Module 3 Brain’s Building Blocks. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN fact that your brain does not develop...
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Transcript of Module 3 Brain’s Building Blocks. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN fact that your brain does not develop...
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Module 3
Brain’s Building Blocks
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DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN
• fact that your brain does not develop into a nose is because of instructions contained in your genes
• Genes– chains of chemicals that are arranged like rungs on a
twisting ladder– there are about 20,000-25,000 genes that contain
chemical instructions that equal about 300,000 pages of written instructions
– genes program the development of individual parts into a complex body & brain
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DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)
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STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN
• Human brain:– is shaped like a small wrinkled melon– 1,350 grams (less than 3 pounds)– pinkish-white color– consistency of firm Jell-O– Fueled by sugar (glucose)– 1 trillion plus cells divided into
• glial cells• neurons
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STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)
• Glial cells• 1 trillion in the human brain• 3 Functions:
– guide the growth of developing neurons– wrap around neurons and form an insulation to
prevent interference from other electrical signals– release chemicals that influence a neuron’s growth
and function
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STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)
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STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)
• Neuron – a brain cell with 2 specialized extensions– one extension is for receiving electrical signals– the other extension is for transmitting electrical
signals
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STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)
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GROWTH OF NEW NEURONS
• Can a brain grow new neurons?– primate and human brain
• researchers conclude that adult monkey and human brains are capable of growing relatively limited numbers of neurons throughout adulthood
• Some new neurons play important role in continuing to learn and remember new things (hippocampus) Area related to learning and memory
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GROWTH OF NEW NEURONS (CONT.)
• Repairing the Brain– advances in stem cell research suggest the human
brain may be able to grow more neurons– repair damages:
• accident• disease• Alzheimer’s
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PARTS OF THE NEURON
• Cell Body
– large egg-shaped structure that provides fuel, manufactures chemicals, and maintains the entire neuron in working order
• Dendrite
– branchlike extensions that arise from the cell body
– receive signals from other neurons, muscles, or sense organs
– pass these signals onto the cell body
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PARTS OF THE NEURON (CONT.)
• Axon– a single threadlike structure that extends from and
carries signals away from the cell body to neighboring neurons, organs, or muscles
• Myelin Sheath– looks like separate tubelike segments composed of
fatty material that wraps around and insulates an axon
– prevents interference from electrical signals generated in adjacent axons
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PARTS OF THE NEURON (CONT.)
• End bulbs or Terminal bulbs– located at extreme ends of the axon’s branches– miniature container that stores chemicals called
neurotransmitters (used to communicate with neighboring cells)
• Synapse– infinitely small space (20-30 billionths of a meter)– exists between an end bulb and its adjacent body
organ, heart, muscles, or cell body
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ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE AND NEURONS
• Alzheimer’s disease– excessive buildup of gluelike substances– gradually destroy neurons
• Researchers recently discovered an experimental vaccine that may help stop the buildup of these gluelike, killer substances and they continue to search for other interventions
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NERUONS VERSUS NERVES
• Reattaching Limbs– John Thomas
• lost arms in farming accident• Transplanting a Face
– Isabelle• face severely disfigured by a dog• received
– new nose– lips– chin
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SENDING INFORMATION: ACTION POTENTIAL SEQUENCE
– axon membrane has chemical gates that can open to allow electrically charged particles to enter or can close to keep out these particles
– ions are chemical particles that have electrical charges
– opposite charges attract and like charges repel
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SENDING INFORMATION: ACTION POTENTIAL SEQUENCE (CONT.)
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SENDING INFORMATION: ACTION POTENTIAL SEQUENCE (CONT.)
• Resting state– the axon has a charge– the charge results from the axon membrane
separating positive ions on the outside from negative ions on the inside
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SENDING INFORMATION: ACTION POTENTIAL SEQUENCE (CONT.)
• Action potential– tiny electric current that is generated when the
positive sodium ions rush inside the axon– enormous increase of sodium ions inside the axon
causes the inside of the axon to reverse its charge– inside becomes positive and outside becomes
negative
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SENDING INFORMATION: ACTION POTENTIAL SEQUENCE (CONT.)
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SENDING INFORMATION: NERVE IMPULSE
• Sending information– action potential is a tiny electrical current that is
generated when the positive sodium ions rush inside the axon
– the enormous increase of Na ions inside the axon causes the inside to reverse its charge
– the inside becomes positive & the outside becomes negative
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SENDING INFORMATION: NERVE IMPULSE (CONT.)
