Module Detail and its Structure

Sociology Name of Paper: Methodology of Research in Sociology

Name of Module: Types of Research and Designing them

1

Module Detail and its Structure

Subject Name Sociology

Paper Name Methodology of Research in Sociology

Module Name/Title Types of Research and Designing them

Module Id RMS 03

Pre-requisites Some knowledge of social sciences with an idea of what research entails.

Objectives To introduce learner to the types of research design and their uses in

sociological research. This would include introduction to the types of

research in sociology, stages of research plan and limitations of a particular

design to capture social reality.

Keywords research, design, strategy, plan

Development Team

Role in Content

Development

Name Affiliation

Principal Investigator Prof. Sujata Patel Dept. of Sociology,

University of Hyderabad

Paper Coordinator Prof. Biswajit Ghosh Professor, Department of Sociology,

The University of Burdwan,

Burdwan - 713104

Email: [email protected]

Ph. M +91 9002769014

Content Writer Prof. Biswajit Ghosh Do

Content Reviewer (CR) &

Language Editor

Prof. Swapan Kumar Pramanick

Former Professor of Sociology,

Calcutta University and

Former Vice Chancellor, Vidyasagar

University

mailto:[email protected]



2

Contents

1. Objective ............................................................................................................................................... 3

2. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 3

3. Learning Outcome ................................................................................................................................. 4

4. Types of Research ................................................................................................................................. 4

4.1. Exploratory Research ................................................................................................................... 5

4.2. Descriptive Research ................................................................................................................... 5

4.3. Relational Research ..................................................................................................................... 5

4.4. Explanatory Research .................................................................................................................. 5

5. Stages of Research Plan…………………………………………………………………….................6

Self Check Exercise 1: .............................................................................................................................. 6

6. What is Research Design? ..................................................................................................................... 7

7. Distinction between Design and Method ............................................................................................. 7

8. Purpose and Usefulness of Research Design ........................................................................................ 8

Self-check Exercise 2……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………10

9. Types of Research Design ................................................................................................................. 120

9.1. Experimental Research Design .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

9.2. Cross-Sectional Research Design ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.1

9.3. Longitudinal Research Design ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.2

9.4. Case Study Research Design ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.3

9.5 Comparative Research Design .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.5

10. Criteria of a Good Research Design ............................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.6

Self-check Exercise 3: ........................................................................................................................... 177

11. Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………...17

12. Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………..18



3

1. Objective

In this module you will learn about the nature, types and uses of the research designs for sociological

research. At the end are given some digital resources for use as also a brief bibliography pertaining to

designing a research.

2. Introduction

All research involves a strategy which provides general orientation to the conduct of social

research.

Different kinds of research design allow researchers the opportunity to pay attention to research

strategy and different frameworks for collection and analysis of data.

Research is a systematic process by which one acquires dependable and useful information about a

phenomenon or a process. Social research is normally understood to be concerned with conceptual and

theoretical issues. But the practice of social research is equally associated with the vision of how social

reality should be studied. Social research is not just writings about any one’s feelings and opinions in

news paper. It is a serious endeavour and calls for application of well thought plan. As Bryman (2008: 4)

argues, ‘Methods are not simply neutral tools: they are linked with the ways in which social scientists

envision the connection between different viewpoints about the nature of social reality and how it should

be examined’. For instance, a qualitative aspect of social reality, say intensity of any relationship, should

be studied qualitatively. On the other hand, we normally apply quantitative research tools to discover, say

numerical estimates. Despite valid triangulation of research techniques by social scientists, the fact

remains that research involves a strategy, a plan that is to be carried out objectively to justify the findings.

Moreover, research findings are also connected to social, economic, political or cultural issues. These

connections between a particular research method and the issue being investigated are often critically

reviewed as methods are not neutral. It is to kept in mind that three major questions of reliability (whether

results are repeatable), replicability (the degree to which the results can be reproduced) and validity

(whether conclusions are integrated) haunt researcher all the time. A well devised research strategy helps

him/her to look into these criteria used for the evaluation of social research. In other words, both

theoretical and practical concerns guide the contours of social research and herein the importance of

research strategy becomes pertinent.

The term ‘research strategy’ refers to a general or broad orientation to the conduct of social research. It is

a step-by-step plan of activity that is devised by the researcher for directing his/her thoughts and

concerns. It enables him/her to conduct research systemically so that the results remain valid and reliable.

A research strategy also allows him to stay focused, augment quality, save time, energy and money and

thereby lessen invisible disappointments at a later stage. For instance, qualitative research demands a

particular type of research strategy. The opposite is true about quantitative research. A researcher,

therefore, needs to first decide about what he/she plans to do so as to make the strategy full proof. Any

failure on the part of any researcher to devise such strategy results in failure to comprehend and analyse

social reality.



4

The first step towards devising a research strategy is to take a decision regarding research design.

Research design refers to the “framework for the collection and analysis of data” (Bryman 2008: 31). As

there are various types of research designs, choice for a particular one by any researcher would reflect

his/her decision for the criteria and the research questions in which the researcher is interested.

Obviously, different kinds of research design allow researchers the opportunity to pay attention to

different research stratagems and different frameworks for collection and analysis of data.

Selections of research design and research methods are two key decisions (among others) that

affect the outcome of any research.

The outcome of a research depends to a large extent on the selection of research design and research

method. A comparative study, for instance, must select a comparative research design. Again, if a

researcher, for instance, expect qualitative data, the technique chosen for the study would also clearly

reflect such choices. Normally the techniques chosen for any qualitative study are observation, case study,

focused group discussion or participatory rural appraisal. Similarly, survey methods are used to collect

quantitative data. These selections are often done concurrently as there are strong association between

design and method. Many a time, certain designs have declared preference for particular method.

Nonetheless, it is to be noted that despite their closeness, research methods and research designs are not

the same. We would discuss differences between the two later.

3. Learning Outcome

This module would acquaint you with the types of research in social sciences in general and the issue of

research design in sociological research in particular along with its various types and their usefulness. It

will also provide an introduction to the more important resources needed for devising the research

strategy.

4. Types of Research

Social research is normally classified into qualitative and quantitative types. Qualitative research usually

emphasizes on sentiments, feelings and processes rather than on quantification for the collection and

analysis of data. A qualitative researcher is open to the respondent’s views, actions and experiences. On

the other hand, quantitative research stresses on quantifiable data for the collection and analysis of

research findings. This viewpoint prefers observable variables or concrete expressions of variables that

meet pre-defined standards of reliability and validity.

The classification of research into qualitative and quantitative is not complete. Another common way of

classification is pure and applied research (Goode and Hatt 1981: 29-40). Pure research (also known as

basic or fundamental research) is concerned with collection of data that aims at formulation, expansion or

evaluation of a theory. Its primary concern is creation of knowledge solely for the sake of knowledge. For

example, Max Weber’s research on the relationship between Protestant Ethics and Capitalism is a

contribution to pure research. On the contrary, applied research is directed towards the solution of an

immediate, specific and practical problem. Through such research, developmental professionals are able

to solve problems at the appropriate level. For instance, field research on the issue of child marriage,



5

trafficking and dowry in West Bengal was designed specifically to devise action plan against them by the

state government (Ghosh 2007). But applied research does contribute to theoretical knowledge and vice

versa; hence they are complementary and not opposed to each other.

The classification of research into some dichotomous types (qualitative and quantitative, pure and

applied) may however appear to be grossly inadequate as one may also identify typology of research

based on research objectives. From the point of view of research strategy, in particular, such classification

is very useful. Following Selltiz, Wrightsman and Cook 1976), we may identify the four main research

types:

4.1. Exploratory research (sometimes called formulative research) aims to gain familiarity with or to

achieve new insights into a phenomenon, often in order to formulate a more precise research

question or to develop hypothesis. Such a research helps researcher to understand the points of

view of actors in the setting, identify worthy research questions, articulate and operationalise

variables of interests and allow theory to emerge (Palys 1997: 79). Obviously, strategy of such

research demands flexibility, breadth of coverage and open-ended techniques. Well-executed

exploratory research helps to identify useful variables and provide hints about valid ways to

measure them.

4.2. Descriptive research aims to accurately portray the characteristics of a particular individual,

situation, sample, population or a group. Descriptive research is concerned with ‘what’ and ‘how’

questions. For instance, what is the extent of literacy in India? How do students use internet

facilities? Accuracy is paramount in such research. Once the researcher has gained a preliminary

understanding and identified variables that appear important, more systematic description of the

situation and the corresponding variables is called for. Such a research tries to minimise bias

while maximizing the representativeness of the sample thereby ensuring that results are valid and

reliable.

4.3. Relational research (sometimes called correlational research) aims to determine how two or more

variables are related within a given sample or population. Such research is often considered to be

the first step towards explaining phenomena as theoretical questions very often guide researcher

to look for the relationship between two or more specific variables. Though measures adopted for

such a research must be valid and reliable, the sampling technique may or may not be

representative. The scope of such research remains limited as the integral and causal connections

between two particular variables might be caused by some unseen factors.

4.4. Explanatory (also called experimental) research aims to investigate causal relationship or other

patterned conduct that is thought to characterise social processes. Such research requires the

researcher to focus very clearly on the research questions, identify dependent and independent

variables, develop hypothesis and test them by manipulating independent variable. Such research

also use highly structured methods designed specifically for the research purpose. Control,

manipulation and observation are the three essential characteristics of explanatory research.



6

5. Stages of Research Plan

Once the research problem is formulated and the subject of study is identified, the researcher must try to

determine the actual means for carrying out the tasks. This is the proposal-writing stage when the overall

plan for carrying out the research is set out in logical order so that it works effectively. The initial plan

may however go through many modifications and change over time as the research progresses and

insights into it deepen. The working out of the plan consists of making certain “decisions regarding the

what, where, how much, by what means, constitute a plan of study or a study design” (Young 1966: 12-

13). The stages of a research plan include the following aspects:

a) Define the research topic,

b) Review existing literature,

c) Identify the nature and objective of study and develop hypotheses, if required,

d) Collect sources of information about the field,

e) Clarify concepts and their measurement,

f) Operationalise concepts and design the research instrument,

g) Determine sample size and sampling procedure,

h) Decide about appropriate data collection method,

i) Enter into the field and collect the data,

j) Process and analyse data collected.

k) Present the results.

Self Check Exercise 1:

1. Why does research involves a strategy?

All research involves a strategy because it is a systematic process by which one acquires dependable

and useful information about a phenomenon or a process. The practice is also associated with the

vision of how social reality should be studied. It is a serious endeavour and therefore calls for

application of well thought plan, i.e., a strategy that can be carried out objectively to justify the

findings.

2. What does a research strategy entails?

Research strategy, which refers to a general or broad orientation to the conduct of social research,

enables a researcher to conduct the research systemically so that the results remain valid and reliable.

It also allows him to stay focused, augment quality, save time, energy and money and thereby lessen

invisible disappointments at a later stage.



7

3. What are the objectives of Exploratory Research?

The aim of exploratory research is to gain familiarity with or to achieve new insights into a

phenomenon. Its basic objective is to formulate a more precise research question or to develop

hypothesis. It also helps researcher to understand the field situation, articulate and operationalise

variables of interests and allow theory to emerge.

6. What is Research Design?

In simple sense, the term research design refers to a framework for the strategy of enquiry, methods of

data collection from field and the analysis of data collected. It involves a game plan through which one

can gather information/data that are required for the purpose of the research in a simple, elegant and

systematic way. It includes everything, from priorities and objectives of research to questions regarding

who, what, when, where and how. According to Selltiz, Wrightsman and Cook (1976: 90) “a research

design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to

combat relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure”. It therefore situates the researcher

in the empirical world and connects them to field location, people, institutions including documents and

materials. By doing so, it allows the researcher to address the two critical issues of representation and

legitimation in research (Denzin and Lincoln 1994).

A research design, thus, identifies and defines the study type, research questions, hypotheses, variables,

data collection method, sampling, time frame and analysis plan. The work plan of a research therefore

flows from the design as it suggests types and sources of data to be collected and analysed keeping in

mind the objectives of research. Hence, it helps the researcher to collect relevant information that is

needed to answer the research questions objectively, adequately and effectively. In short, it is plan,

structure, and strategy for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It describes the structure of an

enquiry in a logical manner so that chances of drawing incorrect casual inferences from data can be

minimised.

7. Distinction between Design and Method

Research design is different from the method by which we collect data. In fact, a research design includes

the types of methods to be followed for the collection of data. Hence, these are conceptually different and

one should not confuse between them. Thus, research design is a logical structure of the enquiry while

research method is a mode or a technique of data collection (read discussion on module 11-13 of this

paper). For instance, interview is a tool of data collection and it is used mostly in cross-sectional research

design. But it is not a research design itself. It should also be noted that a research design may opt for

combination of two research methods for meeting the research objectives. There is therefore nothing

intrinsic about any research design that demands a particular method of data collection. Technically

speaking, any research design can use any type of data collection method and can use either qualitative or

qualitative data. In other words, the questions regarding how the data for a study are collected is irrelevant

to the logic of any design. Failure to distinguish between the two results in poor evaluation of designs.

This is because all methods have their strength and weaknesses. The success or failure of any design is

not therefore evaluated by success or failure of any method. Contrarily, the ability of a design to draw

objective, valid and reliable conclusions is evaluated.



8

8. Purpose and Usefulness of Research Design

Research design has two basic purposes: a) to provide answers to research questions and b) to control

variance (Kerlinger 1978: 300). Though all these are done by the investigator, a design helps him/her to

obtain answers to the questions of research while helping to control the experimental, extraneous and

error variances of the particular research under study.

When a researcher plans to carry out a study, he/she would obviously look for data that are valid,

objective, accurate and economic to the extent it is possible. Obviously, a research design is deliberately

planned to see to it that these basic research objectives could be achieved. For instance, the issue of

research known as ‘research problem’ is normally stated in the form of hypotheses. The researcher is

supposed to test these hypotheses empirically in the course of the study. Now theoretically, several

research designs are available to carry out this task. It may be noted that research problems suggest

research designs. Hence, a researcher has to select the particular variety of research design that would

yield dependable and valid answers to the research questions shown in the hypotheses. As the results of a

research depends on how the observations and inferences are made, the researcher needs to adequately

plan and execute his research design.

Now, the question is, how does design accomplish this? As Kerlinger argues, “research design sets up the

framework for ‘adequate’ tests of the relations among variables” (Ibid. 301). Design suggests us what

observations to make, how to make them and how to analyse the quantitative data collected. An adequate

design also outlines possible conclusions to be drawn from the statistical analysis.

Let us take an example to explain the process. A researcher, for instance, takes up the task to evaluate the

changing nature of a village life. The essential question he/she is asking is: what is the impact of a new

government scheme (say Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act or MGNREGA)

on rural people? For this research, he may select a village where the scheme is implemented and compare

the findings with a ‘control group’, that is another village where the scheme is not implemented. To

conduct such research, the researcher has to take the help of a quasi-experimental design. This is because

he/she cannot carry out any true laboratory experiment on village people though an attempt is made to

compare the life pattern of two segments of population. Similarly, a researcher may make use of

comparative design if he/she is attempting to study two contrasting cases using more of less identical

methods. In this way, research designs are helpful to provide answers to research questions. We would

discuss these and many other designs in details in the next section.

So far as question of variance control is concerned, a research design indeed works as a control

mechanism in three ways: a) maximizing systematic variance, b) controlling extraneous variance and c)

minimizing error variance. The term ‘maximising systematic variance’ means that the investigator is able

to manipulate and control independent variable(s) to such an extent that he/she is in a position to measure

the reaction of the dependent variable(s) as a result of such control. For instance, an investigator may try

to test the hypothesis that says that ‘educational performance of college students depends more on

intelligence than on class background’. Here, the investigator is aware of the fact that other possible

independent variables like sex, social capital, educational background of family members or previous

experience might also influence the educational performance of a college student. But, he/she may avoid



9

these variables as due to their inclusion there would be little chance to separate the variable effect of

intelligence and class background on educational performance. In other words, selection of only two

independent variables would allow the research to manipulate the dependent variable, that is educational

performance. At a later stage, he/she may include other independent variables to develop a comparative

perspective on the issue.

Similarly, an investigator needs to control variable that is extraneous to the purpose of the study. For

instance, in the study cited above, the investigator may avoid the influence of race by selecting students

only from a similar race. Here the unwanted variable is just eliminated. The other way to control such

extraneous factor is to accept it as an independent variable and yield additional research information

about its effect on educational performance.

Finally, error variance can be minimised by a) reducing the errors of measurement through controlled

conditions, and b) by increasing reliability of measures. The concern for minimising errors in social

sciences is related to achievement of ‘validity’ of findings, meaning integrity of the conclusions that are

generated from a piece of research. The main types of validity are: measurement validity, internal

validity, external validity and ecological validity. Let us explain these types in brief. Thus, the criterion

of measurement validity applies primarily to quantitative research and it tries to find out whether a

selected concept, say family background, is really able to measure variations in intelligence. As various

other factors do influence intelligence, the measures chosen for such a test also should reflect those.

Internal validity relates mainly to the issue of causality and it seeks to test whether, for instance, x causes

y and can we be sure that only x is responsible for variation in y. The issue of external validity is

concerned with the question of whether the results of a study can be generalised beyond the specific

research context. Finally, ecological validity is concerned with the question of whether social scientific

findings are applicable to people’s everyday setting (for a detail discussion on these types of validity, read

Bryman 2008: 31-33)

Apart from our concern for validity, reliability of research findings is also stressed and it refers to

accuracy of a set of scores. The findings of a study is said to be ‘reliable’ if the results are repeatable.

Reliability is particularly required for any quantitative research. For instance, the results of two IQ test

conducted on the same set of persons should be the same. If they are not, then the data are not reliable. In

qualitative studies done under field conditions, however, such exercise is difficult. Yet, efforts must be

made to maintain uniformity and objectivity in collecting data and analysing them by excluding

extraneous variables.

It appears that the basic purpose of research design is to allow the investigator to eliminate potential

threats to validity and reliability in advance. Though it is often difficult to recognise and develop designs

in advance that ere efficient and appropriate, a good design also presumes that the investigator knows the

relevant variables and is able to handle them. He/she cannot take the chance of any rival hypothesis based

on any rival independent variable to dominate over his findings. As a result, a good design begins with

conceptualisation, which against starts with careful consideration of the nature of the problems and

careful review of existing literature. Even in exploratory research, one must have some guiding idea of

what is to be explored and what not though such tentative guidelines may change later on.



10

Self-check Exercise- 2

4. What is the research design?

Research design refers to a framework for the strategy of enquiry, methods of data collection

from field and the analysis of data collected. It involves a game plan through which one can

gather information/data that are required for the purpose of the research in a simple, elegant and

systematic way. It includes everything, from priorities and objectives of research to questions

regarding who, what, when, where and how.

5. How do research designs differ from research methods?

Research design is a logical structure of the enquiry while research method is a mode or a

technique of data collection. A research design includes the types of methods to be followed for

the collection of data.

