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Further information
More details on BUILD UP Skills QualiBuild can be found at www.qualibuild.ie
The sole responsibility for the content of this publication lies with the authors. It does
not necessarily reflect the opinion of the European Union. Neither EASME nor the
European Commission is responsible for any use that may be made of the information
contained therein.
Note: Any mention of commercial names and products are for illustrations alone and
do not mean that this manual endorses any of the products or services.
Table of Contents
List of Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... 1
Module Description .......................................................................................................... 2
Unit 1: Learning Theory ..................................................................................................... 8
Unit 1 Section 1 Models of Learning .................................................................................. 9
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 10
1.2 Learning Theories .................................................................................................. 11
1.3 Context in Vocational Education and Training ........................................................ 20
Unit 1 Section 2 Learning Styles ...................................................................................... 25
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 26
2.2 Visual, Auditory, Reading and Kinaesthetic (VARK) ................................................ 27
2.3 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle .......................................................................... 28
2.4 Multiple Intelligence ............................................................................................. 30
2.5 Blooms Taxonomy ................................................................................................. 31
2.6 Conditions of Learning Model ................................................................................ 33
2.7 The Curriculum Design Model ................................................................................ 36
2.8 Characteristics of Adults as Learners (CAL) model .................................................. 37
2.9 Outline of Limitations on the Use of Models .......................................................... 38
Unit 2: Vocational Education Contexts and Settings ........................................................ 44
Unit 2 Section 1 Vocational Learners ............................................................................... 45
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 46
1.2 Context in Vocational Education ............................................................................ 47
1.3 Learner Motivation................................................................................................ 50
1.4 Educational Settings .............................................................................................. 56
1.5 Training for Attitude Change ................................................................................. 58
Unit 2 Section 2 Learning in Groups ................................................................................ 71
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 72
2.2 Group Development .............................................................................................. 73
2.3 Group Performance ............................................................................................... 77
2.4 Group dynamics .................................................................................................... 83
Unit 3: Teaching and Assessment Methods ..................................................................... 92
Unit 3 Section 1 Content Delivery Methods ..................................................................... 93
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 94
1.2 Physical Learning Environment .............................................................................. 95
1.3 Outline of course delivery methods ....................................................................... 97
1.4 Training Aids and Materials ................................................................................. 107
Unit 3 Section 2 Assessment Methods .......................................................................... 117
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 118
2.2 Why Assess? ........................................................................................................ 119
2.3 When to Assess? ................................................................................................. 119
2.4 Principles of Assessment ..................................................................................... 120
2.5 Assessment strategies and marking criteria ......................................................... 122
2.6 Types of Assessment ........................................................................................... 125
References .................................................................................................................... 133
List of Abbreviations
ARCS – Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction
BUSI – Build Up Skills Ireland
COP - Communities of Practice
DCENR - Department of Communications, Energy and Natural Resources
DECLG - Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government
DoES – Department of Education and Skills
EC – European Commission
ECTS - European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System
EGFSN - Expert Group on Future Skills Needs
EHEA - The European Higher Education Area
ETCI – Electro-Technical Council of Ireland
EU – European Union
FES – Foundation Energy Skills
FETAC - Further Education and Training Awards Council
HETAC - Higher Education and Training Awards Council
IoTs – Institutes of Technology
NFQ - National Framework of Qualifications
NSAI - National Standards Authority of Ireland
OFSTED – Office for Standards in Education, Children Services and Skills
QQI - Quality and Qualifications Ireland
SBS – Standards Based System (Apprenticeship)
SEAI – Sustainable Energy Authority Ireland
SLMRU - Skills and Labour Market Research Unit
SME - Small and Medium Enterprise
SSC – Sector Skills Councils
VEC - Vocational Education Committee
VARK – Visual, Auditory, Reading and Kinaesthetic
VET - Vocational education and training
VLE - Virtual Learning Environment
ZPD – Zone of Proximal Development
Module Description
Since 2002, a number of EU policy directives have focussed on reducing energy
consumption in buildings and have led to a series of revisions to Irish Building
Regulations (BUSI, 2012). Irish building standards for dwellings have now evolved to
the extent that all new builds are effectively low energy buildings (equivalent to an A3
Building Energy Rating) and similar standards apply to large scale renovation and
extension projects.
In 2012, the EU funded Build UP Skills Ireland Project (BUSI) undertook a skills gap
analysis of the construction sector in relation to the implementation of low energy
buildings. A key conclusion of this gap analysis was that all building construction
workers require some level of training on the underpinning principles of low energy
buildings. The gap that was identified was one of knowledge, rather than core
technical skills, and the need for attitudinal change in the Irish construction industry.
Low energy buildings require close attention to detail and specification along with a
collaborative approach by all involved in the construction process. This is inconsistent
with the traditional ethos of the sector.
The BUSI project produced a national Roadmap outlining training and supporting
actions to address the gaps in the knowledge and skills of building construction
workers. As a first step, the roadmap recommended the development and delivery of
a Foundation Energy Skills (FES) training programme for all workers. QualiBuild, the
follow-on project from BUSI, has developed this training with a view to delivery as a
national pilot scheme. The aim of the programme is to increase the learner’s
knowledge of principles and practices applied to the construction/retrofitting of low
energy/near zero buildings. This improved knowledge will allow such workers apply
their existing skills so that relevant energy efficient standards are achieved.
The FES programme is also intended as an awareness raising exercise, emphasising
the need for collaboration onsite between personnel, i.e. a ‘systems thinking’
approach, which is required for successful implementation of low energy buildings. It
will also challenge existing attitudes and culture of building workers by highlighting
the relationship between quality in workmanship and the achievement of standards.
The training of construction workers in Ireland traditionally follows a typically
behaviourist approach to learning, i.e. behaviours can be measured, trained and
changed. A number of skills are taught onsite through informal instruction and
experiential learning. For formal skills training, a standards based system (SBS) of
apprenticeship is currently in operation, officially introduced in 1994 to replace an
existing time served model.
For the FES programme, the challenge is to address both technical knowledge gaps
and attitudinal change. This will require a shift from traditional models of construction
training towards a more learner centred approach, emphasising learning outcomes
beyond the acquisition of technical skills and competencies and into shared
knowledge and experiences in communities of practice.
This is the fourth and final module of the Certificate in Training in Low Energy
Buildings programme (Figure 0.1). It is intended to build on the learning from the
previous contextual and technical modules by preparing trainers for the specific
delivery methodologies to be used under the FES programme.
Figure 0.1: Programme Structure
The aim of this module is to enhance the learner’s current knowledge and skill as a
trainer, to facilitate effective delivery of course content in Low Energy Buildings by
Blended Learning. It covers techniques in lesson planning and design of activities that
accommodate different learning styles geared to enhancing learner participation.
For you as a trainer, it is fundamental that you are fully aware of this context if you
are to influence the attitudes and behaviours of your learners to adopt a new culture
and approach in their work.
Module Aims
This module aims to provide you with knowledge of:
The main learning theories which underpin the functions and processes of
learning and training.
A range of learning styles and their implications for the training of construction
workers.
Stages of group development, group dynamics and how they impact on the
design and management of group learning activities
A variety of training aids and technologies which may be used to enhance
training events
Delivery methods that may be deployed for the achievement of cognitive and
attitude related learning outcomes
The purpose and principles of assessment and a number of methods that may
be employed to assess your learners.
Module Overview
The module is divided into three units, each consisting of two sections as outlined in
Figure 0.2.
Figure 0.2: Module Structure
Unit 1: Learning Theory
Section 1 (Models of Learning): This section considers the established models of
learning, including behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism.
Section 2 (Learning Styles): Explores learning preferences or styles and their
implications in instructional design.
Unit 2: VET Contexts & Settings
Section 1 (Vocational Learners): This section considers the contexts and settings
specific to vocational learners and explores the approach of the FES programme to
training for attitude change.
Section 2 (Learning in Groups): In this section you will learn about group
development and techniques for designing and implementing group learning
activities.
Unit 3: Teaching & Assessment Methods
Section 1 (Content Delivery Methods): This section considers the selection of
appropriate methods of course delivery for FES training.
Section 2 (Assessment Methods): covers the purpose of assessment and the
principles on which fair and reliable assessments are based
Module Learning Outcomes
On successful completion of this module you will be able to:
1. Describe a range of learning styles and outline the factors that affect learner
motivation.
2. Apply instructional design theory and techniques to develop a lesson plan.
3. Describe the stages of group development.
4. Design, implement and manage group activities.
5. Select the appropriate training methods to achieve different learning
objectives.
6. List and describe the principles of and methods of assessment appropriate for
different types of learning outcomes.
Tips for Using the Module Manual
You are expected to read the module manual before you attend the workshop. This
is necessary to provide you with the best opportunity for learning at both workshops.
Module assignments and activities will be based on the content of the manual. The
following approach is recommended:
Work through the module material sequentially as the order is important.
Complete the activities and progress checks for each unit.
Take note of summaries, key points and additional reading references, they
are designed to help you identify the key information.
If something is unclear to you or you require clarification take note of it, you
will have an opportunity to discuss with your tutor at workshops.
A list of definitions is provided at the beginning of the manual for reference as you work through the units and sections.
Legend for Icons
The following icons are used to highlight sections of the module:
Learning outcomes
At the beginning of each unit and section
Key learning point
Highlighting main points in text
Activity
Where you are asked to complete an exercise to explore a topic further
Progress Check
At the end of each section to allow you to assess your own progress
Summary
At the end of each section summing up the main points
Learning Theory
Unit 1
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Unit 1: Learning Theory
Rapid changes are taking place in the construction industry which are having an
impact on Vocational Education and Training (VET). These changes include for
example, the introduction of construction techniques to reduce energy consumption
of new buildings (low energy) and integration of a variety of renewable technologies.
In a domestic dwelling. A coordinated and interdependent nature required to
professionally incorporate these new advances places a much greater emphasis on
‘generic’, ‘soft’ or ‘behavioural’ skill. The concept of skill that has underpinned much
of VET provision has broadened considerably with a need to incorporate these ‘soft
skills’ within a VET pedagogy.
Pedagogy is the science and art of education; it is the study and practice of how
best to teach, especially as an academic subject or theoretical concept.
(Smith, 2012)
The recognised view of vocational pedagogy, ‘the science, art, and craft of teaching’
is broadening to take account of these changing circumstances. It now includes the
decisions which are taken in the creation of the broader learning culture in which the
teaching takes place, and the values which inform all interactions.
The purpose of this module is to describe established learning theories and models
with a view to explain their impact on the delivery of the Foundation Energy Skills
training
Section 1 considers the established models of learning, including an investigation of
behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism.
Section 2 explores learning preferences or styles and their implications on delivery
of content.
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
1. Describe behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism, and their implication
for the design and delivery of learning.
2. Select and apply the appropriate or optimal content delivery approach based
on specific requirements for learning.
3. List and describe learning styles and their implications on delivery of content.
Unit 1 Section 1
Models of Learning
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Unit 1 Section 1
1.1 Introduction
There have been many attempts to define how people learn, but to date there is no
universal agreement. There are over 50 different theories on learning, take a look at
http://tip.psychology.org/theories.html but be prepared to read! Even with all of these
learning theories, if we were to ask instructors which model or theories they base their
teaching practice on, they might struggle to answer. This is true not only for instructors
in the vocational education and training sector, but for universities as well. For
example, Murray and Macdonald (1997) report that many university lecturers rely on
their tacit knowledge (e.g. common sense) but cannot articulate the educational
theory foundations for their teaching practice.
At the end of this section you will be able to:
1. Distinguish between the different learning theories.
2. Identify the key requirements for delivery for the three main theories.
3. Analyse the appropriate learning theory for a particular learning situation.
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1.2 Learning Theories
What are Learning Theories?
The term “learning” can be defined differently depending on many factors such as the
learner’s perspective, facilitator’s beliefs or the situational context. As understanding
on how learners learn has developed, learning theories have attempted to
conceptualise this new understanding. (Sawyer, 2006)
Learning theory is defined for the purpose of this document as the theory or study of
how people learn. It is divided into three main categories: behaviourism, cognitivism,
and constructivism.
Behaviourism
The principal claim of behaviourism states that people learn through conditioning.
Conditioning is a change of behaviour realised through action and response type
exercises. This can be in formal ways such as within the school environment or
informal such as how we respond to pain or pleasure.
Learning is the development of new behaviour through this conditioning that requires
no inner mental processing. The three major proponents of behaviourism were Pavlov
(1920), Watson (1924), and Skinner (1938). Pavlov developed the theory of
‘conditioned reflex’ also known as classical conditioning. This theory was
experimentally shown by the linking of two actions to a response. After a certain time
when one action is presented the response will occur. This was demonstrated in his
well-known experiment where in response to a certain sound, that had earlier been
associated with feeding, a dog would begin to salivate.
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Unit 1 Section 1
While Pavlov was interested in conditioned responses in animals, Watson (1924)
attributed all human behaviour to conditioning and showed how complex emotions
like fear could be conditioned in a person. In his famous ‘Little Albert’ experiment he
showed how fear, a non-physical reaction, could be linked to an object that was
previously viewed as neutral. This was accomplished in a still controversial
experiment where he scared a young boy by associating a fear with a neutral object.
When later shown the object, the child was seen to be conditioned to be fearful.
Skinner (1938) is credited with the development of radical behaviourism, which
believes that voluntary human and animal behaviour can be conditioned. This differs
from Pavlov and Watson, who were studying involuntary behaviour.
Behaviourism’s key principles
In terms of learning, four key behaviorism principles come to the fore (Hartley,
1998)
1. Activity is important - Learning is more effective when the learner is
active rather than passive. Therefore, where appropriate, ‘learning by
doing' is most effective.
2. Repetition, generalisation and discrimination are important notions -
Frequent practice - and practice in varied contexts - is necessary for
learning to take place. Skills are acquired by frequent practice.
3. Reinforcement is the cardinal motivator - Positive reinforcement like
rewards and successes are preferable to negative events like
punishments and failures.
4. Learning is helped when objectives are clear - Those who look to
behaviourism in teaching will generally frame their activities by behavioral
objectives e.g. 'At the end of this session participants will be able to...’ With
this comes a concern with competencies and product approaches to
curriculum.
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Unit 1 Section 1
Behaviourism’s key considerations for delivery
There are some key considerations when planning to deliver course content using
the behaviorist approach. They include:
List the expected learning outcomes.
Assessment must be based on the expected learning outcomes.
Break the material down into manageable units.
Carefully sequence these units according to the desired learning.
Present the rules for learning the topic.
Ensure that the learner actively responds (engagement and interactivity).
Provide opportunities for frequent learner feedback.
Reinforce correct behaviour with immediate rewards (positive
reinforcement).
Source: Carlile et al. (2004)
Cognitivism
Cognitivism theory is based on an investigation of human thought processes. It
developed from Miller’s experimental work carried out on memory, perception and
attention. Some of the work on artificial intelligence and the attempt to have
computers replicate mental process also contributed to Cognitivist thinking.
Cognitivists focus on the ways that learners gain and organise their knowledge and
they have developed ‘information processing input-output’ models of learning.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the way that sensory input may be processed through short-term
memory, and organised or ‘encoded’ before being lodged in long-term memory
(learning takes place).
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Unit 1 Section 1
Figure 1.1: Mental Processing
Many current ideas intended to facilitate student learning draw on our awareness of
the mental processing outlined above. The concept of ‘Mind-mapping’ as a form of
effective note-taking developed by Buzan (1974) draws both on concepts of encoding
and those of dual coding, i.e., presenting material in more than one medium to
increase learner retention. Work carried out on levels or types of learning also draws
on our knowledge of short and long-term memory stores.
There are two types of learners identified in the theory of cognitivism – ‘surface
learners’ who try (and generally fail) to retain the material held in short term memory
because of information-overload, and ‘deep learners’ who attempt to understand and
encode material so that it can be transferred to long-term memory and more
effectively learnt.
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Unit 1 Section 1
The most well-known proponents of Cognitivism were Piaget and Inhelder (1969).
They argued that knowledge is acquired by the natural development of mental
structures as a child responds to experience. The concept of ‘readiness’ is therefore
important in order for the leaner (child in this case) to move on to the next stage of
conceptual development.
For Cognitivists, learning process involves developing strategies for thinking.