• All-or-None law– if an action potential starts at the beginning of the
axon, the action potential will continue at the same speed segment to segment to the very end of the axon
• Nerve impulse– nerve impulse is made up of 6 action potentials, with
the first occurring at the beginning of the axon
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SENDING INFORMATION: NERVE IMPULSE (CONT.)
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TRANSMITTERS
• A transmitter is a chemical messenger that transmits information between nerves and body organs, such as muscles and heart
• Excitatory and Inhibitory– excitatory transmitters
• open chemical locks and turn on neurons– inhibitory transmitters
• block chemical locks and turn off neurons
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NEUROTRANSMITTER
• Neurotransmitters– dozens of different chemicals that are made by
neurons and then used for communication between neurons during the performance of mental or physical activities
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ALCOHOL
• Alcohol (ethyl alcohol)– A psychoactive drug that is classified as a
depressant, which means that it depresses the activity of the central nervous system
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ALCOHOL
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WHAT DOES ALCOHOL DO?
• Alcohol affects the brain by imitating a naturally occurring neurotransmitter, GABA
• GABA Neurons– GABA neurons have chemical locks that can be
opened by chemical keys in the form of the neurotransmitter GABA
• GABA Keys– alcohol molecules so closely resemble those of the
GABA neurotransmitter that alcohol can function like GABA keys and open GABA receptors
– when GABA neurons are excited, they decrease neural activity
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WHAT DOES ALCOHOL DO? (CONT.)
• many people drink alcohol to feel less anxious and more relaxed
• appears to be a biological link between alcohol and anxiety
• deficiency in a specific brain protein is associated with high anxiety and excessive alcohol use
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NEW TRANSMITTERS• Number of well-known neurotransmitters, such as
– Acetylcholine = Aids in memory, learning and cognitive function
– GABA = Regulates impulsivity, inhibition, and anxiety– Norepinephrine = relaxes the body after stress– Epinephrine = prepares emotional & physical arousal to
stress (adrenaline)– Dopamine = allows fluid muscle movement, focus, &
attention– Serotonin = regulates mood, emotion, sleep, and appetite
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NEW TRANSMITTERS (CONT.)
• New– Endorphins (1970’s)
• painkiller similar to morphine• decreases effects of pain during great bodily stress
– Anandamide (1990’s)• similar to THC (active ingredient in marijuana)
– involved with» memory» motorcoordination» emotions
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NEW TRANSMITTERS (CONT.)
• Anandamide may help people regulate emotions, which would help them to better deal with anxiety and stress
– Nitric oxide (mid-1990’s)• may be involved in regulating aggressive and
impulsive behaviors
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REFLEX
• Reflex– unlearned, involuntary reaction to some stimulus– neural connections underlying a reflex are prewired
by genetic instructions
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REFLEX (CONT.)
• Reflex sequence– sensors
• sensors trigger neurons that start the withdrawal effect
– afferent neurons• carry information from the senses to the spinal
cord
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REFLEX (CONT.)
– Interneuron• relatively short neuron whose primary task
is making connections between other neurons
– Efferent neuron• carry information away from the spinal cord
to produce responses in various muscles and organs throughout the body
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REFLEX (CONT.)
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PARKINSON’S DISEASE
• Parkinson’s Disease– includes symptoms of tremors and shakes in the
limbs, a slowing of voluntary movements, muscle stiffness, problems with balance and coordination and feelings of depression
– as the disease progresses, patients develop a shuffling walk and may suddenly freeze in space for minutes or hours at a time
– Michael J. Fox
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PARKINSON’S DISEASE (CONT.)
• Parkinson’s Disease– it is caused by destruction of neurons that produce
dopamine– L-dopa is a medication that boosts the levels of
dopamine in the brain – eventually the drug causes involuntary jerky
movements – after prolonged use, L-dopa’s beneficial effect may be
replaced by unwanted jerky movements
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EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENTS
• Sterotaxic procedure– fixing a patient’s head in a holder and drilling a small
hole through the skull– the holder has a syringe that can be precisely guided
into a predetermined location in the brain & transplant stem cells
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EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENTS
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EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENTS
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EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENTS
• Removing part of the brain– Thalamotomy (Michael J. Fox)
• Brain Stimulation– electrodes placed into thalamus– patient controls amount of stimulus– helps reduce tremors
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EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENTS