17-116

Salt layers 11-37 0-15 12-64 72-28 79-19 14-61 62-284 0-23 0-47 86-347

Damaged stone 16-8 0-65 0-43 32-142 10-435 247-52 0-15 0-210 - 33-66






















Conclusions















Acknowledgments


References








































Discussion




Hard crusts 1-12 1-25 2-75 63-89 174-37 12-138 155-32 0-15 19-79 17-116

Salt layers 11-37 0-15 12-64 72-28 79-19 14-61 62-284 0-23 0-47 86-347

Damaged stone 16-8 0-65 0-43 32-142 10-435 247-52 0-15 0-210 - 33-66






















Conclusions















Acknowledgments


References
















































Conclusions















Acknowledgments


References












































Acknowledgments


References



































Morphological, chemical and mineralogical characterization...

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