However, like Behaviourists, they still place the teacher or curriculum designer firmly
in control. You need a knowledge of mental processing or of how to produce the
desired behaviour in order to reinforce or direct learning, but it is still your
responsibility to control it. As a subject specialist you will want your learners to adapt
particular strategies that are effective in your domain.
For example the cognitivist vocational education/training instructors would not be
very concerned with the answer to a problem, rather their focus would be on the
cognitive strategies needed to arrive at the solution.
As the learner progresses through the educational system, i.e., from primary, to
secondary, to higher educational levels, the pedagogical approach becomes more
Cognitive. At primary level there is an emphasis on the acquisition of facts (Bruner
1996), whereas at higher levels there is an emphasis on general principles, methods
and ways of knowing. This is also shown in assessment procedures and examinations
where lower level papers ask for description and reproduction of facts whereas higher
level papers require analysis, discussion and debate (more to read about in Bloom’s
taxonomy)
Cognitivism’s key principles
Hartley (1998) has also defined six key principles of cognitive learning. The
principles he identifies are:
1. Instruction should be well-organised - Well-organised materials are
easier to learn and to remember.
2. Instruction should be clearly structured - Subject matters are said to
have inherent structures – logical relationships between key ideas and
concepts – which link the parts together.
3. The perceptual features of the task are important - Learners attend
selectively to different aspects of the environment. Thus, the way a
problem is displayed is important if learners are to understand it.
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Unit 1 Section 1
4. Prior knowledge is important - Things must fit with what is already
known if it is to be learnt.
5. Differences between individuals are important as they will affect
learning - Differences in ‘cognitive style’ or methods of approach influence
learning.
6. Cognitive feedback gives information to learners about their success
or failure concerning the task at hand - Reinforcement can come
through giving information – a ‘knowledge of results’ – rather than simply
a reward.
Cognitivism’s key consideration for course delivery
There are some key implication if planning to deliver with a Cognitivist approach,
they include:
Promote active listening.
Don’t present too much material at once to avoid overload of learner’s
short term memory.
Don’t lecture for more than twenty minutes without a break.
Divide the course material into groups or categories to facilitate retention.
Make the structure and patterning of the material explicit for learners.
Present material in more than one form to facilitate transfer to long term
memory.
Give learners the opportunity to revisit content fundamentals to strengthen
retention.
Use key words and terms as memory cues.
Constructivism
Constructivism is the theory that people construct their own view of the world based
on experience and their own understanding. Each person has his/her own mental
image of the world they exist in and learn through experience and processing of
their experiences.
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Unit 1 Section 1
This is clearly differentiated from Behaviourism by its emphasis on the importance of
mental processing. Early constructivism can be traced to Giambattista Vico in the
18th century, who believed that people could only truly understand what they
themselves had constructed. He felt that truth is verified through creation not
observation, ‘The criterion and rule of the true is to have made it.’ (Costelloe, 2014)
Later proponents of constructivism include Piaget and Dewey.
Piaget (1969) developed the theory of stages of cognitive development. He believed
that children went through four stages of learning, each based on the one that came
before. As each stage was mastered and internalised, the developing mind would
gain greater complexity and move on to the next, more complex stage.
As a psychologist and educational reformer Dewey (1916) promoted experimentation,
problem solving and critical thinking as integral components of learning. Dewey’s
ideas were also referred to as pragmatism.
Social Constructivism
Constructivism is further developed by Social Constructivists who examine the
interpersonal interactions and social – cultural context in learning and how this
impacts on the construction of knowledge.
The research of the Russian psychologist Vygotsky (1987) demonstrated the
importance of others as learning mediators, he showed that without
communication, there can be no thought.
Vygotsky believed that thinking does not exist independently of the world, nor of
other people. He states that a certain amount of material can be learnt by a
student on their own, however, though with the help of the instructor more can
be learnt.
The instructor can recognise the stage the student is presently at, and offer
suitable material, encouragement and prompts to allow them to move to the next
level. The idea is that the learning environment (including the instructor) provides
‘scaffolding’ or support to help learners to achieve a higher level, while gradually
withdrawing this support so that the learner becomes more independent. An
instructor should help learners to internalise external knowledge and make it their
own.
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Unit 1 Section 1
Seven Key Principles of Constructivism
Seven principles for designing course delivery methods to support learning based
on constructivism are:
1. Learning vs. Teaching
Put the emphasis on learning and deemphasize teaching.
For example teacher/computer questions are discouraged and learner
questions are encouraged.
2. Discovery Learning
Emphasizes the learner exploring, experimenting, doing research,
asking questions and seeking answers.
3. Construction
Some environments are designed with learner construction in mind
• Construction of simulations.
• Construction of essays or news-papers.
• Construction of video stories.
4. Situated Learning and Anchored Instruction
Situated learning is the theory that learning always occurs in some
context, and the content in turn affects learning.
The anchored instruction approach involves the notion that a learning
environment should be embedded in a real world content (e.g. Project
Maths1 )
5. Cooperative and Collaborative Learning
Cooperative means learners helping each other rather than hindering,
competing or ignoring one another. Usually work on individual projects
but assist each other.
Collaborative learning goes a bit further, suggesting environments in
which learners work on a shared project or goal.
1 http://www.projectmaths.ie/
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Unit 1 Section 1
May not suit all learners.
6. Autonomy Choice and Negotiation
Learners should be given choices and the opportunity to be more
autonomous in their actions.
Learners and instructors should negotiate and jointly decide goals and
activities.
As a result, goals and activities may become more meaningful to
learners.
7. Reflection and Strategic Thinking
People should be lifelong learners.
An educational environment should foster not only learning of content
but of learning how to learn.
Learners should have opportunities for strategic thinking, planning
how to achieve learning goals etc.
Constructivism’s key considerations for content delivery
There are some key considerations when planning to deliver course contents
using the Constructivist approach to support learning. They include:
Encourage team working and collaboration by learners.
Promote discussion - even in lectures.
Involve learners in project work.
Allocate a small proportion of grades to peer assessment after training
learners in the criteria and process.
The instructor’s role is the model of ’the way things are done around
here’.
Know learners as people, and develop relationships and build trust.
Be emotionally aware.
Be explicit about your professional values and the ethical dimensions of
your subject.
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Unit 1 Section 1
1.3 Context in Vocational Education and Training
How do these learning theories be adapted for VET scenarios?
Constructivist learning theories adopt a more learner-centred approach to
pedagogical practice than either behaviourism or cognitivism. Learners are seen as
active in their own learning, not merely as recipients of instruction. Constructivists
conceptualise learners as participants, contributors and constructors of knowledge,
which is always socially mediated. However, arguments on applicability of the
learning theories focus on perceived benefit of one over the other, rather than the
appropriateness of different practices to different settings and purposes (Cullen et al
(2002).
Good practice in VET teaching and learning should not be tied to a particular
educational theory (e.g. behaviourism, cognitivism or constructivism). Rather good
practice has taken on a more pragmatic position in which appropriateness to different
purposes and settings has become the key guiding principle of good practice.
A number of socio-economic changes in the VET sector worldwide have unsettled
the recognised idea of teachers as fountains of knowledge and helped to move
learning to a more constructivist approach. These include:
1. Social and economic conditions including the needs for work-related continuing
professional development in some senses have contributed to the increased focus on
learning techniques. This constructivist approach towards learning needs to
encompass not only the formal requirements of a programme but also include ‘soft
skills’ such as; strong work ethic, good communication skills, time management skills,
problem-solving skills, self Confidence, flexibility , and teamwork. Such transferable
skills can be both difficult to deliver and to measure.
2. The ability of workers to continually adapt and change is highly valued.
Technology changes, jobs change, skills change, the organisation of work changes.
Consequently continuous learning is not only desirable but an inevitable feature of
contemporary work.
3. Conceptions of knowledge are also changing. Forms of knowledge other than
discipline-specific knowledge are now given more value in workplaces. Working
knowledge is deemed to have a large impact on performance and this knowledge is
seen to be created and shared socially.
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Unit 1 Section 1
4. Increasingly, learners are viewed as consumers of education and training. They
are expected to contribute to the resourcing of their own learning and are becoming
the builder of knowledge and skill sets to enable them to compete in the job market.
5. Decisions on which learning theories are most appropriate tend to focus more
directly on ways of transforming professional and social identities and the creation
of communities of practice. There is a shift from the notion of instruction to that of
learning where the student becomes the centre of learning as opposed to the
teacher/instructor.
These suggest that a shift in the use of learning theories is taking place through the
use of learning practices that are more learner sensitive, which focus on the full
learning potential of individuals, which actively engage learners in the planning,
development and construction of their own vocational knowledge and skills.
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Unit 1 Section 1
Summary
The principal claim of behaviourism is that learning is achieved through
conditioning. Learning is the development of new behaviour through this
conditioning and requires no inner mental processing.
Cognitivism is based on the understanding of human thought processes.
Some of the work on artificial intelligence and attempt to have computers
replicate mental process also contributed to Cognitivist thinking.
Constructivism examines the interpersonal interactions and social – cultural
context in learning and how these impact on the construction of knowledge.
Good practice in teaching and learning in the VET sector should not be
specifically tied to any of the outlined particular educational theory (e.g.
behaviourism, cognitivism or constructivism). Rather, good practice has taken
on a more pragmatic position in which appropriateness to different purposes.
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Unit 1 Section 1
M1.U1.S1 Progress Check
1. List the three main learning theories
1) _______________________________________________________
2) _______________________________________________________
3) _______________________________________________________
2. Give one example of where you might have used each of the three main
learning theories in the past for your own teaching practice
1) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. How many of the 7 soft skills mentioned in this section have you incorporated
into your teaching practice in the past and which of the skills do you think
would be of most benefit to the construction workers on site today?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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Unit 1 Section 1
4. Define the term Social Constructivism
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Unit 1 Section 2
Learning Styles
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Unit 1 Section 2
2.1 Introduction
Learning is the assimilation of knowledge through study or experience. Learning can
occur at any time, under many different conditions and through a wide variety of
mediums. Through either a process of nature, nurture or both, everybody has a
preference, conscious or subconscious for how they learn and this can be described
as their learning style. For purposes of this manual, Learning Style is, “a student’s
way of responding to and using stimuli in the context of learning”, (Cooke, 2001).
Although everyone will learn through a combination of different styles, one and
sometimes two styles are usually dominant and the student will assimilate the
knowledge more effectively utilising that particular style. Kirkwood (1998) believes an
individual’s learning style is the most influential factor in determining how they learn.
There are in excess of 70 educationally based instruments which are used to
categorize different learning styles. With such a large number of learning style
theories, there is no-doubt going to be similar approaches and a significant amount
of overlap between each model. This section outlines the principles behind some of
the most common learning style models and also provides an opportunity for you to
determine your own specific learning style aligned with those presented.
At the end of this section you will be able to:
1. List and describe a range of different learning styles
2. Identify your own preference learning style
3. Plan for learning opportunities for learners to be delivered based on a number
of different learning styles.
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Unit 1 Section 2
2.2 Visual, Auditory, Reading and Kinaesthetic (VARK)
Visual, Auditory, Reading and Kinaesthetic (VARK) refers to how people take in or
“assimilate” information. The VARK is possibly the most common learning style
model.
Visual Learners
Visual learners learn best by seeing things and respond well to visual cues such as
videos, graphics, drawings, graphs charts and animations. The use of colour can also
be used to really good effect to provide emphasis as well as create and reinforce
links.
Auditory Learners
Auditory learners are best suited to activities involving listening or dialogue. Learning
will occur most readily through mediums of discussion, debates, lectures, and
rehearsing. Style of learning is often reinforced in the majority of opportunities
provided in higher education.
Reading Learners
This learning style can be linked somewhat to that of the visual learner but with a
preference for written text rather than graphics. Learners will typically have a good
command of language and learn best through reading, usually from a number of
different sources. Learners with a preference for through this style may also express
a preference for self-directed style of learning.
Kinaesthetic Learners
The third style of learner, Kinaesthetic, learns best by doing and activity based
learning. They prefer moving, role play, and repetition of action. They should be
encouraged to take breaks and move around rather than sitting still for too long. They
prefer practical tasks/approaches rather than theoretical exercises.
Most people are categorized as dominant visual learners. This may be reinforced by
teaching methods in tertiary education that rely on writing down notes from a
chalkboard, reading, and more recently the use of computers. Learners who feel they
learn best by processing text are categorised under the heading Reading/Writing.
They find the best way to internalize information is by reading text and then writing
about what they have learned.
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Unit 1 Section 2
Some people are referred to as multi-model learners because they have more than
one strong (dominant) learning style. One of the best known instruments using the
VARK model has been developed by Dunn and Dunn. (Fleming, 2007)
2.3 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle
The Kolb model develops a theory of learning that combines a four tier learning cycle
with learning style inventory that classifies learners into four groups with distinct two-
dimensional learning modes. For Kolb the four stages of the learning cycle are
Concrete Experience (CE), Reflective Observation (RO), Abstract Conceptualisation
(AC), and Active Experimentation (AE). After completing the Learning Style Inventory,
learners are placed into learning styles based on their two dominant learning modes.
These four modes are Diverging (CE/RO), Assimilating (AC/RO), Converging
(AC/AE), and Accommodating (CE/AE)
Another popular model based on Kolb’s cycle of learning theory combined with a
learning inventory is the Honey and Mumford model. Their model is based on
research into learners' behavioural tendencies. It uses a similar learning cycle model
with four stages of: having an experience; reviewing the experience; concluding from
the experience, and planning the next steps (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2: Kolb’s Learning Cycle related to Honey & Mumford Learning Styles
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Unit 1 Section 2
Honey and Mumford’s model assumes that people have preferred learning styles but
that these are dependent on context and experience so are not locked into one style
(Honey & Mumford, 1982)
Their four learning styles, unlike Kolb's which result from the combination of two
stages, are directly associated with each stage. These are summarised in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Honey and Mumford’s learning styles (Adapted from Rogers, J. (2001))
Learning
Style
Stage
associated
with
Likes Dislikes
Activist
Having an
experience
Doing and experiencing. Games,
practical activities, anything that
is energetic and involving.
Sitting around for too
long; working alone;
theorising; having to
listen to others.
Reflector
Reviewing
the
experience
Time to think, observe, take it all
in; watching others; solitude and
time.
Being hurtled into
activity, no time to
think; crammed
timetables; lack of
privacy, no time to
prepare.
Theorist
Concluding
from the
experience
To know where something fits
into overall ideas and concepts;
analysis and logic; being
stretched; abstract concepts;
structure, clarity.
Frivolity, mindless fun;
wasting time; not being
able to question; lack of
a timetable and
structure.
Pragmatist
Planning the
next steps
Practical problem solving;
relevance to the real world;
applying learning.
Anything theoretical;
learning that focuses
too much on past or
future and not present.
Adapted from Rogers, J. (2001) Adults Learning. 4th edn. Maidenhead: Open
University Press, p.24.
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Unit 1 Section 2
2.4 Multiple Intelligence
These learning styles/channels in some way can be likened to Howard Gardner’s
Multiple Intelligences Theory.
Intelligences is a bio psychological potential to process information that can be
activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in
a culture (Gardner, 1991).
Gardener outlined eight ways of thinking and knowing, thereby identifying eight
categories of intelligence as:
1. Linguistic Intelligence 5. Musical Intelligence
2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence 6. Intrapersonal Intelligence
3. Spatial Intelligence 7. Interpersonal Intelligence
4. Bodily-Kinaesthetic Intelligence 8. Naturalist Intelligence
Figure 1.3: Multiple Intelligences (Adopted from Gardner,1991)
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Unit 1 Section 2
Gardner demonstrates that students learn in identifiably distinctive ways, and shows
how necessary it is that subjects should be taught through a variety of means and
strategies. He argues for a form of learning that will allow students to demonstrate
their understandings in meaningful ways, which are more suited to their learning
styles and intelligence profiles. Gardner refers to casualties in learning, that is, the
large number of students who are motivated to learn but whose own learning styles
or profiles of intelligence are not in tune with prevailing instructional practices.
(Gardner, 1991)
These learning styles and intelligences must be stimulated for optimal learning and
therefore it is recommended that course material and their delivery should be
designed with this in mind.
Educational psychologists suggest that, in general the more one engages the senses
of the learner, the more they learn. For example, learners will remember more of what
is said if visual reinforcement is provide. The sense of sight is particularly important,
and this fact should be taken into account in the design of learning material.