6. What is the usefulness of a research design?

A research design is planned for achieving the basic objectives of a research. It helps the researcher to

collect valid, objective, accurate data by spending minimum time and energy. Design suggests us what

observations to make, how to make them and how to analyse the quantitative data collected. An

adequate design also outlines possible conclusions to be drawn from the statistical analysis. It also

works as a control mechanism in three ways: a) maximizing systematic variance, b) controlling

extraneous variance and c) minimizing error variance.

9. Types of Research Design

Social scientists differ as to what really constitute the types of research design. Often artificial distinction

is maintained to classify a type, while in other cases different designs are combined to form a type. There

are also attempts on the part of social scientists from a particular branch to argue for a design that is

suitable to say evaluative or action research. Despite these differences, we may identify the following five

types based on Alan Bryman (2008: 35-61) classification. While discussing these types, we would also try

to analyse their relative usefulness with suitable examples. It should be kept in mind that choice of a

particular research design over others is basically governed by purpose and objective of a research.

9.1 Experimental Research Design

A research design that rules out alternative explanations of findings from its research by using a) at least

one experimental group for treatment, and a control group which is not used, and b) random assignments

to the two groups is called experiment. In an experimental design, the researcher tries to change the

situation, condition or circumstances of the participants called ‘manipulation’, which may lead to changes

in the behaviour of the participants of the research. Experiment, therefore, entails a comparison of results

obtained from two groups under certain conditions. True experiments are, however, very rare in

sociology. This is because, in a true experiment independent variables are manipulated in order to



11

determine whether it has any impact on the dependent variables. But, in social research, presence of too

many of independent variables makes the situation complex. Again, independent variables like caste,

class, religion, gender cannot be manipulated or changed. Yet, field experiments (not laboratory

experiment) are conducted in related fields like Social Psychology, organizational and evaluative studies

including research on social policy. Moreover, findings of non-experimental research are often assessed

by using true experiment as yardstick. In other words, experimental designs are treated as benchmark for

being very strong in terms of internal validity. As a result, students of sociology are also taught about this

design.

In experiment, two groups are chosen for experiment. The group that receives treatment (manipulation), is

called experimental group; but the group that does not is called control group. The results are measured

before and after the experiment. For instance, one may presume that computer aided teaching

(independent variable) improves the performance of students (dependent variable). Now a time bound

experiment to prove this relation may be done on two groups of students of the same class who have not

been exposed to computer aided teaching earlier. The group A, called experimental group, will be

introduced to computer aided teaching for six months, while the group B, called control group, will not.

The results of these groups will then be compared.

There are however some aspects of threat in this type of study. It is difficult to eliminate the influence of

other factors in influencing the result. For instance, in the example stated above, the intelligence level of

the students might also influence their relative performance. Availability of suitable participants for such

experiments is also a significant issue. Hence, questions of validity and replicability are often raised if the

researcher fails to eliminate the external threats.

Given the constraints of conducting field research on social issues, some researchers have also tried to

frame quasi-experiments – those having certain characteristics of experimental design but that do not

fulfil all of the internal validity requirements. Quasi-experiments may however take different forms (Cook

and Campbell 1979). An interesting type is concerned with ‘natural experiments’ in which the social

setting is manipulated as a part of a naturally occurring attempt. The researcher however cannot randomly

assign subjects to experimental and control groups. But because of lack of artificial intervention in social

life, these studies are considered very strong ecologically. In evaluation research, in particular, quasi-

experimental design has become very popular. Koeber (2005), for instance, has attempted to find the

effects of introduction of new technology on students. One group of students was taught with the use of

multimedia and a course website (experimental group), but the other group did not experience these. The

findings reveal that the students of experimental group had a very favourable view about the course as

compared to the control group students. But, there was hardly any difference in the final grades of the two

groups of students. Attempts have also been made to find out the effects of television violence on the

children by using a natural experiment (see Bryman 2008: 42, for details).

9.2 Cross-Sectional Research Design

Cross-sectional design is a non-experimental design that does not involve any manipulation of the

situation or condition. It is often called a ‘survey design’ just because the research methods associated

with survey are frequently used to conduct such research though many other tools are also used. The

design entails the collection of data on more than one case and at a single point in time in order to collect



12

a body of quantitative data in connection with two or more variables, which are then examined to detect

pattern of association (Bryman 2008: 44). This definition makes it clear that cross-sectional design has

the following features:

a) It employs more than one case as the researcher is interested in variation and finer distinctions

between cases with large sample base;

b) It is done at a single point of time because the data collected for such a research through, say

interview, is done simultaneously;

c) It provides quantifiable data in order to establish variation between cases as well as to examine

relations between variables. By doing so, such design provides standardised measurement of social

situations, objects and events.

d) It is also possible to study pattern of relationships only between variables by such design. But from

the findings, one cannot say which variable affects the other as the researcher does not collect the data

over time and does not manipulate any of the variables. Hence, it is not possible to draw certain

inferences about causality based on a cross-sectional design.

