Monday

JOHN COLLIER – RE-CAP

Instrumental in passing Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 – one of the most influential and lasting

pieces of legislation relating to federal Indian policy.

Also known as Wheeler-Howard Act Reversed years of assimilation

policies– Emphasized Indian self-determination– Return of communal Indian land

Johnson-O'Malley Act – Allowed the Secretary of the Interior to

sign contracts with state governments – to share responsibility for the social and

economic well-being of American Indians.

While Collier emphasized and vocally expressed support for Indian self-determination

Policies were often seen by American Indians as

another paternalistic program forced upon them by the federal government

Criticism aside, Collier did more to protect Native American land and culture than any other Indian Affairs Commissioner

resigned as Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1945.

During Collier’s tenure other development were taking place

1943 US Senate offered Survey of the Conditions of the

Indians of the United States BOI riddled with problems House of Representatives countered

with their own investigation

End result was the suggestion of an Indian Claims Commission

– first suggested in 1935 under Collier From 1778

– First treaty to be made To 1872

– End of treaty Nearly 400 treaties Many conditions not implemented

Native nations who wanted to appeal this had a difficult

if not impossible job to challenge these problems in

court Indian Claims Commission (ICC) set

up to solve this issue Driven not by altruistic motivations

Congressman Karl Mundt

North Dakota Pushed the ICC

because he wanted to Abolish BOI End special status of

Native Americans Force them to

assimilate and acculturate

Pendulum swinging

Nevertheless many Indians turned to the ICC Under commission nations had 5 years to file

grievances Had to prove aboriginal title to the land Then bring suit for settlement Suit were to be brought for claims “in law or equity arising under the

Constitution, laws, treaties . . . , and Executive orders” that dealt with “fraud, duress, unconscionable consideration , mutual or unilateral mistake, whether of law or fact, or any other grounds cognizable by a court of equity”

By 1978 commission had Adjudicated 285 of 850 cases filed Awarded over $800 million Not always accepted by native nations Taos Indians Rejected $10 million for Blue Lake in

northwestern New Mexico

“we cannot sell what is sacred”

Pit River Indians in Northern California

Lost huge acreage to white settlers over the years

Rejected 47 cents per acre

The Sioux and the Black Hills

1923 filed claim with supreme court

With U.S. Court of Claims

Dragged feet until 1942– Dismissed

Tried again with ICC denied in 1946– Already been denied

1956 fired lawyer Claim re-instated “inadequate council” Justice Department fought hard

against renewed claim ICC decided that government had

taken land in violation of fifth amendment– Protects abuse of government authority in

al legal procedure

1974 ICC awarded $17.5 million plus interest

Government appealed Court of Claims reversed decision

but… stated “a more ripe and rank case of

dishonorable dealings will never, in all probability, be found in our history”

1978 Congress passed Act allowing Court of Claims to rehear case– Awarded $17.5 + 5% interest

Justice department appealed 1980 went to Supreme Court “taking of tribal property which had been

set aside by the treaty of Fort Laramie for the Sioux’s exclusive use”

Upheld the award

Like the Taos Indians the Sioux refused the money

Demanded the Black hills be returned

Award still uncollected Stands at over $500 million

How to distribute the money Per capita or investment by

tribal officials for community Tribal members off

reservation Disputes of qualification

Many tribes have opted for a middle ground

Some per capita some investment in community

e.g. Crow Received $10 million 50% per capita Rest on health, housing, education,

scholarships, land purchases, and social services

Native America & WWII Supported by Collier The BIA hired both native men and

women to work at new facilities in Colorado River Indian Reservation

– Poston, Arizona Gila River Indian Reservation

– South of Phoenix, Arizona These facilities were Japanese Internment camps

While Japanese-Americans were confined

Native Americans went to war 1940 4,000 in armed forces By end of war 25,000 serving Not only men but women also Over 200 native women served as

WAC WAVEs

The majority of Native Americans served in Army

Of 25,000 approx 21,000 As with all other Americans served in

all theatres of war from Africa to the islands of the Pacific

Unlike African-Americans Native Americans served in integrated

units– Continuation of assimilation?

One book that details the achievements of Native Americans in WWII

Boarding School Warrior Tradition Clarence Tinker

Edward P. Dozier– Born Santa Clara

Pueblo 1916 Served in U.S.

Army Air Corps After war gained

Ph.D. from UCLA Wrote numerous

books on Native society

Barney Old Coyote– Crow

1st president of American Indian National Bank

Professor and Director of Native American Studies at Montana State

Ira Hayes Grew up on Pima

reservation Joined the Marines All was quiet until February 23, 1945 Part of attack on Iwo

Jima Part of group of six to

raise the flag

If Ira Hayes was the most well known individual

The most well known group are

Navajo Code Talkers

A Wollachee Ant B Shush Bear C Mbsi Cat D Be Deer E Dzeh Elk F Ma-e Fox G Klizzie Goat H Klee Horse I Tin Ice J Tkelechogi Jackass K Klizzie-Yazzie Kid L Debe-Yazzie Lamb M Naastsosi Mouse

N Neshchee Nut

0 Neahshah Owl P Bisodih

Pig Q Cayeilth

Quiver R Gah Rabbit S Dibeh Sheep T Thanzie

Turkey U Nodaih Ute V Akehdiglini Victor W Gloeih Weasel X Alanasdzoh Cross Y Tashaszih Yucca Z Beshdogliz Zinc

Alongside termination a second governmental policy would appear

Relocation In many ways a reaction to activities

already occurring Both positive and negative outcome What led government to think of relocation Native Americans have always been in

white cities From colonial times onward Often seasonal work as part of reservation

life

For over 120 years Mohawk ironworkers,

helped shape New York City's skyline

Came to Manhattan from reservation in Canada

Framed the city's skyscrapers and bridges.

The Empire State Building

Chrysler Building George Washington

Bridge World Trade Center

Events beyond native choice also affected movement

Allotment act– Reduced land base and ever shrinking

allotments due to inheritance Great depression

– Had caused many more to move looking for work

WWII– Many moved to cities to work in war

related industries

Examples of urban migration post WWII

Minneapolis– Less the 1000 in 1920s– After WWII 6000

Los Angles– Less than 1000 before WWII– By 1980 50,000

According to the U.S. Census 1950 13.4 % lived in urban areas 1970 44% 1980 50%

Government seized on this trend Seeing that many natives had

successfully moved and prospered into cities

They assumed that this was a natural process of assimilation

Decided to enhance the process and organize a mass relocation plan– Ignored those who hadn’t succeeded in

the movement

“Indian will be the first to be affected by the shrinkage of employment subsequent to the war”

“a means of livelihood for each of the returning soldiers and workers will prove a staggering task”– John Collier 1941

“A profound change in fortunes sent home by service men and women”

A downward trend in family income”– William Brophy 1946

All which the BIA had to address

Government created G.I. Bill Included commercial loans for Native

Americans to purchase– Farms – Ranches– Livestock– Farm equipment– Dairies– Construction equipment– Small businesses

Yet the BIA new that this would not be enough

1948 BIA first experimented with Relocation

Plan to relocate Navajos to Salt Lake City Los Angles Denver 1952 – 1960 BIA provided incentives to move

30,000 Indians By 1973 100,000

1900 Native American population– 250,000

As chart shows growth was limited until the 60s on

Expanded program in 1950 to help Indians “who wished to seek permanent employment

opportunities away from the reservation”

Thousands of Native Americans were given one-way bus tickets to cities

Expected to live and work like other Americans

relocation centers established The first in Chicago in 1953 Created by the local urban native

population Offered help to new arrivals

1951 congress passed Bill to fund job placement and relocation program in– California– Colorado– Arizona– Oklahoma– New Mexico – Utah

The BIA responded by setting up field relocation offices in– Los Angeles– Salt Lake City– Denver – Chicago

Later expanded greatly

Program received yet another congressional boost when funds where enacted for

Vocational and industrial training

Program did not force natives away from reservation

But used well designed posters and brochures

Persuasive agents

Short Video Clip taken from PBS’s Indian Country Diaries

Upon arrival Help came in many forms Help with the move and finding

accommodation Job training Free medical care for one year One month subsistence Greeted them and attempted to

prepare them for the adjustment in life to come

But like many other immigrants to Americas growing cities

Many faced adjustment problems Close knit families and small

communities Gave way to Individual capitalist competition “They never told us it would be like

this” Depending on tribe between 30 and

75% returned

Sometimes the move back was permanent

Signaled failure of relocation Sometimes temporary –

attending family gatherings and ceremonies

Sometimes natives remained and prospered

An unlikely supporter of the benefits relocation brought is Earl Dean Sisto – Yavapai/ Apache – born on Apache Indian Reservation

in San Carlos, Arizona Attended federal government

school on the reservation – received perfect attendance awards

for six years. During his 7th year, as his peers

watched in horror, a mean Caucasian teacher literally tried to choke him to death in class for uttering a few words in the Apache language.

1964 moved to Los Angeles via relocation program worked for Southern California General Telephone Company

1974, graduated from UCLA

worked in several native education and recruitment programs

1991UC Riverside directs the Native American Student Programs.

Earl Sisto with Joshua Gonzales