2.5 Blooms Taxonomy
A group of educational psychologists developed a classification of levels (Bloom’s
Taxonomy) of intellectual behaviour they deemed important in learning (Bloom,
1956).
Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or
recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and
abstract mental levels, to the highest order which is classified as evaluation.
Bloom’s taxonomy can be used to help craft a wide range of questions—from low-
level thinking questions to high-level to more abstract type of questions. Bloom's
Taxonomy is not level-specific. That is, it does not begin at the lower levels with
knowledge and comprehension questions and move upward to the higher levels with
synthesis and evaluation questions. The six levels of questions are appropriate for all
levels. Though in practice unfortunately, observations of classroom-based instructors
have repeatedly shown that lower-order questions are far more frequently used
(Saeed, et al., 2012) (Anderson, et al., 2001).
Figure 1.4 depicts Bloom’s taxonomy of learning levels and a corresponding list of
verbs that are attributed to that level of learning.
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Unit 1 Section 2
Figure 1.4: Bloom’s Taxonomy (adapted from Geib, 2006)
Verb examples that represent intellectual activity on each level are listed in Table 1.2
Table 1.2: Verb examples for different intellectual activity
Intellectual Activity Verbs
Knowledge Arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order,
recognize, relate, recall, repeat, and reproduce state
Comprehension Classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate,
locate, recognize, report, restate, review, select, translate
Application Apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate,
interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use, write
Analysis Analyse, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast,
criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine,
experiment, question, and test
Synthesis Arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design,
develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set
up, and write
Evaluation Appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend
estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select, support, value, evaluate
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Unit 1 Section 2
2.6 Conditions of Learning Model
Conditions of Learning Model expresses the view that there are several different types
or levels of learning. The significance of these classifications is that each different
type requires different types of instruction (Gagné, 1985).
Gagné identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual
skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external
conditions are necessary for each type of learning.
For example, for cognitive strategies to be effective, there must be a chance to
practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be
exposed to a credible role model/instructor.
Gagné suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a
hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation,
procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule
application, and problem solving. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to
identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level.
Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task.
Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction (lesson
planning).
In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive
processes (Figure 1.5)
Figure 1.5 Gagne's nine instructional events
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Unit 1 Section 2
These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and
serve as the basis for lesson planning and selecting appropriate media (Figure 1.6).
Figure 1.6: Conditions of Learning (adapted from Gange, Briggs and Wager 1992)
It should also be noted that the following principles apply:
1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.
2. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the
conditions of learning.
3. The specific operations that constitute instructional events are different for
each different type of learning outcome.
4. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a
sequence of instruction.
conditions for
learning
Events of learning
operate on the learner in ways that
constitute the conditions of
learning.
instructional events are different for
each different type of
learning outcome.
Learning hierarchies define what skills and
sequence to be learned
Different instruction for different
learning outcomes.
35
Unit 1 Section 2
Principles of Effective Teaching and Learning
Perkins’ (2009) seven principles for effective teaching and learning are well suited to
both learners and teachers in the world of vocational education as follows:
1. Play the whole game; Use extended projects and authentic contexts
2. Make the game worth playing; Work hard at engaging learners giving them
choices wherever possible
3. Work on the hard parts - Discover the most effective ways of practising
4. Play out of town - Try things out in many different contexts
5. Uncover the hidden game - Make the processes of learning as visible as
possible
6. Learn from the team and the other teams - Develop robust ways of
working in groups and seek out relevant communities of practice
7. Learn from the game of learning - Be in the driving seat as a learner,
developing your own tried and tested tactics and strategies.
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Unit 1 Section 2
2.7 The Curriculum Design Model
The "Spiral Model", incorporates principles of effective adult education (Figure 1.7).
The model suggests that:
1. Learning begins with the experience and knowledge of the participants. The
educational approach is learner-centred and aims at reinforcing learners' self-
esteem, self-confidence and the development of a positive and realistic self-
concept.
2. After the participants have shared their experience, they analyse that
experience and look for patterns (i.e., what are the commonalties? what are
the patterns?)
3. To complement the knowledge and experience of the participants, new
information and theory from experts are added or new ideas are created
collectively.
4. Participants need to practise what they have learned. They need to practise
new skills, develop strategies and plan for action.
(Arnold, et al., 1991)
Figure 1.7: Curriculum Design Model
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Unit 1 Section 2
2.8 Characteristics of Adults as Learners (CAL) model
Cross (1981) presents the Characteristics of Adults as Learners (CAL) model in the
context of her analysis of lifelong learning programs. The model attempts to integrate
other theoretical frameworks for adult learning such as andragogy (Knowles),
experiential learning experiential learning (Rogers), and lifespan psychology.
Andragogy
The term andragogy (and-rè-go´jê), as opposed to pedagogy, has been used to
describe the art and science of teaching adults as argued by Malcolm Knowles.
It is argued that adult learners require specific conditions to learn and this can be
seen in the comparison of pedagogy and andragogy, where adult learning appears to
require more learner-orientated active-learning environment. (Conner, 1997-2004.)
Table 1.3: Pedagogy vs Andragogy (adopted from Deighan, 2000)
CAL builds on andragogy and creates a model that consists of two classes of
variables: personal characteristics and situational characteristics. Personal
characteristics include: aging, life phases, and developmental stages. These three
dimensions have different characteristics as far as lifelong learning is concerned.
Aging results in the deterioration of certain sensory-motor abilities (e.g., eyesight,
hearing, reaction time) while intelligence abilities (e.g., decision-making skills,
Pedagogy Andragogy
Compulsory Voluntary
Teacher-centred Learning-centred
Minimal control by the learner Education as freedom
Training for life Assimilation of learning with life experience
Encourages convergent thinking Encourages divergent thinking
Rote learning Active learning
Dependency on educators learning Learning and teaching roles are blurred
Imparting of information Opening vistas for continuing learning and peer learning
Uncertainty about the outcome, whatever the curriculum content
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Unit 1 Section 2
reasoning, and vocabulary) tend to improve. Life phases and developmental stages
(e.g., marriage, job changes, and retirement) involve a series of plateaus and
transitions which may or may not be directly related to age.
Situational characteristics consist of Part-time versus Full-time learning, and
Voluntary versus Compulsory learning. The administration of learning (i.e.,
schedules, locations, procedures) is strongly affected by the first variable; the second
pertains to the self-directed, problem-centred nature of most adult learning.
2.9 Outline of Limitations on the Use of Models
As noted above there are over seventy models in existence and that are used to
categorize learning styles. Each model one has developed its own spectrum of
learning. It noteworthy that there is a large amount of scepticism regarding the validity
and usefulness of all learning style models. Opponents of such models criticise them
for many flaws, such as limited research and testing, testing subjectivity, and lack of
any evidence that these models can improve educational results. Despite claims for
the potential uses of ‘learning styles’ for developing appropriate teaching strategies
there is no research for the claim that by matching method of content presentation to
individuals’ preferred ‘learning style’, better learning ensues (Landrum and McDuffie,
2010, Riener and Willingham, 2010).
It’s about really knowing the individuals very well at the beginning of the programme
and tailoring learning for that person; that actually takes them on through the learning
journey.
It has been argued that some of the learning style instruments are also deeply
unreliable. Coffield (2004) found that approaches which, for example, assume that
preferences for the visual or the auditory or the kinaesthetic (often referred to as VAK
methods) are unreliable and sometimes unhelpful. If vocational teachers are trying to
encourage confidence and an ability to deal with the non-routine, then only offering
material in one format – pictorially, for example, for imagined ‘visual’ learners – is
unlikely to be helpful.
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Unit 1 Section 2
By the same token, good teachers would be likely to mix and match and offer a range
of visual, auditory and kinaesthetic approaches in their teaching. If learners are
venturing into territory which the instructor knows they will find difficult, it would be a
matter of common sense to choose a method of learning which is most likely to be
suited to the learners’ known preferences.
What is far more likely is that, individuals have a preference for a particular mode of
content presentation because it happens to be conducive to learning for a particular
task (content) for which that person has a high natural ability. Were they to experience
that preferred means of content delivery on a task for which they did not have a high
natural ability, the evidence suggests they would learn no better than if they were
presented the content through a different mode; one which lent itself better to that
particular content. To summarise a wide range of learners benefit from delivery
methods that are appropriate to the learning task at hand, even if they have a
preference towards one style or model.
Learners benefit from learning content that is appropriate to the learning task at hand
even if they have a preference towards one style or model.
40
Unit 1 Section 2
Summary
The Kolb model develops a theory of learning that combines a four tier learning
cycle with learning style inventory that classifies learners into four groups with
distinct two-dimensional learning modes.
Visual, Auditory, Reading and Kinaesthetic (VARK) model refers to how people
take in or “assimilate” information.
Intelligences is a bio psychological potential to process information that can be activated
in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture
Blooms Taxonomy identifies six levels within the cognitive domain, from the
simple recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more
complex and abstract mental levels, to the highest order which is classified as
evaluation
Five major categories of learning have been identified as: verbal information,
intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal
and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning
Andragogy, as defined by Malcolm Knowles, is the term used to describe the art
and science of teaching adults as distinct from children (Pedagogy).
41
Unit 1 Section 2
M1.U1.S2 Progress Check
1. Find a Learning style tool online and use the tool to determine what style you
have.
_____________________________________________________________
2. What are the implications for delivering learning material to a learner that has
a learning style similar to your own?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. Using an example from your own craft or trade, describe one effective method
you could use to deliver, introduce or teach one concept, idea or important
point to the learner identified in question 2 above.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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Unit 1 Section 2
4. It is the appropriateness of the learning content for the particular learning task
that is the most important consideration for the success of the learner. With
this in mind, give one way you could improve the learning content for all
learners.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Unit 2
VET Contexts and Settings
44
Unit 2: VET Contexts and Settings
The BUSI report (2012) highlighted the requirement for a shift from traditional models
of construction training towards a more learner centred approach. It emphasised a
need to consider learning outcomes beyond the acquisition of technical skills and
competencies and into shared knowledge and experiences in communities of
practice. This is seen as fundamental to the adoption of a new collaborative, systems-
thinking approach to the construction/renovation process which embraces a culture
of standards and quality. Consequently, the aim of this module is to examine the
specific challenges of addressing both technical knowledge gaps and attitudinal
change in the training of construction workers.
This Unit explores these challenges which are at the heart of FES training. It begins
with a consideration of the context and settings typical to vocational education and
training. It also examines the learner needs and motivation which may be most
specifically relevant to construction workers. Learning theories which are particularly
relevant to training for attitudinal change are explored for their potential for application
in FES.
As group learning has been identified as a fundamental aspect of FES training, it is
covered in greater detail. This includes the stages of group development, the
characteristics of groups and principles to be considered for the design and
management of group activities.
At the end of this unit you will be able to:
1. Describe typical vocational learners, and their context
2. Explain the learning and motivation theories implications on training for
attitude change
3. List and describe the different stages of learner group development and their
impact on group performance
4. Explain the principles of group dynamics and the effect of individual
characteristics on group performance
Unit 2 Section 1
Vocational Learners
46
Unit 2 Section 1
1.1 Introduction
Following on from a broader view of learning theory and learning styles, this Section
focusses on vocational learners and, more specifically, construction workers.
Vocational learners are associated with characteristics that differentiate them from
students in higher education for example, they are concerned with both technical
knowledge but also a need to acquire skills and also discover the role and place within
their new community of practice (Ofsted, 2010).
This section considers the context and settings typical to vocational education and
training (VET) and what motivates learners in this sector. This is followed by a focus
on one of the specific challenges of the QualiBuild Foundation Energy Skills (FES)
training initiative; the training for attitudinal change. Learning theory and training
techniques which support attitude and perspective change are considered. These
models are then evaluated in the context of the FES programme, specifically, the
implications for design and delivery of this training.
At the end of this section you will be able to:
1. Discuss the implications of arenas and settings in a vocational training context
2. Describe the main principles of a range of motivational theories relevant to
vocational learners
3. Describe the principles of learning theories that are specifically relevant to
training for attitude change
47
Unit 2 Section 1
1.2 Context in Vocational Education
Context matters in all kinds of learning. Learning something, for example, how to cut
a roof while working alongside a foreman on at a construction site is different from
learning to complete a roofing exercise in a carpentry and joinery class at a training
centre. Contextual perspectives regarding health and safety legislation identified
onsite may also be different to what may be gained via an online course. Each of
these situations is different. Firstly, the other learners who may or may not be present
will affect things. Secondly, the instructor and his/her experiences, traditions and
culture will shape the learning experience. And of course, what presents at the
physical location will play an important role. (Lucas, et al., 2012)
Arenas and settings
There are two main elements to context – ‘arenas’ and ‘settings.’
Arenas are where the learning takes place, we would obviously acknowledge the
classroom and workshops in VET but also can include the workplace, social venues
such as the canteen, or any other places where learners meet and discuss their
learning subjects.
Setting can be described as what happens when a learner interacts with an ‘arena’
and also engages with other learners.
This idea of a situated learning in a particular context is fundamental to vocational
education and particularly the creation of Communities of Practice (COP). These
communities of practice can be seen in two ways:
1. Communities of Practice as communities of learners.
2. Communities of Practice as collaborative professional groups within
organisations.
Communities of Practice (COP)
Communities of Practice are groups of people who are united by a common interest
or profession and wish to share information and experiences with a view to improving
practices. By their very nature, they lead to a process of social learning, whether
intentional or not (see Social Constructivist Unit 1 Section1). Communities of Practice
within an organisation can encourage individuals to create, refine, share and use
knowledge effectively to learn and develop from interaction with colleagues. For
48
Unit 2 Section 1
example, the National Learning Digital Learning Repository was created to support
greater collaboration in developing and sharing of digital teaching resources and
associated teaching experience across all subject disciplines and communities of
academics and to promote good practice use and re-use of existing resources. To
date there are 25 organised COP under the NDLR umbrella. (NDLR, 2012). The Lean
Construction Institute is also a COP who aims are to transform design and
construction through new approaches to project design and delivery. The Institute
plans on utilising the benefits of a COP to enable the members to learn rapidly and to
continue to improve the value delivered to customers of capital projects, as well as
the value to all who use the facility in the future. (LCI Ireland, 2014)
A COP allows its members to develop their capabilities and to build and exchange
knowledge in a supportive environment of peers.
In an educational setting this can be useful in tackling problems set by an instructor
in a group setting. In the organisation setting, and in the case of QualiBuild Project,
these collaborative groups will be instrumental in allowing learners/workers to work
together and solve problems so their learning habits and, importantly, to foster the
transfer of any desirable work related attitudinal changes from learner-to-
learner and from instructor-to-learner.
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Unit 2 Section 1
Context
Context is specifically important in vocational education, as most teaching takes place
in the dual settings of both workplace and educational institution. A skill may be taught
in one setting with a view to being largely applied in another, often in a move from
training centre to workplace. This brings with it two further considerations or
challenges, including:
1. How to ensure that what is learned theoretically in one context is applied
effectively in another;
2. Anticipating how best learners can be taught so that they can prompt
themselves to use skills learned in one context when they need them for real
in another.
50
Unit 2 Section 1
1.3 Learner Motivation
Learner motivation is a major factor that will dictate the level of engagement with
course materials. There are many theories of motivation, the majority of them point to
a need to cater for the high and low level needs of learners in order to elicit response
and maintain that engagement. Abraham Maslow (1954)developed a hierarchy of
needs, outlined in Figure 2.1, which emphasises the importance of first catering for
the basic needs of learners by providing a comfortable and safe learning environment,
before considering the higher level socio emotional and psychological factors
affecting motivation. Satisfying learner needs for social interaction and
belongingness, recognition and personal growth is challenging but can be achieved
successfully.
Allowing opportunity for learner-tutor and learner-learner interaction, providing
feedback and encouragement, and maintaining a learning environment which is
respectful and inclusive for all is fundamental to catering for learner needs.
Figure 2.1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Paul Hersey’s (1980) theory of frequency of distribution introduces a little more
complexity to the consideration of Maslow’s hierarchy. He emphasises the constant
potential for change in the learning environment which will affect the level of need at
a given time.
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Unit 2 Section 1
In the traditional face-to-face training format, the tutor is in a position to observe and
monitor changes in the learning environment and react accordingly. This is why
adaptability is one of the fundamental skills of a successful trainer.
Vroom’s (1964) expectancy theory asserts that individual motivation is rooted in
peoples hunger for success versus their fear of failure. It advances that people need
to see a link between their efforts, their performance and the value of the outcome to
them as an individual. This is somewhat similar to Maslow’s focus on the higher level
needs which motivate learners. This emphasis on the value of the outcome for the
individual reinforces the importance of understanding the profile of the target learner
and tailoring instruction accordingly.
Edward Schein (1985) defined eight career anchors where individuals associate
different rewards with a certain level of value. These are:
1. Technical/Functional – to be recognised as an expert in a field
2. General/Managerial – to have responsibility and status
3. Autonomy/Independence – prefer to work alone under their own rules
4. Security/Stability – prefer stability and avoid risk in their work life
5. Entrepreneurial Creativity – like to be inventive and creative, running their
own business
6. Service/Dedication to a cause – driven by how they can help other people
7. Pure Challenge – stimulated by difficult problems/tasks
8. Lifestyle – focus on their work-life balance
Schein’s theory is also consistent with the need to profile target learners to determine
their different interests, priorities and values. This information can be used to inform
course development at the design stage and in determining the appropriate delivery
approach.
The common thread that links these motivational theories is the requirement to satisfy
the higher level needs (see Figure 2.1). Application of these theories to the design
and delivery of instruction, has the potential to improve the level of learner
engagement by catering for these needs. For example, Robert Gagné’s nine events
of instruction, focuses on interaction and feedback, is one example of good practice
in lesson planning. Both Gagné and Keller focus on instructional models which
motivate learners by seeking to grasp their attention and maintain interest. Keller’s
52
Unit 2 Section 1
ARCS model for example, identifies four categories of learner requirements for
motivation, including: (i) Attention; (ii) Relevance; (iii) Confidence; (iv) Satisfaction.
The first requirement refers to the importance of gaining learner attention through
active participation and enquiry. Relevance is then established by focussing on
language, subject matter and experience that is familiar to the learner. Activities
appropriate to the learners are employed and encouragement is provided through
feedback which improves learner confidence. Efforts are then focussed on ensuring
that learners are satisfied that their efforts have led to successful outcomes, thus
leading to continued motivation. (Gagne, et al., 2005)
Motivation factors are varied for different types of learner, therefore broad
generalisations should be avoided when discussing learner’s motivation. However, it
is important to describe some of them so as to understand the vocational learner
better. The most basic distinction between the types of motivators is whether they are
intrinsic or extrinsic.
Intrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting
or enjoyable.
Extrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it leads to a separable
outcome, an external reward.
It has been shown that the quality of experience and performance can be very
different for intrinsic versus extrinsic factors (Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2: Types of Motivators
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Unit 2 Section 1
Intrinsic Motivation
Some examples of intrinsic motivators include autonomy, a sense of belonging to a
group, a mastery of skills, and the creation of meaning. According to Ryan and Deci
(2000), intrinsically motivated learners:
Are more content in their learning processes.
Acquire knowledge in a more differentiated and more coherent form.
Show a long-term retention of what was learned.
Apply their knowledge more often than others.
Show higher academic achievement.
Perceive themselves as more competent.
Extrinsic Motivation
Some examples of extrinsic motivators include badges, competition, points, rewards
and money.
Lei (2010) lists the characteristics of externally motivated learners as:
More approach and avoidance ego-oriented.
Studying less regularly.
Showing less excitement.
Less persistent.
Using more surface level strategies.
Having lower exam results.
Being less interested in the course.
If a learner is presented with a task and provided with external incentives and
reinforcements, they generally may not develop an intrinsic motivation to learn. In
addition, if a student is provided with external incentives to perform a task and they
would naturally find motivating; their desire to perform the tasks can actually decrease
(Müller & Louw, 2004). Generally, when students focus their attention on external
incentives, the rewards become the end themselves, rather than serving their proper
function, to provide feedback on progress the students are making. See specific
example at: http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/28/1/129/.
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Motivational characteristics of vocational learners
It has been suggested that many vocational learners look to leave the school
environment at the earliest opportunity with vocational careers offering that chance.
()
Many see the move from school-based learning to a form of work-related learning,
e.g. Apprenticeship, as providing them with an opportunity to prove their worth while
also being a means of keeping parents happy. Some learners see it as an escape
route or a real or perceived academic underachievement, but when perceived this
way can also lead to low self-esteem. Sometimes third level or formal education
comes at the wrong time in the developmental stage of the learner.
Vocational education can be sold to less academic students as their only option i.e. it
is for less intelligent learners and in effect this can be self-fulfilling. This image of VET
is so widely felt in the community that there must be a feeling that it is true. Taking
this into consideration VET must therefore also be able to deal with the building of
self-esteem. Hyland (2006) argued that without task-specific interventions to
overcome problems of confidence, even well-qualified students with extensive work
experience can fall by the wayside.
Many vocational learners’ early in their career can be seen as relatively volatile,
naturally risk-taking and boundary pushing. At this stage not only are they in the
process of developing their own adult personality and credibility but also discovering
the role and place within their new community of practice (OFSTED, 2010).
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Unit 2 Section 1
Research has highlighted vocational learners as being motivated by practical and
active learning, looking for opportunities to apply their learning to work-related
contexts or at work, and by the use of industry-quality resources’
When considering vocational education, it is important to recognise that adult
learners, by virtue of their existing skills and experience, come equipped with
resources that will allow them to engage with new learning.
Knowles (1984) identified five areas of difference between mature adult learners and
younger ones:
1. Self-concept: from a dependent personality towards a self-directed human
being.
2. Experience: a growing reservoir of experience which is a powerful resource
for learning.
3. Readiness to learn: increasingly related to the developmental tasks of social
roles.
4. Orientation to learning: from just-in-case to just-in-time, requiring immediacy
of application wherever possible as well as a shift away from subject-
centeredness to one of problem centeredness.
5. Motivation to learn: an internal motivation to learn much less influenced by
external factors such as qualifications.
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Unit 2 Section 1
Knowles (Smith, 2002) also showed that adult learners tend to be less influenced by
the instructor’s pedagogic decisions and allow for more self-directed and less
dependent learning. He also noted that there are several areas to be aware with the
delivery of learning to adult learners, such as the possibility of low basic skills, such
as literacy, numeracy and ICT.
1.4 Educational Settings
Just as instructors in the VET sector are typically drawn from the dual professional
worlds, academic/work-based, their teaching settings also span the worlds of work
and education. These physical aspects of the learning environment heavily influence
the approach to delivery an instructor can take. For example, skill-based Workshop
Practice allows the learner to engage in real life work-based assignments then moving
to collaborative investigations and also practising skills on specialised equipment.
This can all be provided and enhanced with expert instruction. This approach can be
more difficult in a classroom based ‘setting’ for instruction. There are two distinct
areas to focus on in the understanding of educational settings, the physical space
and the culture of learning.
The physical space
The places where vocational education takes place include institutes of technology,
training centres, manufactures training centres and workplaces.
Within these spaces, there is a much larger list of designed learning environments
including workshop, classroom, training room, lecture theatre, computer suites, and
virtual learning spaces. Each of these learning spaces affords different opportunities
for learning and teaching.
For example, while it is possible to have vocational learners work collaboratively on
a task in group of threes while in classroom or work place, this can be very difficult to
replicate in a lecture theatre. It has been stated earlier that vocational learners
looking for opportunities to apply their learning to work-related contexts or at work,
and even with the use of industry-quality resources this can be difficult to simulate
within a training centre. In making pedagogic choices, the physical settings clearly
matter. They can enhance choice or limit it.
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Unit 2 Section 1
Culture of Learning
The culture of learning in any setting is defined by the values and beliefs of those who
work and learn there. Some of the key characteristics present where a learning culture
exists are systems thinking, personal mastery, use of mental models, a shared vision
and team learning
The characteristics particular to creation of a culture of learning within the VET include
(Hobby, 2004):
Having the highest ambitions for every learner.
Putting the welfare of learners ahead of the comfort of staff.
Focus on capability and learning (inputs) to improve outcomes.
Promoting team work and learning from each other; reduced professional
autonomy.
An intolerance of failure and excuses for underperformance (in staff).
Value on discipline, reliability and service delivery.
Particularly in a vocational setting, to ensure a culture of learning, there is need to
cultivate routine expertise, resourcefulness, functional literacies, craftsmanship,
business-like attitudes and wider skills, All of these criteria have implications on the
selection of the physical setting, and two examples of this are:
1. If tools are locked away in cupboards, it suggests that tools are controlled by
the trainer rather than freely accessible.
2. If in very practical subjects those leading the session constantly fill sessions
with talk and theory, then despite their assertion that they value first hand
experiences, this may not be the message that those in their sessions receive.
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Unit 2 Section 1
1.5 Training for Attitude Change
The recent emphasis of EU and national policy on energy saving targets for buildings
has led to significant amendments to Irish building standards. A new approach to the
building construction/renovation process is now needed, requiring greater levels of
responsibility for quality from individual workers and a collaborative approach from all
to achieve energy performance standards (Build Up Skills Ireland, 2012). This has
led to a need to develop a new Foundation Energy Skills (FES) training programme,
to address the knowledge gaps and attitude change requirements of construction
workers.
The approach to training on this programme will need to differ from the traditional
models of skills training associated with construction workers. Training for attitude
change is challenging and requires trainers to be aware of the subtleties of facilitating
discussion and group activities while maintaining a focus on learning objectives. In an
attempt to establish a coherent and robust approach to this training, a number of
learning theories should be considered for their potential and suitability for training
the target learner cohort.
This section begins with an exploration of learning theory specific to attitude change.
The practical application of these theories is then considered, including an
examination of their implications for the training construction workers.
Theories of attitude formation and change
Before the possibilities for incorporating specific aspects of learning theory in
Foundation Energy Skills (FES) training can be explored, it is important to consider
the existing models used for training construction workers. Traditionally, training
follows a typically objectivist approach to learning, i.e., that knowledge simply exists
and there is no need to construct new knowledge. A number of skills are taught onsite
through informal instruction and experiential learning. For formal skills training, a
standards based system (SBS) of apprenticeship is currently in operation, officially
introduced in 1994 to replace an existing time served model.
The off-the-job educational phases of apprenticeship training follow set curricula and
assessment stages which are centrally administered by SOLAS (formerly FÁS). The
delivery mode is a combination of classroom based lessons and skill-specific
workshop practice. Related theories are taught in the classroom and reinforced
through the completion of projects in the workshop, consistent with behaviourism.
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Unit 2 Section 1
To further examine the learning processes accommodated in traditional training
models for construction workers, consider Bloom’s widely recognised taxonomy of
educational objectives (Clark, 2014). Bloom divides learning objectives into three
categories (Figure 2.3) as follows:
The Cognitive Domain – concerned with mental skills and knowledge
The Affective Domain – dealing with attitudes and values
The Psychomotor Domain – learning of manual and physical skills
Figure 2.3: Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Domains
It is apparent that existing models of training for construction workers are focussed
on the psychomotor domain and, to a lesser extent, the cognitive domain. The
attitudes and values of the individual learners are not specifically highlighted as
important outcomes the objective is to teach in the established ‘right way’ to perform
tasks.
For the proposed FES training, the objective is to address both knowledge gaps and
where necessary, the requisite attitudinal changes that are currently not captured by
the current training approaches. Therefore, the FES training will need to focus on the
cognitive and affective domains of learning. It is reasonable to assume that a didactic
or behaviourist approach to this training will not change the attitudes of workers who
believe that they already know the ‘right way’ to do their jobs. Therefore, a close
consideration of the affective domain will be required to achieve attitude change.
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Unit 2 Section 1
The Affective Domain
Affective learning is concerned with attitudes, values, interests, appreciations and
responsibility. Krathwohl’s (1999) taxonomy of the affective domain is the most widely
recognised in education (Figure 2.4). He describes the five learning levels to progress
to an educational objective as:
Receiving – a student’s willingness to attend
Responding – active participation on the part of the student
Valuing – the worth or value a student attaches to the idea or materials
Organisation – of ideas or values
Characterisation by value – the internalisation of values
Figure 2.4: Krathwohl’s taxonomy for the Affective Domain of learning illustrated as five steps to an educational objective
In this process, the learner is moving from becoming aware of and attentive to new
phenomena, to internalising the learning so that it affects their actions or behaviours.
Learning in the affective and cognitive domains is often intrinsically linked as the new
knowledge or information is the stimulus for the change in attitude. Commonly,
affective learning outcomes are linked to cognitive learning objectives. For example,
a possible learning outcome for FES would be “Communicate the need to engage
with other crafts to meet specific design demands”. If you accept that construction
workers are generally unaware of the importance of collaboration with other crafts
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Unit 2 Section 1
and it is not a part of their culture, then this learning outcome needs to address both
knowledge and attitude aspects.
Central to training for attitudinal change is the need for presentation of
persuasive arguments for change and robust, unambiguous examples.
To challenge an experienced workers views on the ‘right way’ to do their job
requires careful planning of lessons to include opportunity for learners to reflect
on new information and how it fits with their existing belief system.
The expression of affective learning outcomes often involves statements of opinions
and beliefs. This would naturally require the learner to attach meaning to new
information and assimilate to their own belief system, a central principle of
constructivism. Examples cited in educational circles of the application of Krathwohl’s
affective taxonomy are often consistent with constructivism and social constructivism
principles. They emphasise the importance of participation in team problem-solving
activities/discussions and taking responsibility for own learning.
For the FES programme, the challenge is to address knowledge gaps and affect
cultural change for an entire industry workforce. It is reasonable then to conclude
that, a consideration of the potential influence of crowd psychology would be
appropriate.
Employing group activities and discussion in learning can be an effective way to
achieve common consensus and acceptance of change.
Role of Constructivism in Effecting Attitudinal Change
Constructivism is a philosophy of learning based on the belief that learners construct
meaning individually rather than having it ‘delivered’ to them (see more details in Unit
1 Section 1). Bruner (1996) , a key proponent of constructivist theory, argues that,
learning is an active process in which the learner constructs new ideas and beliefs
based on past experience or knowledge.
Therefore, the learner’s past experiences are the pool from which they attach
meaning and relevance to new learning.
Bruner’s theory of instruction’s based on four key principles of:
1. Instruction should establish the relevance of the material to the learners so
that they are willing and able to learn (readiness);
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Unit 2 Section 1
2. Learning content should be structured in a way that is most readily interpreted
by the learner;
3. The sequence that content is presented in should be progressive and
effective;
4. The instruction should encourage the learner to go further than just the
information given.
This approach would appear to have merit in training to support attitude change.
The willingness of a learner to be open to new information would seem significant
if long held beliefs are to be challenged in the learning process.
The principle of structuring content to suit the target learner is logical. It would also
be beneficial to have learners accepting some responsibility for their learning.
In taking ownership, learners are more likely to identify what is meaningful for
them.
It is noteworthy that Bruner’s theories are closely linked to child development
research. However, the target cohort for FES training is adult learners, for which
specific learning theories have been developed. For example, Malcolm Knowles
(1980) defines andragogy as “the art and science of helping adults to learn” (see in
more detail Unit 1 Section 2).
Merriam (2001) describes five assumptions underpinning andragogy, defining the
adult learner as someone who:
1. has an independent self-concept and who can direct his or her own learning
2. has accumulated a reservoir of life experiences that is a rich resource for
learning
3. has learning needs closely related to changing social roles
4. is problem-centred and interested in immediate application of knowledge
5. is motivated to learn by internal rather than external factors
Some of these assumptions potentially pose problems for application in FES training
as self-directed learning is unfamiliar territory for the majority of construction workers.
Merriam (2010) acknowledges criticisms of the Knowles Andragogy theory that,
“Some adults are highly dependent on a teacher for structure, while some children
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Unit 2 Section 1
are independent, self-directed learners”. Adults may also be more motivated by
external factors, such as employment opportunities or potential salary increment
attached to continuing professional development.
In this context, it will be important in FES training to emphasise the potential benefits
to participants. Once the principles of low energy building are accepted to the
mainstream training requirement for all building workers, it will be important to
highlight the opportunities that this brings. This may include the possibility to be on a
register of qualifying workers and the potential to be associated with quality
workmanship.
Transformative Learning
The emphasis in andragogy on attaching meaning to learning, makes it ‘learner
centred’ and aligned with constructivism. Another theory of learning that is prominent
in adult learning and is constructivist in approach is transformative learning. This type
of learning requires a change in learners meaning schemes, including attitudes and
beliefs.
Originally developed by Jack Mezirow (Culatta, 2013), transformative learning theory
is divided into two types of approaches to learning, namely; Instrumental learning,
which focusses on problem solving tasks and the cause and effect, and;
Communicative learning, where individuals communicate their feelings, emotions
and desires. Problem based learning (PBL) is rooted in the constructivist approach of
learning, i.e., “learning is promoted when learners are engaged in solving real-world
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Unit 2 Section 1
problems” (Merrill, 2002). Transformative theory also emphasises that reflection is
similar to problem-solving in that we “reflect on the content of the problem, the
process of problem-solving, or the premise of the problem” (Mezirow, 1991).
Transformative theory emphasis on communicative learning is consistent with social
constructivism. Transformative learning (see illustration in Figure 2.5) requires
“participation in constructive discourses” with others to explore assumptions and
consider alternative insights. This is consistent with social development theory, as
developed by Lev Vygotsky (1987) where community is seen as having a central role
in developing meaning. Vygotsky contends that the range of skill that can be
developed with adult guidance or collaboration with peers far exceeds that can be
achieved alone.
Figure 2.5: Transformative learning experiences (source: C. Montgomery, 2012)
Implications for FES training
It would appear that for learner-centred approach, consideration for the affective
domain and group problem-based learning are all relevant to training for attitudinal
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Unit 2 Section 1
change. However, as already noted, self-directed and group learning are still
uncommon in the training of construction workers. Mezirow (2000) acknowledges that
effective participation in discourse requires a level of emotional maturity. There is a
danger that construction workers attending a relatively short training programme will
be affected by a lack of confidence in this type of learning environment and perhaps
feel intimidated by peers.
Learning in groups is subject to a range of complex elements, such include; individual
characteristics, group dynamics and interaction theory. Therefore, it would be
important to pay close attention to the learner readiness of the course participants.
A focus in the initial stages of the training on establishing relevance and extrinsic and
intrinsic motivations would be useful to prepare learners for engagement with group
activities. A possible suitable approach is Keller’s ARC’s model described in Unit 2
section 1.
The first requirement of Keller’s model refers to the importance of gaining learner
attention through active participation and enquiry. This is consistent with an activation
in instruction, where learning is promoted when knowledge from past experience is
recalled as a foundation for new knowledge. This currently is being designed into the
FES programme, specifically in the learning objects in form of 3D cut-away building
sections (single or multiple storey), an image that will be familiar and accessible to all
participants.
Relevance can then be established by focussing on language, subject matter and
experience that is familiar to construction workers. Activities should be employed
which provide the opportunity for encouragement through feedback leading to
improved learner confidence.
An example from the FES programme is a group activity where participants are
tasked with selecting appropriate construction details from a number of acetate
sheets. These may be superimposed over each other to demonstrate principles of
continuous insulation and air tight layers in a building type (see Figure 2.6). This
provides an opportunity for learner satisfaction, where efforts have led to successful
outcomes, and therefore could maintain learner motivation.
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Unit 2 Section 1
Figure 2.6: Use of acetate overlay sheets in group activity
Attending to the affective domain and incorporating peer-to-peer learning is
challenging for a trainer. Research into the role of the affective domain in further
education has noted some difficulty with group work. Therefore, trainers have a role
as “relational gatekeepers in the classroom”, which requires a high level interpersonal
skills and an understanding of group development and dynamics.
Conclusions
It is clear that training for attitude change is challenging and requires careful
consideration at the instructional design stage. Adult learners by definition have
embedded beliefs and value systems so it is obvious that new ideas cannot simply
be forced upon them.
Learning theories that promote the possibility of perspective transformation and value
attachment for the learner appear to have the most potential. However, all theories
have limitations in practice and there are a number of issues that may arise that are
specific to individual learner profiles and the scope of the proposed training.
For a training programme incorporating constructivist and social constructivist
principles to be successful in effecting attitudinal change, it needs to closely consider
the following:
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Unit 2 Section 1
The target learner, it is necessary to understand the profile of the target
learner and tailor the programme accordingly
The learners should not have their existing beliefs challenged directly; rather
they should be allowed to come to their own conclusions on the need for
change in their work practices. The training should, therefore, present real-life
examples relevant to the learners that are clear and unambiguous
Social interaction with peers should be facilitated and encouraged in the
training. This will improve the learners sense of belonging and increase the
chance of new approaches being accepted and adopted by the masses rather
than individuals
It is important that trainers have the skills to implement this training and
understand the level of commitment required to meet the needs of the learners
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Unit 2 Section 1
Summary
The context of vocational education has unique characteristics.
There are a number of theories of motivation which are relevant to vocational
learners. Most emphasise the importance of catering for a range of learner
needs ranging from more basic requirements to more high level psychological
and socio-emotional needs. Adopting good practice in lesson planning and
delivery of training to gain attention and maintain relevance will enhance
learner engagement.
Training of construction workers traditionally focusses on the Psychomotor
and Cognitive domains of learning. The Affective domain is concerned with
attitudes, values, interests, appreciations and responsibility. It will be
necessary to for the Foundation Energy Skills (FES) training to incorporate
affective learning if attitudinal change is to be achieved.
Constructivist learning theory focusses on the learner attaching meaning to
new information and taking some responsibility for their own development. It
is reasonable to conclude that meaning is important in the context of attitude
change, where people are expected to adopt new beliefs and behaviours.
Social development theory emphasises the importance and potential of peer
to peer learning. In the context of an objective of changing attitudes and
bringing about cultural change in an industry, it has particular relevance for its
potential to affect crowd psychology.
Transformative learning is concerned with the process of perspective change.
It is achieved through active participation in problem solving tasks and
learners engaging in constructive discussion where bases for individual
feelings and beliefs can be explored and appropriately interrogated.
Training for attitude change will require trainers with the necessary skills to
facilitate effective group work while maintaining motivation and engagement
in the learning environment
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Unit 2 Section 1
M3.U2.S1 Progress Check
1. Provide a definition for the following two terms as they apply to vocational
education
1) Arenas:
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2) Settings:
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. List and briefly describe each of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in order
beginning with basic needs and progressing to self-fulfilment needs
1) ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2) ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3) ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
4) ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
5) ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. Provide a brief description of four characteristics associated with intrinsically
motivated learners
1) ______________________________________________________
2) ______________________________________________________
3) ______________________________________________________
4) ______________________________________________________
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Unit 2 Section 1
4. List the five learning levels described in David Kratwohl’s Taxonomy of the
Affective Domain
1) _____________________________________________________
2) _____________________________________________________
3) _____________________________________________________
4) _____________________________________________________
5) _____________________________________________________
5. Define the following two terms as they relate to Jack Mezirow’s
Transformation Theory
1) Instrumental Learning:
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2) Communicative learning
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Unit 2 Section 2
Learning in Groups
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Unit 2 Section 2
2.1 Introduction
What is group learning?
An important feature of most face-to-face teaching is that it takes place with
a group/cohort of students. However, formal lectures at times can be seen as an
attempt to remove the group learning dimension, with an emphasis on the instructor
as the fountain of knowledge. Group learning, building on the potential of social
constructivism, is an important teaching/learning technique that can be used to
ensure active participation and peer-to-peer learning.
In a group setting, learners have an opportunity to interact with each other to
acquire and practise the elements of a subject matter and to meet common learning
goals.
The following section looks at the theory behind group development and how learners
behave in groups. It also considers techniques for managing group learning activities
to ensure that a focus is maintained on learning objectives.
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. List and describe the different stages of learner group development and their
impact on group performance
2. Explain the principles of group dynamics and the effect of individual
characteristics on group performance
3. Describe techniques for creating a climate that promotes learning in group
activities
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Unit 2 section 2
2.2 Group Development
Comprehensive learning groups take time to develop. The length of time depends on
factors such size, frequency of interaction, and structural features. Published
literature on the development of learning groups reveal a wide range of models
concerning developmental processes.
Probably the most influential model of the developmental process of groups has
been that of Bruce Tuchman (1965) which was based on an analysis of group
models which had previously been developed.
Though originally developed as a four stage model (i.e., forming, storming, norming,
performing) the model was further refined to include adjourning (see Figure 2.7).
Figure 2.7: Five Stages of Group Development
Stage 1: Forming
In this stage, there is a sense of exploration as group members get to know one
another. There's a focus on similarities and differences and first impressions are key
as people try to figure each other out. Group members also look for a group leader to
provide guidance and direction. Orientation is an important task in the forming stage.
Members attempt to become oriented to the tasks as well as to one another.
It is also helpful to set group ground rules at this stage, which are expectations
about how the group will interact, for example task division, how decisions will be
made, and how people will treat each other.
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Unit 2 section 2
To progress to the next, each member must relinquish the comfort of non-threatening
topics and risk the possibility of conflict. Characteristics of the Forming Stage
Exploration
Focus on similarities and differences
First impressions are key
Confusion/anxiety
Lower productivity
Issues of inclusion, leadership, developing trust
Open communication is a must
Stage 2: Storming
In this stage, when group members get to know each other better, conflicts can
emerge in the relationship of members based on issues relating to the task and
responsibilities.
As the group organisation begins to take form, individuals may have to move from
their comfort zones and be forced to change their beliefs, feelings and attitudes to
suit. If this move is resisted conflict can ensue.
Relationships may become strained and differences uncomfortable. Therefore, where
practicable, some of these issues must be resolved because if left unaddressed, they
may precipitate anger and hostility, and therefore the group may become rather
unproductive.
In order to progress to the next stage, group members must move from a "testing and
proving" mentality to a problem-solving mentality. The most important factor in
enabling groups to move forward is addressing problems such as conflict within the
group, poor communication styles, and learning to appreciating differences between
members of the group. Defining characteristics of the Storming Stage are:
Competition between members
Strained relationships
Leadership challenge
Tension and disunity
Ensuing differences become uncomfortable
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Unit 2 section 2
Stage 3: Norming
In the norming stage, the group begins to be effective. Group members become
aware of their role within the group and become comfortable in working on and
maintaining the group dynamics.
At this stage group members have a trust in their peers in the group, which allows
for an open mind and forms basis for true collaboration. The issues become how to
strengthen relationships, open communication and provide positive and constructive
feedback.
The team now focuses on cooperation. However, group members may begin to fear
the breakup and therefore they may resist change of any sort. Defining characteristics
of the Norming Stage are:
Increased cohesion and collaboration
Emerging trust
Appreciation of intrinsic differences that may prevail
Issues of strengthening relationships, open communication,
positive/constructive feedback
Stage 4: Performing
Groups that are able to reach the Performing stage are typically filled with enthusiasm
and focused on creative problem solving in an interdependent way.
Characteristics of a group at the performing stage include harmony, productivity,
effective problem-solving and full development of the potential of the group and the
individuals in the group.
In this stage, learners can work independently, in subgroups, or as a total unit. Their
roles adjust to the changing needs of the group and individuals. Individual members
have become self-assuring, and the need for group approval is less significant.
Leadership is shared and participative, and the group leadership role is mainly
delegation. The overall goal at this stage is productivity through problem-solving and
work. Defining characteristics of the Performing Stage are:
Harmony
Productivity
Problem-solving
Shared and participative leadership
Full development of potential
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Unit 2 section 2
Stage 5: Adjourning
Adjourning is the final stage which only occurs when a group has fulfilled its goals
and objectives. This stage may come quickly for a classroom based task though a
more permanent form of group might function for a long period of time without
reaching the adjourning stage.
This stage is also referred to as the Mourning Stage as group members may feel a
sense of loss and their motivation may decline when the group's work comes to an
end.
At the Adjournment Stage it is important to achieve closure for the group on a
positive note, usually by providing recognition for their participation and
accomplishments and celebrating the group’s overall success.
The following points are key for a learner group to successfully develop through the
stages of group development (Tuckman & Jensen, 1977):
1. Rotate the responsibility of group facilitation;
2. The purpose/mission of the group must be clear to all members and the
purpose/mission should be periodically revisited;
3. Ground rules should be established and monitored;
4. The group should understand that “positive conflict” is a normal and perhaps
necessary part of group development;
5. Members must be reminded to “listen” to each other.
6. Wrap-up at the end of each session should comprise of meaningful and
constructive comments relative to the group process.
7. Everyone must contribute and work to make the group a “learning team.”
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Unit 2 section 2
2.3 Group Performance
A useful tool to support the work of facilitating groups for instructors is the team
performance model developed by Drexler at al. (2009). In this model, they identify
seven stages that describe a team's evolution from formation through task completion
and renewal (Figure 2.8).
Figure 2.8: Seven Stages of Team Performance (adopted from Drexler et al. (2009)
1. Orientation
Group members need to know why they are in a group and why others are there.
They need to know how they can contribute to the work of the group. They need to
know that the team can accomplish something worthwhile.
Learners will ask questions like:
What will these sessions be like?
Will I be able to succeed in this course?
Do I know enough to be successful here?
How will this course help me?
At this stage a learner will need to be given the answers to these question or they
may disengage from the group activities. The instructor should try to show how the
module links with the needs of the learners. This link is fundamental in providing the
individual members to take the risk in participating with the group.
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2. Trust building
Group members need to know they can trust the other members of the team and need
to feel trusted by them. When team members trust each other, the feedback is more
open and honest. Members learn that their own risk taking build this trust.
Learners will ask questions like:
How am I like other people here? Am I different from
them?
Will they like me? What will happen if they don’t accept
me?
Will I look stupid? Will I embarrass myself?
If the learner does not get satisfactory answers to these questions, then they are likely
to look at other members with distrust. They will not relax within the group and often
feel isolated, they may at this stage, decide to try and leave the group. If the answers
are satisfactory, they will feel comfortable in the group, and as a consequence will
feel more ready to learn. A key issue for the instructor is to help the group members
to trust one another.
3. Goal and role clarification
Group members need to know the specific task of the group. They need to know and
understand what is within their area of control and what is not, and what each person’s
roles of responsibility are with respect to these goals. Agreement on the purpose of
the group and roles of the members needs to be agreed before meaningful work can
be done by the group.
Learners will ask questions like:
How will this group be different from my daily interactions with others?
What risks will I have to take?
If I’m asked to do things, will others see how nervous I am?
What will happen if I’m asked to do something and I don’t succeed?
How important will I be in the group?
If the learner does not get satisfactory answers to these questions, they are left with
two options, to either fight for their role or the learner will become quiet and
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disillusioned. The instructor will need to facilitate the group by developing appropriate
answers to the above questions. This allows each member of the group to see their
role and expectations of their contribution to the group.
Drucker (1995) proposed a criteria for guiding a group in reaching its goals. This
criteria was represented with the acronym SMART though originally developed for
the workplace it may be suitable for learning goals. Drucker stated that each task
should include the elements illustrated in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9: Drucker's SMART criteria
4. Commitment
Group members need to know how they will do their work together. They need to
have a shared understanding of how decisions will be made; how resources will be
allocated, and how dependant they are within the group on each other’s application
to the goals of the group (interdependency).
Learners will ask questions like:
How are we going to achieve our goals?’
Who decides how we arrive at decisions?
What is my role?
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If the learner does not feel valued or adequately supported at this stage they may
again question their position within the group. When the group is successful at this
stage everyone in the group has a shared vision of where the group is going and they
understand and accept the role that each person will play in achieving the goals of
the groups. Resources are distributed to help them achieve their aims.
5. Implementation
Members of the group need to have a clear vision of the overall process for the group
successfully achieving its goal. They need to see how their individual contributions as
well as each members contributions impact with this process.
At the implementation stage, the group puts into practice the plans it has. The
members get a chance to carry out the roles that they saw for themselves in the
previous stages. Everyone is working from a sense of who should be doing what,
where and when.
Some issues that may arise at this stage if it has not been well developed include;
The group project is likely to be highly confused.
Group members work to a schedule that suits them, rather than the group
task.
Group members question their commitment to the group.
The members may start to renegotiate on their role in the group, and wonder
about their possible contribution.
Though a well-developed process will lead to a group that is highly motivated. This
will allow the members to contribute in achieving the groups’ goals during the
implementation stage and provide for a strong sense of satisfaction amongst its
members.
6. High Performance
Only teams where members become highly interdependent, highly interdisciplinary
and creative in their problem solving achieve the high performance level. At this stage
all team members are working in unison towards, the group’s goals. This often leads
to the group wanting to take on other projects of a similar nature so that it can use its
expertise. If the stage is not well managed by the facilitator, the group can begin to
suffer from strain of working at this high performance level.