As a corollary, such design lacks the internal validity that is normally the characteristics of experimental

research. But, replicability is likely to be present in most cross-sectional research if the procedures of data

collection and analysis are spelt out clearly. Similarly, external validity of such research remains strong

when data are collected from randomly selected samples. But, ecological validity will certainly be

disturbed when the researcher uses a research instrument to intervene in the normal setting of social or

individual life. But, it has been noted earlier that social researchers cannot manipulate or control many

aspects of social life in which they are interested. For instance, anyone interested in finding a casual

relationship between alcoholism and economic background cannot select his/her sample of alcoholic and

non-alcoholic persons randomly from a neighbourhood. One also cannot ask people to become alcoholic

for the purpose of research. Manipulating a non-manipulable variable (say ethnic group identity, caste or

sex) raises serious methodological concern in social research.

The practical and ethical concerns of any research, therefore, forces social scientists to employ a cross-

sectional research design. More interestingly, much beyond quantitative research, such design is also used

in qualitative research with the help of unstructured interview schedule, structured observation, content

analysis, official statistics and diaries. Without bothering about questions of validity and replicability,

such research is able to contribute significantly to the body of sociological literature.

9.3 Longitudinal Research Design:

A longitudinal research design tries to examine variables such as academic performance of a group of

students or groups of students over a period of time. It stresses on collection of data from the sample(s) on

at least two occasions. When the same group of people is interviewed at regular intervals, it enables

researcher to track changes over time and help establish the direction and magnitude of change. A

longitudinal research design, therefore, allows some insight into time order of variables and is able to

allow causal inferences between them.



13

There are two ways in which such research can be conducted: the panel study and the cohort study. In

panel study, a group of people most often selected randomly is asked for a specific set of information on

at least two occasions. It is also possible to collect data from different types of case within a panel study

framework. The British Household Panel Survey, for instance, had attempted to interview 10,264 people

of 5538 households annually since 1991 on six main issues (household organization, labour market

behaviour, income and wealth, housing, health, and socio-economic values). As compared to this, either

an entire cohort of people or a random sample of them is selected for the cohort study. The cohort is made

of people who share a certain characteristics or experience, such as born on the same month, or being

unmarried or employed. Often such studies are not planned originally, but planned at a later stage. In

India, several cohort studies have so far been conducted on health and developmental issues.

Panel and cohort studies share similar features though there are some differences between them. Thus, a

panel study that is done for many years can distinguish between age effects and cohort effects. But a

cohort study can only identify aging effects. Again, unlike the cohort study, a panel study conducted

particularly at household level needs to frame rules regarding entry of new or exit of old members.

There are also some critical issues related to these studies. Thus, a researcher following this design will

have to face the problem of simple attrition through death, refusal, migration and unavailability due to

illness or unknown reasons. Many of the known longitudinal study do not involve the same set of people

on each occasion (read Bryman 2008: 51). Those who leave the study may differ in certain respect with

those remaining. So the question of whether the second group truly represents the original group of

informants remains valid. One may also raise questions about the timing of research. The influence of any

extraneous variable on the findings of subsequent survey cannot be ruled out. Longitudinal studies also

need to be planned carefully as huge amount of data are collected by such survey. There is also evidence

to suggest that a panel conditioning may occur due to continuous participation of the same respondents

thereby influencing their opinion.

Despite these limitations, these studies are basically concerned with estimating the volume of change as

well as improvement over a period of time on say smokers, children, or HIV infected patients. No other

design is able to shed proper light on this aspect of social living. Though they are able to locate change,

they cannot address the issue of the direction of the cause and effect accurately because of the limitations

mentioned above. It is to be noted that even some qualitative study incorporates some elements of

longitudinal design for better explanation of social reality. An ethnographer staying in the field for a

considerable period of time takes note of the changes. Eminent Indian sociologist M.N. Srinivas (1996),

for instance, had noticed qualitative changes in the nature of caste or social life in village through field

studies conducted over a period of time. Herein lay the strength of longitudinal research design.

9.4 Case Study Research Design

A case study examines a current phenomenon in its real-life situation, using whichever research strategies

are necessary to address the problem in hand (Yin 2003). It is an in-depth study of a particular research

problem instead of a general survey. It is not a specific method of social research, but a research strategy

which focuses on a single organization, institution, event, decision, policy or group. It entails the detailed

and intensive analysis of that single case. It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of research

into one or a few manageable research problem. There are many brilliant examples of eminent sociologist



14

studying a single community, a single family, a single organization or even a single person (read Bryman

2008: 51-52, and Baker 1994: 299-300).

