Module 12Remembering & Forgetting

Recall vs. Recognition Recall

Retrieving previously learned information without the aid of or with very few external cues

Recognition Identifying previously learned information with

the help of more external cues

Organization of Memories

Network Theory We store related ideas in separate categories, called

nodes As we make associations between information, we

create links among thousands of nodes Nodes make up a huge interconnected network of

files

Network Hierarchy Nodes

Memory files that contain related information organized around a specific topic

Network hierarchy Arrangement of nodes in a certain order At the bottom, are nodes with very concrete information These nodes are linked to more specific information, which is

connected to more general information 1. ABSTRACT: animal 2.MORE SPECIFIC: bird 3. CONCRETE: blue jay

Forgetting Curve Measures the amount of previously learned information that subjects can recall across time

Ebbinghaus One of the 1st psychologists to study memory & forgetting He tested his own memory of nonsense syllables

4 Reasons for Forgetting1) Repression

Mental process that automatically hides emotionally threatening or anxiety-producing information in the unconscious

2) Poor Retrieval Cues Retrieval cues are mental reminders that we create by forming

vivid mental images or creating associations between new information & information we already know

3) Amnesia Loss of memory due to a blow or damage to the brain after drug

use or after severe psychological stress

4) Interference Recall of a memory is blocked by other related memories

2 Types of Interference Proactive

Old information blocks the remembering of new information Retroactive

New information blocks the remembering of old information

Retrieval Cues Mental reminders that you create by forming vivid mental

images of information or associating new information with information that you already know

State Dependent Learning It is easier to recall information when you are in the

same physiological or emotional state or setting as when you originally learned the information

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon Strong feeling that a particular word can be recalled, but

despite a great deal of effort, we are temporarily unable to recall the info.

Poor encoding or interference

Retrieval Cues (cont.)

Location of Memories in the Brain

Cortex - short & long term memories Thin layer of brain cells that cover the surface of the forebrain

Amygdala – emotional memories Almond-shaped structure lying below the surface of the cortex in

the tip of the temporal lobe Plays a critical role in adding a wide range of emotions to our

memories Hippocampus – transferring memories

Curved, finger-like structure that lies beneath the cortex in the temporal lobe

Transfers declarative information (words, facts & events) from STM into LTM

Location of Memories in the Brain (cont.)

Mnemonic Methods Ways to improve encoding and create better retrieval cues by

forming vivid associations or images Mr. MIMAL 2 Types

1) Method of Loci Create visual associations between already memorized

places & new items to be memorized

2) Peg Method Create associations between number-word rhymes and items

to be memorized One is a bun; two is a shoe; three is a tree; four is a door; five

is a hive

Can False Memories Be Implanted?

Researchers interviewed parents about events that occurred in their children’s lives during the past 12 months

Each 3- to 6-year-old was read a list of these events including some fictitious events

Children were asked to “think hard” & identify the events that actually happened

Bar graph data from “Repeatedly Thinking About a Non-Event: Source Misattributions Among Pre-Schoolers,” by S. J. Ceci, M. L. C. Huffman, E. Smith & E. Loftus, 1994, Consciousness and Cognition, 3, 388-407.

How Accurate is an Eyewitness?

Own-Race Bias Researchers found that an

eyewitness of one race is less accurate when identifying an accused person of another race

Confidence 6 reviews of studies

concluded that there is a weak relationship between correct identification & level of witness confidence