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Overload can sometimes lead to a lowering in performance levels, and a series of
missed deadlines. The group may regress to the previous stage and would need to
reorganise its implementation of the group project. However, if the group has a well
thought out implementation plan, the bond between the members of group can
become even more cohesive. The group will have strong sense of each other’s
abilities and weakness and be able to compensate for them.
7. Renewal
From time to time members in a group need to recommit themselves to the work of
the group or decide to leave the group. At this stage members can decide that they
have achieved the purpose of the group, celebrate the completion of the project, and
they disband. If they feel that the group still has value, it allows for a refocus on the
purpose of the group.
Summary of Model
Drexler’s seven-stage model (Drexler,, et al., 2009) focuses mainly on the energy
level of the group. Even assuming positive intent on the part of the participants, the
journey from a group to a team can face many obstacles.
A skilled instructor needs to facilitate the group through seven development stages
so that they become a group in the full meaning of the word as opposed to a
collection of individuals (Figure 2.10)
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Figure 2.10: The Team Performance Model
Figure 2.10 depicts the sequence of the seven stages. It is important to remember
that as the group moves toward its goal of ‘high performance’ it may regress by a
stage before moving forward again. Individual members may also move at a different
pace towards the reach different stages at different times.
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2.4 Group dynamics
Group dynamics have a major impact on the success of learner groups through all
stages of development. Not only does the different type of participants have an impact
but also nature of hierarchy in groups as may be prescribed by the instructor.
There are three types of hierarchy in decision-making.
1. Autocratic: The instructor decides everything, without any consultation.
2. Consultative: The instructor consults with the learners about their needs
and what ideas they have. However, the final decision is the instructors.
3. Cooperation: Here, the focus is on partnership between the instructor and
the learners.
The selection of the above type of hierarchy within the classroom will impact on the
three generic types of learners below.
1. Dominant learner: Dominant behaviour can often disrupt the dynamics of a
group and the synergy of the training session. Individuals may dominate group
activities or discussions to such an extent that others may feel excluded from
contributing.
2. The passive learner: the passive or non-participating individual needs the
instructor’s attention to encourage them to participate. Individuals may be
passive for a variety of reasons. They may be bored, anxious, or shy.
3. The resistant learner: a learner may show resistance to the training event
for a number of reasons. These include past experience, personal problems,
literacy problems, feeling overwhelmed or resentment because they have to
attend training.
Handling of difficult participants
Although the proceeding above section described of the three generic type of
learners, it is worthwhile to further delve into the characteristics of the disruptive type
of learner. Pike and Arch (1997) describe a number of different types of participants
and how they can disrupt the group dynamic (Figure 2.11).
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Unit 2 section 2
Figure 2.11: Types of group participants (adopted from Pike and Arch (1997))
It is important to recognise why people behave in particular ways. Some reasons may
include:
1. They are seeking attention. They need to be recognised and hope that
someone in the group, especially you as a trainer, will give them a little extra
attention.
2. They wish to avoid failure. Sometimes, learners are afraid that they may be
asked to do things that they are unable to do, or will make them look foolish.
One way of coping with this is by engaging in distracting behaviour.
3. They want to achieve status in the group. This is basically a power issue. The
learner may need to be confronted about this behaviour.
1. They have very difficult personality factors, which may need professional help.
Sometimes learners have behaviour problems that an instructor cannot deal
with in the training session.
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Approaches for handling difficult participants
In order to deal with the variety of participants involved with groups, Pike and Arch
(1997) described a set of general approaches to dealing with them, and particularly
difficult participants!!!!!!!
Instructor led activities
These are actions taken by the instructor to deal with the participant. Such actions
include varying the pace, raising your voice, using humour. Standing close or use
frequent eye contact with them to someone who is distracting the group.
By breaking up a training session with focus groups or brainstorming sessions it
will help to keep learners involved. Sometimes, an individual will need to be
dealt with on a private basis, so as not to embarrass them in the group.
Adequate preparation by the instructor can help to limit disruptive behaviour. In
theory this planning needs to take into account the individual needs of the
learners, but can be difficult to deal with in short learning sessions such as 1 day
events. Again in these situations the instructor will need to use humour, frequent
opportunities for learner engagement, group exercises and feedback sessions.
Group Work
While the learners are engaged in group work, the instructor can organise group
work so that disruptive individuals do not ruin the training session by:
Rotating membership of small groups,
Building in incentives for success, which often helps concentration.
Rotating roles in groups — leader, recorder, time keeper, etc.,(the
rationale for this is follows)
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Unit 2 section 2
Figure 2.12: Students engaged in group work
It is also important to remember that since learning is about change, it is
disadvantageous for any member to become fixed in their role within the group.
Members of a group will attempt to take up the same role in every group, if
provided the opportunity. Some steps the instructor can take to combat this
include:
Asking any quiet members of the group for specific contribution, i.e.,
attempting to take answers from all members of the group;
Select less obvious, for example quiet or shy learners to lead
groups
It means picking up on lateness etc., by the "good" learners as
well
And of course it means not discriminating against anyone on
the grounds of their basic roles
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Handling of extreme cases of disruption of learning.
An instructor may have to deal with extremely disruptive individual from time to
time.
Several techniques can be employed but only when the instructor feels that there
is a danger of a participant getting the group completely off track.
Confront someone and ask them to give specific examples, and deal with
them.
Ask the person to stop and take up the issue after the session.
In serious cases, request that someone be removed from your course.
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Summary
In a group learning setting, learners have an opportunity to interact with each
other to acquire and practise the elements of a subject matter and to meet
common learning goals.
The most influential model of the developmental process of groups has been
that of Bruce Tuchman a five stage model (forming, storming, norming,
performing and adjourning.)
A skilled instructor needs to facilitate the group through Drucker’s seven
development stages so that they become a group in the full meaning of the
word as opposed to a collection of individuals
Actions such as varying the pace, raising your voice, using humour may be
need to be taken by the instructor to deal disruptive participants.
Breaking up a training session with focus groups or brainstorming sessions
may help to keep learners involved. Sometimes, an individual will need to be
dealt with on a private basis, so as not to embarrass them in the group.
It is important to remember that since learning is about change it is
disadvantageous for any member to become fixed in their role within the
group.
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M4.U2.S2 Progress Check
1. Identify three the different type in learners and how they can disrupt the group
dynamic.
1) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. Describe a strategy that you may use to minimise the disruption of one of the
above types of learner.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. List and explain the 5 stages of group development.
Stage 1.___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Stage 2.___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Stage 3.___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Stage 4.___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Stage 5.___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
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4. Briefly describe the five elements of Drucker’s criteria for guiding goals in
group work
1) S. _____________________________________________________
2) M. ____________________________________________________
3) A. _____________________________________________________
4) R. _____________________________________________________
5) T. _____________________________________________________
5. List and provide a brief description of each of Drexler’s Seven Stages of Team
Performance
1) ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2) ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3) ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
4) ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
5) ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
6) ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
7) ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
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Unit 3
Teaching & Assessment Methods
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Unit 3: Teaching and Assessment Methods
There are many challenges presented in teaching and assessing vocational learners.
In Unit 1 of this manual, it was acknowledged that there are a range of models for
learning. It was also recognised that learners require methods that either lend
themselves to their learning style or the task at hand. Unit 2 outlined key performance
features of the vocational learner, particularly addressing their motivational needs and
also identified the need for attitudinal change. Unit 2 also addressed the role of group
work in the development of skill and competence outcomes and the challenges that
it presents in learning process.
It has been argued that the approach to FES training should differ from the traditional
models of skills training associated with construction workers, for two main reasons:
Firstly, FES training will be delivered to groups from mixed trades and crafts, and
secondly a large proportion of the learners will be mature as opposed to young trainee
apprentices. Additionally, consideration should be given to the learner support
required, as a result of the shift in responsibility for learning from the instructor to
learner and also the increased emphases on attitudinal change.
The purpose of this unit is to discuss the challenges and opportunities that may have
impact on the teaching and assessment methods in the FES programme. The
structure is as follows:
Section 1 - Content Delivery Methods; considers the appropriate methods of
delivery for learners in the context of FES training.
Section 2 - Assessment Methods; considers why we assess and provides an
overview of a selection of methods for assessment.
At the end of this unit you will be able to:
1. Describe a range of training delivery methods most appropriate to the context
of FES learning objectives.
2. List and describe the strategies and methods of assessment that are
appropriate for verifying the attainment of specific learning outcomes at
designated levels in the National Qualification Framework.
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Content Delivery Methods
Unit 3 Section 1
1.1 Introduction
Learning instruction requires comprehensive planning. Effectiveness of specific
approaches to learner instruction to a certain extent influences the choice of delivery
method. As previously discussed, the objectives of the FES training are built upon a
belief that a constructivist approach is required.
This Section will look at the practicalities of the physical makeup of the Arenas of
learning. As discussed in Unit 2 Section 1, arenas are where the learning takes place,
e.g., classroom, laboratories, workshops etc.
Delivery methods will also be examined, taking into account preferred learner styles.
As discussed in Unit 1 Section 1 a wide range of learners benefit from delivery
methods that are appropriate to the learning task at hand, even if they have a
preference towards one style or model. Two challenges that are of particular
importance to the delivery of FES include:
1. How to ensure that what is learned theoretically in one context may be applied
effectively in another;
2. Anticipating how best learners can be taught so that they can prompt
themselves to use skills learned in one context when they need to translate
them for another.
Allowing opportunity for learner-tutor and learner-learner interaction, providing
feedback and encouragement, and maintaining a learning environment which is
respectful and inclusive for all is fundamental to catering for learner needs. This is
essential when ensuring the correct selection of delivery methods. This section begins
by outlining the requirements for arena such as training materials and locations. It
also describes a variety of delivery methods that will be applicable to courses in FES.
At the end of this section you will be able to:
Describe the characteristics of training materials.
List the requirements of a training location.
Select the appropriate delivery methods for achievement of prescribed
learning outcomes.
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1.2 Physical Learning Environment
The physical learning environment includes the lighting, temperature, noise levels
and seating arrangements within the training arena. These play an important part in
helping learners interact with each other and with the trainer. This interaction helps
create learning opportunities and contributes to the overall success of the training
session. The key factors for consideration in the physical learning environment
include: lighting; temperature; noise levels, and; seating arrangements.
Lighting
Adequate lighting is necessary for learning activities. Appropriate lighting requires a
balance and a flexibility that will depend on the instruction methods and type of
learning activities. For example a lecture may require the light to be dimmed to make
the presentation clearer.
Temperature
The temperature in the training room or venue must be comfortable for learners. A
recommended minimum temperature range is 18°C and maximum of 26°C in the
shading, where average level of clothing and activity (e.g. classrooms) takes place.
(TUI, 2015) However, a comfortable temperature setting will depend on factors such
as: the physical activity involved in the training session; clothing such as indoor
clothing or special purpose work clothing, e.g., overalls; room ventilation etc.
Extremes of heat or cold will make the training environment unpleasant, hence,
interfere with effective learning. For example, learners may become uncomfortable
and consequently lose interest in what you are delivering.
Noise
Noise levels in the training environment may interfere with learners’ ability to hear the
instruction. Traffic noise, radios, noise from adjacent rooms or machinery may
interfere with delivery of training content.
Seating arrangements
The seating configuration you choose for the learning group will influence the
dynamics of the group. A classroom/lecture style set-up for example, like that
illustrated in Figure 3.1, does not promote interaction and discussion among the
learners. This style of seating arrangement tends to promote a formal atmosphere
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within the learning environment. In general, aim for a more open style learning
environment.
Figure 3.1: Classroom Style Layout in Rooms
A more suitable seating arrangement for a training session involving adults, is the
horseshoe or u-shape configuration. This configuration offers the advantage that all
learners can easily see each other.
This aspect alone facilitates worthwhile interaction during discussions and question-
and-answer sessions. This type seating arrangement (Figure 3.2) allows the trainer
to move around inside the horseshoe to interact with learners and thus to enhance
the rapport with the learners.
Figure 3.2: U- style Seating Layout
Other seating arrangements that facilitate interactive learning include a semi-circle or
full circle of chairs, or conference-style around a table as in Figure 3.3.
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Figure 3.3: Training room with round tables
There are many methods for the delivery of the curriculum. With the development of
our understanding of learning theory’s and learning styles and it is possible to come
to the conclusion that a variety of approaches in the delivery of learning content works
best (see Section 1.3 below). At this stage it is important to recognise that Information
Technology may play a role in the delivery and where possible examples of this will
be shown.
1.3 Outline of course delivery methods
There are a variety of delivery methods that could be used in FES courses. They may
be selected based on the underpinning learning models as well as support for learner
motivation. These methods include:
Traditional lecture-based delivery
Structured lessons
Case studies
Role Play
Practical demonstrations
Discussions
Problem-based learning (PBL)
Distance learning.
Traditional lecture-based delivery
Lecturing is a delivery/teaching method that involves, primarily, an oral presentation
given by a trainer to a group of students, accompanied by some sort of visual aid,
such as a slideshow (e.g. PowerPoint), a word document, an image, selection of
audio, or a film.
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Presentation or lecture-based deliveries are often key elements of a training event.
Some trainers use aids such as a whiteboard or a chalkboard to emphasize
important points in the lecture. While presentations and lectures have the
disadvantage of being a passive learning activity for learners, wisely prepared and
delivered, they are effective ways of presenting new knowledge-based content to
learners. They allow the instructor to convey enthusiasm for the topic, to tailor the
topic to the learners needs and to emphasise points that have particular relevance for
learners. They also provide an opportunity for learners to ask questions. It must note
that lectures may not always be most appropriate methods if the purpose is to change
attitude, in this case structured lessons and discussions may be more appropriate
(Bligh, 2000).
Successful lectures require attention to three key elements:
1. Preparing the presentation.
2. Delivering the presentation.
3. Handling learner questions.
Successful presentations always have a purpose; in a training context the purpose of
a presentation is to deliver training content that will help learners achieve learning
outcomes. As we have previously learned, it is the structure and order for the delivery
of content that heavily influences the ability of the learner to digest and encode the
new information. The structure typically includes an introduction, main body of the
learning content and a conclusion.
Key advantages
Teacher control: Because the lecture is delivered by one authoritative
figure (an instructor/lecturer) that person has full reign of the direction of
the lesson and the tone of the classroom. They alone are able to shape
the course, and so lectures remain highly consistent when it comes to what
kind of information is delivered, and how it’s delivered.
New material: Lectures are literally just long-winded explanations of
information, deemed important by the lecturer. As such, students can
absorb large quantities of new material.
Effortless: The lecture method makes the process mostly effortless on the
part of the learner, who need only pay attention during the lecture and take
notes where they see fit.
Cost: Can be effectively delivered to large groups.
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Disadvantages
Learning Model: Only 20% of information delivered by presentation or lecture
is retained by listeners immediately afterwards.
Passive Learning: Lectures have the disadvantage of being a passive
learning activity for learners, not being actively engaged in a discussion over
certain material can make the material itself seem worthless to a learner.
Strong speaker expectations: The lecture method can be
disadvantageous to the trainer as well. Not all trainers can be expected to
have the same level of public speaking skill and being the one that is
expected to do the lecturing might not be the best way for every instructor to
present their course material.
Structured Lessons
As described above, the traditional lecture is delivered by one authoritative figure
and that person has full reign of the direction of the lesson and the tone of the room,
i.e. predominantly one-way communication.
A structured lesson on the other hand requires a collaborative approach between
the instructor and a group of learners. This is the main difference between the
traditional lecture and the structured lesson.
By actively involving learners through a social constructivist approach, it is possible
to increase learner confidence and motivation (as considered in Unit 2 Section 1).This
increases the likelihood that learning will take place. It also helps to develop the
learners’ communications skills.
For effective lesson delivery in structured lessons:
Know the learners, and their level of attainment.
Be clear on what is to be achieved during the lesson.
Keep the order of learning material logical and clear.
Keep in mind the social character of the lesson (formal/informal).
Interestingly, these key points for effective lesson delivery replicate Bruner’s key
principles of instruction which facilitate social constructivism (see Unit 1, Section 1).
Gagne nine instructional events (as discussed Unit 1 Section 2), for example,
provides a framework for the sequencing of lessons which address a number of
prerequisites for learning, e.g. attention, presentation of new information, feedback,
reinforcement.