Case studies are employed both for quantitative and qualitative studies though there is often a tendency to

associate it with only the latter type. It is however true that qualitative technique like participant

observation and unstructured interview are particularly helpful for intensive and detail examination of a

case. But due to large scale use of this strategy for quantitative studies, it is also not easy to differentiate

whether a study is based on case study or cross-sectional design. Illustrating on the difficulties on case

studies, Bryman has argued, “I would prefer to reserve the term ‘case study’ for those instances where the

‘case’ is the focus of interest in its own right” (2008: 53).

It appears that a specific research illustration may contain features of more than one research design.

What makes case study so particular is its capacity to elucidate the unique features of the case. Robert Yin

(2003) thinks that case studies are appropriate when the research question to be addressed asks how and

/or why. They may be largely exploratory or descriptive. The reason behind studying a particular case is

to find out why certain situation prevails or how a group/organization has succeeded. The design is useful

for testing whether a specific theory and model actually applies to phenomena in the real world. By doing

so, it helps us to explain a complex issue or phenomena by referring to the context and location in which

the argument holds good.

It is pertinent here to distinguish between several types of case studies. Yin (Op.cit. 2003) has identified

five types of case studies. He called the first type ‘critical’ where the researcher, backed by a well

developed theory, chooses the field. The case would then allow a better understanding of the situation

leading to acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis. The second one is ‘extreme’ or unique type which is

found in clinical studies. Margaret Mead’s study of growing up in Samoa, for instance, is motivated by

her belief that the case is unique (1928). The third type is called ‘representative’ or typical. Such cases

exemplify a boarder category of events that is helpful to answer certain research questions. These cases

also allow researcher to examine key social processes. The fourth type is ‘revelatory’ in the sense that it

was previously inaccessible to scientific investigation. The last type is called ‘longitudinal’ as it provides

opportunity to study an issue over time. Notwithstanding such classification, it should also be noted that a

single case may also represent two different types. Hence, cases should be subjected to detail scrutiny for

revealing their true character and inner strength.

Case study design is also not free from limitations. Time and again questions regarding its external

validity or generalizability are raised. How can a single or small number of cases offer reliable and

representative data? To what extent, for instance, the findings of a research about a village in South India

hold good for the whole of even South India? Exponents of case study however feel that the objective of

their research is not to generalise their findings to other cases or to populations beyond the case. Rather,

they aim to conduct an intensive examination of a single case so as to identify the quality of the

theoretical reasoning. This makes case study associated with both theory generation and theory testing. It

is possible that case study researchers do not delude themselves and try to identify typical cases that may

be argued to be representative. They are also in a position to generalise by drawing on findings from

comparable cases investigated by others. The tradition of village studies in India, for instance, has yielded



15

much rich data and concept and there is no second opinion that these findings have enriched the state of

sociology in India.

9.5 Comparative Research Design

Comparative design involves the study of two contrasting cases using more or less identical methods. By

doing so, it tries to explain the existing theory or generate new insights as a result of contrasting findings

revealed through comparison. The basic logic behind this design is that social phenomena can be better

understood if they are compared in relation to two or more meaningfully contrasted cases or situations.

The scope of such design is wide as it can be used in both quantitative and qualitative types of research.

In case of quantitative research, data are collected from at least two situations or cases within a cross-

sectional format. In cross-cultural or cross-sectional research, particular issues from two or more

countries are compared using the same research instrument. The aim is to seek similarities and differences

or to understand deeply the social reality of two different national contexts. For instance, there have been

attempts to estimates the volume of human trafficking from counties of South Asian region. Similarly,

such research can also be conducted at international level. United Nation’s Human Development Index

(HDI), for instance, provides estimates of level of human development of different countries of the world

based on certain given yardsticks. These estimates are very often based on secondary data supplied by

respective countries. Researchers have also used the tool of survey research to collect data on say

activities of self-help groups in Bangladesh and India. Such research helps to reduce the complaint that

social science research is confined to cultural setting. Moreover, findings of such research are useful to

focus beyond cultural specificities of different countries.

Comparative research can also be applied to a variety of situations and not just between two nations.

Thus, conditions of labour markets in urban and rural context can be contrasted within a country.

Comparisons may also be in time, between conditions before the study and conditions after introduction

of a measure, say rural development programme. When applied to any qualitative research strategy,

comparative research takes the form of multiple-case study. For instance, comparative study of two or

more villages provided impetus for generation useful concepts in Indian sociology. Srinivas’s comparison

of different cases led him to replace the term Brahminization by Sanskritization (Srinivas 1966). In

organization studies, for instance, multiple-case studies are utilised to build a theory. J.B.P. Sinha (1990)

has studied the contrasting work culture of public and private sector units of two steel plants, two

fertilizer companies and two nationalized banks to generate useful hypothesis. Recently a comparative

study of 12 tea gardens was undertaken to estimate the nature and intensity of vulnerability of children in

the plantation industry (Ghosh 2012). These examples suggest that qualitative comparison is helpful to

generate concepts and build theory.