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It is envisaged that the delivery of the FES training will be based on the use of
structured lessons. As has been explained earlier, structured lessons may include
some lecturing but more importantly incorporate many deliver methods that are
considered most appropriate to support the learning objectives of the FES
programme. These include:
Group activities (as outlined in Unit 2 Section 2 previously)
Case studies
Role play
Practical demonstrations
Discussions
Problem based learning
Case Studies
Case studies can be a useful delivery method as a substitute for work based learning.
They provide realistic simulations of the kinds of real life situations learners can
expect in industry. They are particularly useful in courses of limited time as several
case studies can be examined in a short period of time.
In discussing case studies and considering scenarios and possible solutions, learners
can develop skills which will be transferrable to the workplace. These shills include:
Identification of problems or challenges
Understanding and interpreting data
Analysing information
Recognising assumptions and inferences
Thinking analytically and critically
Exercising judgement
Taking and defending decisions
Understanding interpersonal relationships
Communicating ideas and opinions
There are many different ways to use case studies. How they are used will depend
on the length of the course, the subject matter and upon the delivery style of the
trainer.
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In a short training course for example a presentation perhaps with supporting visual
aids, is a really good way of providing practical examples of the theory or
techniques that are being covered.
The presentation can be followed by questions and answers (Q/A) to give the learners
a chance to clarify and enhance understanding. A structured Q/A session with the
presenter asking questions will help to focus participants on particular aspects of the
problem in the case. (Blanchard & Thacker, 2003)
It is envisaged that FES training will include case studies will be presented to learners
as recommended above. The case studies will represent a collection of work of
varying quality to enable learners an opportunity to appreciate the principles of best
practice.
Role Play
The role play is a simulation of a single event or situation. Learners, who are actors
in the role play are provided with a general description of the situation, a description
of their roles (e.g., their objectives, emotions, and concerns) and the problem they
face. The learners can act out the assigned roles in order to explore the scenario,
apply skills (maybe communication, negotiation, debate etc.), and experience the
scenario from another view point. It helps to make sense of FES theory and gathers
together the concepts into a practical experience.
This method is particularly relevant for adult learners as it allows them to bring their
prior knowledge and experience to a learning activity.
There are a variety of ways of structuring a role play activity but they all have the
following characteristics:
Definitive Aims and Objectives (is it to practice skills, explore concepts etc.)
A defined setting/placement
A define clear role descriptors
A Defined time limit
A list of observer tasks (if any)
A debrief agenda
A list of facilitator tasks
As with other delivery methods, role play has several advantages and disadvantages
to be aware of. They include:
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Advantages
Energising activity / fun to do
Allows learners to actively contribute
Time efficient
Can be used to deliver complex concepts in a simple manner
Disadvantages
Learners may be reluctant
Can feel threatening for some learners
Learners can get too involved and loose objectivity
Instructor may take sides
(Harbour & Connick, 2004)
Practical demonstrations
This method usually follows the format of a trainer demonstrating a new skill with
learners observing. Demonstrations are an effective method of instructing on best
practice in construction techniques. They have a significant advantage of bringing
industry based examples (real life) into training activities which allows the learners to
see the relevance of the training.
Figure 3.4: Instructor demonstration in a Brick & Stone class
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As with all delivery methods, practical demonstrations require preparation and
advance planning for successful delivery. Preparation for practical demonstrations
involves a number of steps, as depicted in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5: Steps for practical preparation
It is important to remember when determining the steps involved in practical
demonstrations to break them down completely. To group steps together or skip
small steps may be confusing for learners. When carrying out a demonstration it is
good practice to:
Ensure that all learners can clearly see what you are doing.
Introduce the topic and explain the purpose of the practical demonstration with
reference to the learning outcomes.
Check current knowledge of the performance of the procedure.
Explain new terms and key points.
Explain each step thoroughly as you demonstration of the procedure.
Inform the learners of performance standards required.
Advantages
Learners have the opportunity to observe best practice first hand in a step-by-
step format.
Often provides learners with the opportunity to touch and feel materials and
tools used in practice.
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Disadvantages
Large volumes of materials may be needed as mistakes are often made at the
first attempt by students.
The location in which the demonstration is been conducted needs to be of
adequate size so all learners can observe without the need for several
repetitions.
Discussions
Discussions are an excellent method of learning and teaching through interaction with
instructors and peers alike. Small group discussions are better than a whole class
discussion as they encourage more pupils to give their own views through open
participation. They are also easier to manage.
Learners may be divided into small groups of 4-5, given questions or tasks to discuss
and then required to report back to the whole group (Lyman, 1981). This type of
activity has been used extensively at workshop events for this Train the Trainer
programme. The sharing of ideas and experiences are particularly relevant in FES
training as it is envisaged that training will be delivered to groups from mixed
disciplines i.e. electricians, plumbers, carpenters, glazers etc.
Discussions don’t always involve the presentation of new information and concepts.
They also involve sharing of ideas and experiences, solving problems and
promoting tolerance with understanding.
Advantages
It teaches interpersonal skills such as understanding and communication.
It provides an opportunity for pupils to learn from each other, thus
encouraging teamwork.
It promotes tolerance and helps learners to understand that there are many
aspects or opinions to any one topic.
It also helps leadership, speaking and listening skills.
Disadvantages
Discussions can be very time consuming.
They can be dominated by the outspoken pupils.
Focus can easily be lost.
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Problem Based Learning (PBL)
Problem-based learning (PBL) is a learner-centred model in which students learn
about a subject through the experience of problem solving. Students learn strategies
for dealing with problems and specific knowledge related to the learning objectives.
The goals of PBL are to help the learners;
Develop flexible knowledge.
Learn effective problem solving skills.
Approach learning in a self-directed manner.
Develop effective collaboration skills.
Improve intrinsic motivation.
Working in groups, students identify what they already know, what they need to know,
and how and where to access new information that may lead to resolution of the
problem.
The role of the instructor (known as the tutor in PBL) is to facilitate learning by
supporting, guiding, and monitoring the learning process. The tutor must build a
learners confidence to take on the problem through encouragement, while also
stretching their understanding. This approach represents a shift from the more
didactic traditional teaching methods such as lecture-based methods.
Advantages
Promotes self-motivation and self-responsibility to learn.
Facilitates more enjoyable and more effective learning.
Encourages learning from experience, allowing students to use and organise
what has been learnt to understand problems.
Integrates knowledge with practice.
Nurtures the ability to analyse problems and to identify and acquire
knowledge and skills needed to deal with real-life situations.
Develops teamwork and communication skills.
Trains students to be reflective and assess their own work and others work
also.
Promotes independence, curiosity, and skills for self-directed, life-long
learning.
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Disadvantages
Higher time demands: PBL takes more time to teach the same content
Change of roles: Learners have to change attitude and go from memorization
of facts to an active searching for information. Instructors have to shift from
dissemination of information to a tutor's and guide role.
Increase in upfront instructor preparation time due to the formulation of
appropriate problems that encompass both a large goal and specific
objectives
Distance learning
In recent years, distance learning has become an increasingly popular way to provide
access to educational programs and for people to learn about topics and get
qualifications they might not otherwise have been able to pursue.
Distance learning occurs when there is a separation between lecturer and the
learner, usually due to geographical or time concerns that prevent the learners from
attending an on-campus course.
Often, electronic means are used to bridge this gap and distribute educational
material though mediums such as a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) e.g. Moodle
or Blackboard.
Electronic means are used to distribute the learning material, keep learners in touch
with lecturers, and provide access to communication between learners. The
communicating of information is easier and more efficient than ever before and
learners may find possibilities for using interactive videos, e-mail, and discussion
boards to complete their lessons.
Advantages
Possible to learn from any location.
Increased choice of training institution.
Lower costs in delivery.
Flexibility for those in employment.
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Disadvantages
Lack of social interaction for learners.
Format isn’t ideal for all learners.
Some employers don’t accept online degrees.
Requires adaptability to new technologies.
Requires access to high speed broadband connection
Not all courses required to complete the degree may be offered online.
1.4 Training Aids and Materials
As we have previously learned the use of visual learning materials helps a variety of
learners to engage with the learning content. In order to be effective, learning
resources need to be well designed and exhibit the principles of effective instructional
design. Below is brief description of the training aids that may be used during FES
training programme.
Flipcharts/Wipe boards
Flip charts/Wipe boards are both a static display tool with prepared content similar to
Presentation software slides and a dynamic creation tool like a whiteboard which
allows for the creation of content during the learning activity
Hand-outs
A hand-out is a hard copy text which supports, expands on, organises or otherwise
provides follow up to the learning session (Figure 3.6). It provides reinforcement of
the information transmitted during the training session and it remains with the learner
for a long time.
When developing hand-outs for learning it is best to think about how they might be
used after the training session is over. Design them to be used to help learner
remember what they have learned and to extend their knowledge further by reading
material not covered in the course.
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Figure 3.6: Example of a hand-out sheet for an in-class activity
Presentation Software
Presentation software is a computer programme which allows you to design a format,
draft text and include illustrations which can then be projected as slides onto a screen
for delivery as a presentation (see Figure 3.7 for sample slide). The equipment
configuration varies but usually there is a desktop computer or laptop linked to a data
projector.
Figure 3.7: Example of a presentation slide developed with PowerPoint software
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The software will also generate a variety of documents that can be used as hand-outs
or as the basis for annotated speaker’s notes. When developing presentations you
can select from a broad range of backgrounds, fonts, styles and formats. The
software, particularly Microsoft PowerPoint, provides some of these and they can be
easily customised. An advantage of computer-based presentations is that they can
be easily adapted and reused.
Transparencies
Transparencies are also known as Overheads or slides. They can consist of pictures
or writing printed, written or drawn onto a sheet of acetate. This can be placed on the
bed of an overhead projector and via light and magnification technology an image is
projected onto a white wall or screen.
Transparencies can be a very robust and resilient form of visual aid as the technology
is cheaper, less prone to break-down and glitches than computer technology. It is
possible to write on blank transparencies, meaning they can be very responsive to
classroom needs as they can be created during the training session. They are also
more flexible as the order of slides can be changed during a presentation according
to need.
Videos
Videos, DVDs and audio tapes can be useful ways of reinforcing, introducing or filling
in detail on the subject being taught. These can be shown to the class and used as
in conjunction with a discussion before and/or after the showing. They need be short
in duration and of a professional standard.
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Table 3.1: summarising where a number of instructional aids may be used with their
main advantages and disadvantages.
Table 2.1: Summary of Instructional Aids
Instructional
Aid
Useful for Advantages Disadvantages
Flipcharts/
Whiteboards
Recording ideas from brainstorming and feedback
Clarifying points from oral presentations and demonstrations
Making lists
Can be used without preparing in advance
Inexpensive
Requires excellent writing skills
Can be confusing and hard to read if crammed with information
Can be difficult to use without turning your back on learners
Hand-outs Providing guidelines for activities
Supplementing visual aids
Supplementing demonstrations
Provide detail for activities
Memory aids to presentations and demonstrations
Must be well structured and clearly written
Must be kept up to date with presentations
PowerPoint Slides
Gaining attention with the use of graphics
Providing reinforcement of oral presentations
Emphasising key points
Help learners remember what you say
Easily combine works with graphics animations videos and sound
Depending on technology to work
Passive form of delivery
Transparencies Gaining attention with the use of graphics
Providing reinforcement of oral presentations
Emphasising key points
Can easily annotate on the day
Help learners remember what you say
Easily combine works with graphics animations videos and sound
Can become disorganised
Difficult to keep updated
Depending on technology to work
Videos Provides visual support for concepts and ideas
Good for demonstrating skills
Good for providing attitude training
Effective in demonstrating best practice
Engaging for the learner
Costly to develop
Learners may become too passive
Needs to be high quality not to distract the learner
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Guidelines for preparing learning material
There are several factors that determine the success of learning aids. At this stage it
is useful to remember the general charter tics of learners involved in the FES. They
are motivated by practical and active learning, looking for opportunities to apply their
learning to work-related contexts or at work, and by the use of industry-quality
resources. The factors that will need to be considered when designing for these
student’s include content, visibility, colours and pictures, and layout. The following
section will examine these factors in more detail.
Content
There are a set of instructional design principles to consider when selecting or
designing learning content to be used for delivery. This set of 12 key principles
sets out research-based ways in which to engage the learner when delivered in
an online format.
Mayer (2004) further refined this list to 5 key principles when delivering courses.
These are:
•People learn better when cues that highlight the organisation of the essential material are added.
1. The Signalling Principle ‐
•People learn better from a lesson that is presented in user‐paced segments rather than as a continuous unit.
2. The Segmenting Principle ‐
•People learn better from graphics and narrations as opposed to animation and on‐screen text.
3. The Modality Principle ‐
•People learn better from words and pictures, than from words alone.
4. The Multimedia Principle ‐
•People learn better when extraneous words, pictures and sounds are excluded rather than included.
5. The Coherence Principle ‐
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Other useful guidelines to follow when developing content include:
Use titles and subtitles that are informative or that summarise the text.
Prioritise information so that the most important information is at the
beginning.
Introduce only one idea in one sentence.
Provide descriptive examples when explaining technical words.
Use graphics, charts and pictures to reinforce crucial facts and points.
Deliver the same information both orally and in hand-outs.
Simplify your words and choose standard language.
Be direct, Avoid long sentences.
Remember that visual aids should be used as an aid to your oral
presentations and demonstrations, not as a replacement for them.
Visibility
It is important to ensure that learners are able to see your visual aids. Keep text
clear and easy to read (see Figure 3.2 for guidance). Text should follow
minimum size guidelines:
Sans serif font (such as Arial) is generally easier to read in printed matter.
Use bullet points to emphasise the main points of your slide presentation.
Do not put your entire lecture on the visual aid. For hand-outs, use bold
font to emphasise points.
Table 3.2: Formatting of text in visual aids
Visual aid Titles Subtitles Other text
Flipchart/
Whiteboards
7.5 cm high 5 cm high 4 cm high
Hand-outs 36pt 24pt 16-
18pt
24pt 20pt 14pt 18pt 18pt 12pt
Colour and Pictures
It is important use colour wisely to add impact to your visual aids. Too much
colour distracts, but if you use it well, it creates a mood.
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Blue, for example, indicates reliability, stability and power. Green is associated
with health, the environment, the outdoors. But remember that some people are
colour blind to red and green, so avoid using these colours.
Be cautious when using cartoons, clipart or pictures. Too many may be
distracting; used correctly they can convey a clear meaning of a point you are
making in your presentation.
Layout
It is important not to cram visual aids or the pages of hand-outs with text. In
general, slides should not contain more than 6 or 7 bullet points. Try to include
only one main point on each slide.
For hand-outs, use double-spaced text, so they are easier to read. Allow plenty
of white space (between paragraphs and in the margins) to break up blocks of
text. Learners can use white space for making notes.
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Selection of training aids
A variety of instructional aides have been described in the section above detailing the
advantages and disadvantages of each one. It is important to remember that
instruction aids are there to support the learning process.
Aids that encourage active participation as set out in the theory of social
constructivism (Unit 1 Section 1) are particularly relevant. As illustrated in Figure 3.8,
providing real opportunities for the learners to engage actively with material allows
them to retain more of the information. Gagne’s nine steps of instruction and Mayer’s
five key principles should also be consulted.
Figure 3.8: Levels of retention of information for different delivery methods
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Summary
Curriculum is defined as, all the learning which is planned and guided by the
school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the
school.
In general, a syllabus does not indicate the relative importance of its topics or
the order in which they are to be learned.
The process approach focuses on these interactions which promote learning
and understanding as opposed to just teaching.
Lecturing is a delivery/teaching method that involves, primarily, an oral
presentation given by a trainer to a group of students accompanied by some
sort of visual aid, such as a slideshow (PowerPoint), a word document, an
image, selection of audio, or a film.
Discussions don’t always involve the presentation of new information and
concepts. They also involve sharing of ideas and experiences, solving
problems and promoting tolerance with understanding.
The role of the instructor (known as the tutor in PBL) is to facilitate learning by
supporting, guiding, and monitoring the learning process. The tutor must build
a learners confidence to take on the problem through encouragement, while
also stretching their understanding.
Distance learning occurs when there is a separation between lecturer and the
learner, usually due to geographical or time concerns that prevent the learners
from attending an on-campus course.
By providing real opportunities for the learners to engage actively with material
allows them to retain and reuse the learning material.
Mayer’s 5 key principles when delivering content which are: signalling,
segmenting, coherence, modality, and multimedia
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M1.U3.S1 Progress Check
1. Give three reasons for choosing lectures as a delivery method
1) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. What are the key points to consider when planning a practical demonstration?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. List Mayer’s five key principles and give an example of each.
1) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
5) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Unit 3 Section 2
Assessment Methods
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2.1 Introduction
Assessment in a construction related subject can be difficult to design. All agree that
reliable and valid forms of assessments are required for vocational education. This
assessment should measure the level to which a learner has achieved the
construction related knowledge.
Forms of assessment based on real-life scenarios, such as open-ended questions,
simulations and practical demonstrations have a greater validity as it closely matches
the objectives of the FES programme. There can be difficulties with these forms of
assessment, such as physical availability of suitable workshops or real life situations
on site. Also the evaluation of attitude change can be somewhat subjective which
can lead to uniformity issues with assessments. Some standard assessment tools
such as multiple choice, matching and true/false also have a role to play in assessing
learner knowledge but can be difficult to design to measure high order learning.
At the end of this section you will be able to:
Outline the reasons for assessment
Discuss the underlying principles of assessment with regards to the issue of
quality assurance.
Select the appropriate assessment methods for measuring the attainment of
the prescribed learning outcomes.
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2.2 Why Assess?
There are a variety of reason for assessing learners with the most commonly
acknowledged reason being the measurement of the learning that has taken place or
the skills mastered by a learner. It is considered as a critical element of quality
assurance of a training process. It makes clear the extent to which award standards
are maintained and upheld.
Assessment also provides;
Opportunity for reinforcement of learning material
Opportunity for learners to engage with material
Potential to improve student retention of material
Feedback to learners on their performance.
The opportunity for feedback is recognised in research both by learners and trainers
as having the most influence on the retention of learning material. Feedback ranks
higher than Direct Instruction, Instructional Quality, Student’s Prior Cognitive Ability,
and Student’s Disposition to learn, on the ability for learners to acquire new
knowledge (Hattie, 2009)
Further perspectives are available at:
http://www.teacherstoolbox.co.uk/T_effect_sizes.html
2.3 When to Assess?
Assessment can be carried out before, during and after a course. The timing depends
on the purpose of the assessment. There are three forms of assessment to consider.
1. Diagnostic assessment
Diagnostic assessment happens before a course. As a pre-test, it is a method of
finding out a learner’s current level of knowledge and skill regarding a topic. In this
way you can use it to identify knowledge and skills gaps.
2. Formative assessment
Formative assessment occurs during a course. Formative assessment is assessment
for learning. It provides learners with opportunities to assess their performance
against expected learning outcomes while the course is still in progress, so they have
time for improvement. Formative assessment is often not graded, and thus provides
a risk-free opportunity to ‘try out’ skills.
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Formative assessment can have a diagnostic function. It is a way of alerting trainers
and instructors to difficulties that learners may have. The trainer can provide feedback
on performance and suggest ways to improve. The training programme may need to
be modified on the basis of formative assessment results.
3. Summative assessment
Summative assessment occurs at the end of the course. In contrast to formative
assessment, it measures learners’ achievement of learning outcomes for the entire
course. Summative assessment forms the basis on which awards and qualifications
are granted.
2.4 Principles of Assessment
Standards in assessment are used to effectively measure competence of a desired
standard for the particular learning outcomes for a module. All forms of assessment
should be underpinned by principles of consistency and fairness.
Consistent and fair mean that appropriate assessment which is fit for purpose and is
agreed and applied consistently is provided by assessors.
The consistency and fairness of any assessment methods by can be measured by
reviewing them for Validity, Reliability, Fairness, Transparency, and Practicality.
1. Validity
Validity means that assessment should measure what it is supposed to measure.
Assessment is valid when:
It reflects stated learning outcomes.
It is fit for purpose; for example, practical assessment is used to assess skills,
written or oral assessment is used to assess knowledge and attitude.
It is designed to provide opportunities for learners to demonstrate their level
of achievement of learning outcomes.
It facilitates reliable assessment by assessors. This means that assessment
design and criteria should allow assessors to make reliable and consistent
decisions.
It is accessible to all candidates; that is, all candidates have the potential to
achieve successful outcomes.
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2. Reliability
Reliability refers to accuracy and consistency. Accurate assessment consistently
measures what it is supposed to measure. Consistent assessment should give the
same results under similar conditions every time.
Assessment is reliable when:
It incorporates valid assessment techniques.
Assessment criteria are aligned with learning outcomes.
Assessment criteria and a detailed marking scheme are included in the
assessment procedure.
Assessment criteria are applied consistently when learners’ assignments and
tests are being marked – different assessors mark submissions similarly.
Assessment decisions are constant across a range of consistent conditions,
contexts and a range of learners – assessors apply standards and criteria in
the same way at different times.
Assessment conditions are such that candidates, when completing
assignments and tests, have minimum opportunities for cheating.
3. Fairness
Fairness refers to providing appropriate, unbiased and equitable opportunities for all
learners so that they have the possibility of completing the assessment. Fairness
acknowledges that different people have different learning styles and they may need
different ways of demonstrating achievement of learning outcomes.
Assessment is fair when:
Suitable resources are provided to learners to complete the assessment.
Assessment techniques do not exclude learners from demonstrating their
learning.
Reasonable accommodation is provided in the implementation of assessment
for learners with disabilities.
Assessors are trained and advised in the fair implementation of assessment
procedures.
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4. Transparency
Transparency means that assessment standards and expectations are clear to all
stakeholders. It means that assessment procedures, definitions and requirements are
unambiguously and accurately described and detailed.
Assessment is transparent when:
Statements regarding general expectations, assessment criteria, and
guidance notes and marking systems are provided.
Assessment guidelines are clearly written.
The marks allocation and weighting of assessment are clearly stated.
Deadlines and penalties for late submissions are clearly stated.
Comprehensive guidance on completing assessments is provided.
Guidance on examination practices is provided.
Guidance on avoiding plagiarism and cheating is provided.
Clear information is given on how feedback will be provide.
5. Practicality
Practicality is about the feasibility of assessment. Feasibility incorporates cost and
time. It is not practical to use assessment methods that cost too much or are too time-
consuming.
Assessment is practical when:
The cost of implementing the test is not prohibitive.
Assessment does not take far too long to implement.
Assessment is implemented within acceptable time constraints.
2.5 Assessment strategies and marking criteria
When deciding which assessment method to use, the type of learning outcomes being
assessed need to be identified (see Table 3.3). For example:
To assess a skill a test in which the instructor observes the learner performing
the skill would be best. Therefore a practical test may be best suited in order
to assess the learner’s performance by observation.
To assess a learner’s ability to interpret and analyse information on a topic a
written essay may be best suited.
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When developing assessment strategies it is important to remember that:
Assessment should match the learning outcomes being assessed.
Oral and written tests are useful methods of testing theory and knowledge.
Practical tests are useful in the assessment of skills and processes.
Observation is useful for assessing attitude.
Table 3.3: Assessment methods applicable for types of learning outcomes
Type of Learning Outcome Methods
Knowledge based Written or Oral tests
Essay
Multiple Choice
Skill based (practical) Practical skills
Portfolio
Skill based (interpersonal) Role play
Case Study
Oral Interview
Attitude Role Play
Case Study
Oral Interview
Portfolio
Assessment criteria and marking
Assessment criteria describe what the learner is expected to be able to do in order to
demonstrate that they have achieved the learning outcomes.
Objective assessment criteria are the criteria used by the assessor when marking
and grading learners’ submissions. The mark awarded for each element of the
assessment must be clear.
Marks are allocated according to their weighting. Weighing is related to factors such
as importance and difficulty. Therefore marks allocation is weighted to reflect the
relative importance and difficulty of each element of the assessment.
Objective assessment criteria must:
State what the learner must complete to demonstrate achievement of learning
outcomes.
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Be consistent with the learning outcomes of the module or course being
assessed.
Adopt consistent vocabulary so that consistency remains a pillar of
assessment.
State the weighting of the assessment in the context of the module being
assessed.
State the mark that is allocated for each criterion.
Rubrics
As well as objective assessments as described above, certain outcomes may
need to be measured in a more subjective manner. This subjective assessment
relies on the instructors professionally developed experience. This may be
essential in ensuring that the assessment is measured with validity.
(Lane, 2010)
Hence the challenge is to give subjective assessments more reliability. It is
acknowledged that marking rubrics have a value in structuring the subjective
component of the instructor's assessment of a learners work.
Stevens (2013) defines a rubric as a set of criteria and standards typically linked
to learning objectives. It may be used to assess or communicate about product,
performance, or process of a learning task.
Development and use of a rubric can increase reliability in subjective assessment.
When translating your grading policy into specific assignments, you want to
ground your subjective judgment. A rubric can be created that is consistent with
your marking criteria and also clear enough for students to understand it and
includes feedback.
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2.6 Types of Assessment
The previous sections have dealt with issues concern with quality assurance and
marking criteria. The following section will describe actual assessment strategies that
may be used in assessing the learners on FES training.
Written tests
Written asessments are activities in which the student selects or composes a
response to a prompt. In most cases the prompt consists of printed materials (a
question, images, tables, graphs or a combination.
The asessement is usually at a fixed time within a specified time frame. The
constraints on the learner i.e. (fixed date and time allocated, plus the same questions)
set them up a standaridsed result which may then be compared against norms.
Advantages
Relatively economical, convenient.
Equitable treatment for learners.
Less opportunity for cheating.
Revision process can develop.
Disadvantages
Stressful, encourages surface learning.
Tests exam technique not learning.
Snapshot of performance.
Does not encourage continuous study.
Multiple choice
In multiple choice assessments a learner is give a question with a selection of
answers with one or more responses being correct. Multiple Choice offer a quick and
efficient tool for assessing a large range of material. Though normally used for
ascertaining factual knowledge they can be used to assess higher order thinking and
problem solving skills.
Advantages
Can spend time designing rather than marking assessments.
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Relative simplicity of inputting questions.
Provision of immediate feedback to students automatically.
Students can be given many opportunities to repeat a formative assessment,
or take the assessment when they feel ‘ready’.
Disadvantages
An element of chance can allow students to arrive at the correct answers and
pass the assessment.
Care must be taken in the design of questions and the inclusion of high quality
distracter incorrect answers. Common misconceptions and errors are useful
for distracters.
Essay
Essays are lengthy written responses to questions or situations that allow a learner
an opportunity to show their knowledge in a detailed manner. This is a commonly-
used assessment method and there two varieties:
1. Unstructured questions, also known as free-response questions. Learners
have maximum freedom for discussion.
2. Structured or restricted-response questions. The learner is given far less
freedom to determine the nature and scope of the response. Often, the
questions guide both the structure and the content of the expected response.
Advantages
Develops learner’s writing skills.
Requires learners to be able to develop structured arguments.
Allows examination of learner’s understanding of key elements of the module.
Encourages learners to reflect and engage in deeper learning than some other
assessment methods.
Disadvantages
Essays can be particularly challenging for learners where English is their
second language.
Can be difficult for learners with dyslexia and other learning issues.
They are time consuming for instructors to mark.
It can be challenging to ensure fairness.
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A learners writing ability as much as their knowledge of the area is being
tested.
Oral tests/interviews
The oral assessment is a practice in many schools and disciplines, where an examiner
poses questions to the learner in spoken form. The learner has to answer the question
in such a way as to demonstrate sufficient knowledge of the subject in order to pass
the exam.
Advantages
Learners are given an opportunity to expand on issues raised in a practical
examination.
Highly effective means of measuring language competence and skill.
Plagiarism is not possible.
Often an attractive alternative for students whose written skills in
examination/assessment are not particularly strong.
Works particularly well in practice situations.
Disadvantages
Can be stressful for the learner.
Time consuming and expensive.
May present difficulty for shy or inarticulate learners.
May present difficulty for learners whose first language is not the language in
which the oral is conducted.
Portfolios
Portfolios are a cumulative assessment showing that the learner has achieved several
learning outcomes. The portfolio could be a collection of a variety of assessment
types used to give a fuller picture of a learners understanding of a subject. There are
different types of portfolios:
1. Learners submit examples of their best work.
2. Learners submit all of their work.
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Advantages
Promotes learner self-evaluation, reflection, and critical thinking.
Measures performance based on genuine samples of learner work.
Provides flexibility in measuring how learners accomplish their learning goals.
Facilitates cooperative learning activities, including peer evaluation and
tutoring, cooperative learning groups, and peer conferencing.
Disadvantages
Requires extra time to plan an assessment system and conduct the
assessment.
Gathering of all the necessary data and work samples can make portfolios
bulky and difficult to manage.
Marking portfolios involves the extensive use of subjective evaluation
procedures such as rating scales and professional judgment, and this limits
reliability.
Practical tests
This form of assessment consists of real life hands on activities that allow a learner
to demonstrate their competence to carry out a practical activity. This assessment
type covers an assortment of activities such as creating an artefact, conducting an
experiment, analysing data, producing reports, and presentation results.
In a vocational context many assessments are based on practical testing of
performance related assessments of job related skills.
Advantages
Simulates authentic experience.
Provides opportunity for feedback on wide range of skills.
Enables practice before real situation.
Shared responsibility for tasks.
Disadvantages
Difficult to organise.
As a one off exercise, can be stressful.
Requires explicit assessment criteria for judging performance.
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Methods of assessing attitudes
With a focus on developing craft workers and in particular the changing of attitudes in
relation to low energy building it is important to be aware to select relevant
assessment tools that can measure attitude change. There are two particularly
relevant approaches to this:
1. Written surveys and questionnaires (asking individuals to share their
perceptions of their own or others' attitudes and behaviours including direct or
mailed, signed or anonymous).
2. Exit and other interviews (evaluating reports of subjects' attitudes and
behaviours in a face-to-face interrogative dialogue).
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Table 3.4 present many of the typical assessment methods, the requirements of the
learners and the corresponding learning outcomes
Table 3.4: Examples of assessment methods (Adapted from (Nightingale, et al., 1996)
Examples of Assessment What is required from learners?
Types of Learning: Learning outcomes
Essay Report
Development of arguments, reflection, judgment, evaluation
Thinking critically and making judgments
Problem scenario Group Work Work-based problem Evaluate a case
Identify problems, define problems, analyse data, review, design experiments, plan, apply information
Solving problems/developing plans
Demonstration Role Play Make a video (write script and produce/make a video) Produce a poster Lab report
Take readings, use equipment, follow laboratory procedures, follow protocols, carry out instructions
Performing procedures and demonstrating techniques
Written examination Oral examination MCQs Essays Reports Short answer questions Mini tests
Recall, describe, report, identify, recognise, recount, relate, etc.
Demonstrating knowledge and understanding (can be assessed in conjunction with the above types of learning)
Learning journal Portfolio Learning Contracts Self-evaluation Group projects Peer assessment
Work co-operatively and, independently, be self-directed, manage time, manage tasks
Managing/developing yourself
Design project Portfolio Presentation Performance
Design, create, perform, produce, etc.
Designing, creating, performing
Library research assignment Data based project
Information search and retrieval, investigate, interpret, review information
Assessing and managing information
Written presentation Oral presentation Discussions /Debates/ role plays Group work
Written, oral, visual and technical skills
Communicating
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Summary
Assessment is the process of defining, selecting designing collecting
analysing interpreting information to increase a learners learning and
development.
There are three specific types of assessment depending on when the
assessment take s place, diagnostic happens before, formative during, and
summative occurs at the end of training.
Subjective assessment relies on the instructors professionally developed
experience. This may be essential in ensuring that the assessment is
measured with validity.
Essay can be in two forms, free-response questions(unstructured) or
restricted-response questions(structured)
Marking rubrics have a value in structuring the subjective component of the
instructor's assessment of a learners work.
Written surveys, questionnaires and interview are recognised as effective
ways to assess attitudes.
132
Unit 3 Section 2
M1.U3.S2 Progress Check
1. List and explain four reasons why assessment is necessary. 1) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. List the five headings under which assessment methods can be reviewed for
consistency and fairness.
1) _______________________________________________________
2) _______________________________________________________
3) _______________________________________________________
4) _______________________________________________________
5) _______________________________________________________
3. Give one example of an assessment strategy that you have used in your own
teaching practice and review it under the five headings from question 2.
a) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
b) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
c) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
d) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
e) _______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
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