Conducting cross-cultural research is not, however, without problems as management of resources and

collection of fund at two different national levels may appear to be a very hard task. Also the data

collected should be comparable in terms of categories and data collection techniques. Along with

language barrier, cultural specificity might pose some challenge for viable comparison. Despite these

challenges, cross-cultural research has the ability to go beyond the limited context and such widening of

the field areas are very helpful for generation of viable concepts and theories.



16

10. Criteria of a Good Research Design

Design is a data discipline. The implicit purpose of all research designs is to impose controlled

restrictions on observation of natural phenomena. A research design tells the investigator what to do and

what not, what to ignore and what not. It is the blueprint of the research architect and engineer (Kerlinger

1978: 327). Hence, if the design is poorly conceived structurally, the ultimate product with be faulty. It is

therefore pertinent to discuss about the criteria of a good research design. These criteria will act as

guiding principles for the investigator. The following are the most significant criteria of a research design:

a) Answer Research Questions: The main criterion of any research design is whether it is able to

answer the research questions. Or to put it in a question frame: does it adequately test the

hypothesis? A good research design must ensure that there is congruence between the research

questions and hypothesis. Often the variables being matched are found to be irrelevant to the

research purpose.

b) Control of Extraneous Independent Variable: The second criterion is control of independent

variables. The researcher must identify the extraneous and unwanted independent variable which

may influence the dependent variables and try to minimise their influence on the outcome of the

study. In order to control independent variable, the investigator should select subjects at random

and assign subjects to groups at random.

c) Generalizability: The third criterion of generalizability demands that the findings of the research

should also be applicable to other subjects, groups and conditions. In order to find out the extent of

generalization of a research outcome, one should ask questions like: How much can we generalize

the results of the study? or To whom and what can we generalize the results of the study?

d) Reliability: Reliability is concerned with the question of whether the results of a study are

repeatable. Synonyms for reliability are: dependability, stability, consistency, predictability, and

accuracy. In quantitative research, in particular, consistency and accuracy of the results is checked

by looking into the question of whether the measures adopted (or instruments used) for the study

are stable or not. Hence, reliability can simply be defined as the relative absence of errors of

measurement in a measuring instrument.

e) Replication: The idea of replication is very close to the notion of reliability. The degree to which

the results of a study can be reproduced is known as replicability. In order to do so, a researcher

should follow the procedures adopted by another researcher on the same subject/field to find out

similarities and differences of their findings. Though in social research replication is very rare,

such quality is highly valued in the quantitative tradition.

f) Validity: This is one of the most important criteria of research and is concerned with integrity of

the conclusions. It is a technical aspect of any research and basically relates to the question of

what is being measured. As has been discussed earlier, the main types of validity include

measurement validity, internal validity, external validity and ecological validity (read, for details,

section 8: Purpose and Usefulness of Research Design).



17

It appears from the foregoing discussion that a good design is flexible, appropriate, efficient, accurate and

economical too. It also should minimise bias and maximise the reliability of the data. But, the point to be

kept in mind is that the need for a design is also related to the objective of research as well as the nature

of problem to be studied. A design found to be suitable in one case/context, may turn out to be defective

in other case/context. In other words, a single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of research and

hence several types of designs are evolved to cope with divergent research stratagems.

Self-check exercise 3

7. What are the types of research design?

Social scientists differ on the issue of typology of research design. Yet, we can distinguish

between five major types, namely experimental, cross-sectional, longitudinal, case study and

comparative types. As the goal of each of these designs is different, choice of a particular research

design over others is basically governed by purpose and objective of a research.

8. What are the limitations of experimental research design?

Though experimental designs are treated as benchmark for being very strong in terms of internal

validity, they have certain limitations. It is difficult to eliminate the influence of extraneous

factors on the findings of the research. Hence, questions of validity and replicability are often

raised if the researcher fails to eliminate the external threats. Availability of suitable participants

for such experiments is also a significant issue. True experiments are very rare in sociology as

independent variables like caste, class, religion, or gender cannot be manipulated or changed to

locate their impact on dependent variables.

9. Why are questions of reliability and validity significant in social research?

Research is a systematic process by which one acquires dependable and useful information about

a phenomenon or a process. Obviously, one would expect the findings of any research to be

reliable, replicable and valid. These criteria of research design improve trustworthiness of any

research findings and allow others to use the findings for comparative analysis. A piece of

research must not only be relevant, it must also meet the minimum requirements for ‘craft’ of

research.

11. Summary

This module would have helped you to develop familiarity with some theoretical and practical concerns

of social research. You have learnt about the types of research, the importance of research strategy, stage

of a research plan and the notion of research design. This module would also make you aware about the

various types of research design and their uses with suitable examples. You have seen the context in

which a particular research design becomes more useful. You have also become acquainted with the



18

limitations and shortcomings of each of these designs and the criteria to be followed for preparing a good

research design.

Module Detail and its Structure

Documents

Transcript of Module Detail and its Structure