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MODERN HISTORY

For UPSC MPSC & SSC



Sr.no Contents Page no.

1 Introduction 3 - 11

2 Revolt of 1857 - 1885

12 - 17

3 Social Reforms 18 – 24

4 India Council Act 25 – 26

5 Indian National Movement 27

6 Partition of Bengal 28 – 30

7 Separatist Trends in India Nationalist Policies

31 – 33

8 Non Corporation 34 – 35

9 Civil Disobedience Movement 36 – 38

10 The Quit India Movement 39 – 41

11 Governor General & Vice Roy’s of India: Significance Events in

their Rule

42 – 48

12 Chronology of Principal Events in India History

49



INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY:

History has been rightly defined as ‘continues interaction between present and the past’ by E. H. Carr. And Truly, it is essential to know history to understand the present of any society, economy, polity, civilization and soon. Thus in order to know the contemporary India, we must have the background of modern Indian history and Indian freedom struggle. Indian constitution, present day Indian politics and ideologies behind it, Indian economy and phenomenon of poverty and deprivation in it and some of the sacrosanct principles in Indian public life like freedom of speech and expression, freedom of religion, press freedom etc. are a direct culmination of values cherished during freedom struggle. This makes study of Indian freedom struggle more pertinent.

FOUNDATION OF EAST INDIA COMPANIES:

British East India Company was the first East India Company founded in 1600. Following were the different East India Companies.

1) British East India Company, founded in 1600. 2) Dutch East India Company, founded in 1602. 3) Danish East India Company, founded in 1626. 4) Portuguese East Indian company, founded in 1628. 5) French East India Company , founded in 1664. 6) Swedish East India Company, founded in 1731.

Dutch East India company established its first factory in India in Masulipattanam in 1605.

BRITISH EAST INDIA COMPANY:

In 1599, the first British who came to India by land route was John Mildenhall as a ambassador of East India Company.

William Hawkins later came in the court of Jahangir.

John Mildenhall was able to interview with Mughal Emperor Akbar.

FORMATION OF EAST INDIA COMPANY:

The East India Company was granted an Engliish royal Charter by Queen Elizabeth –I on December 31st, 1600 under the name “Governor and company of merchants of London trading in to the East Indies”.

The company was also known as John company.

Jahangir called Captain Hawkins as “English Khan”.

British established their first factory at Surat in 1608 (Captain Middleton)

Thomas swift was the frist governor of newly founded company.



INTIAL VENTURES OF BRITISH EAST INDIA COMPANY:

- In 1612, British eastablished Surat Branch factory at Masulipattanam (Machhlipatnama).

- In 1625-26 established rights to trade in Golconda under a grant ‘Golden Firman’. - In 1633, factory at Hariharpur near Balasore in Orissa. - Company obtained a firman on 2 nd February, 1634 from great Mughal Eperor to

trade in Bengal but their ships were to resort in Pipli in Orissa.

FORT SAINT GEORGE:

British abandoned Armagaon in 1638 and innediately next year in 1639 British founded Fort Saint george which was completed on 23 rd Aprill coinciding with Saint George’s Day and which was celebreated in honour of England that is Saint George

- Fort Saint George was also called as Madraspatnam or Chennapatam. - In 1650, British established their factory at Hugli. - 1655 – British Company eastablished its factory at Kasim Bazaar near Murshidabad. - 1661- Baombay was given to the British Crown as a part of dowry of Catherine

Braganza to prince Charles –II of England. - 1687 – british East India Company replaced it’s headquarter from surat to bombay.

BY THE TREATY OF RYSWICK (1699), Dutch returned Pondicherry to France.

FIRST CARNATIC WAR (1746- 48)

- First Carnatic war was a part of war of Austrian succession that was fought between kingdom of Prussia, Spain, France, Bavaria, Sweden, etc on one side and England, Dutch, Hansburg monarchy on the other side.

- Treaty of Aux – la –Chapella (1748) could not bring any substantial settlement with regard to the commercial struggle between Britain and France in Indian (Territory).

- The First Carnatic War in India began with the appearing of a British fleet on the Coramandel coast (1745). French Governor Dupleix induced Nawab of Arcot for interventaion but the Nawab decided an impartial policy. Initially British captured a few French ships, the French called for backup from Mauritius under the command of bertrand Francois, a French Squadron in 17416. In September 1746, French captured the Madreas without any opposition and all British there were made prisoners of war including Robert Clive.

- The Nawab of Arcot had adopted the impartial policy but ot dirve British out of the Madreas, he marched with 10000 soldires towards St. George but he was defeated.

- The negotiations about the fate of Madras took so much time to let Robert Clive escape from St. George to Fort St. David.

- British fleet arrived in 1748under Admiral Boscuwen and attempted the siege of Pondicherry. Major Stringer Lawrence led land force of Company who was the first Commander in – chief, India.



SECOND CARNATIC WAR (1748 -54)

- Nizam of Hyderabad Asaf Jah – I died in 1748 and then civil war for succession broke out. This war of succession was nothing but the Second Carnatic War.

- Both English and French Companies backed rival candidated to the Nawbship. French wanted to reduce growiing influence of English in the Carnatic and hence they supported Chanda Sahib(Hussain Dost Khan) against Muhammad Anwaruddin supported by the British.

- French allied with Muzafar Jung and Chanda Sahib to brign them into power respectively at Hyderabed and Arcot.

- On the other hand, British supported Nasir Jund and Nwab Muhammad Anwaruddin. Muhammad Anwaruddin was killed in Ballte with French at Ambur in 1749. Then, British supported Muhammad Ali Khan Wajah, the son of the Muhammad Anwaruddin.

- In the famous Siege of Aroct, Robert Clive led the British troops to capture Arcot and he was successful in that. In this way, Muhammad Ali Khan Wajah was recognized as the Nawab of Aroct. The War Ended With The Treaty Of Pondicherry. This siege of Arcot (1751) was a heroic feat more important than the Battle of Plassey.

THIRD CARNATIC WAR (1757- 63)

In the form of seven years war, conflict between England and France was renewed in 1756. This third Carnatic War put an end to the ambitions of French to create a colonial empire in India.

- Unlike the earlier two Carnatic wars which were limited to Deccan only, this war spread in Bengal also. British forces captured French sattlements at Chandernager in 1757.

- British army soon established their control over the full use of new resources and French were decisively defeated in the Battle of Wandiwash on 2nd January, 1760 and besieged Pondicherry.

- This war ended with the signing of the 1763. The French were given the tradign rights. Pondicherry was also restored to them.

BRITISH CONQUEST :

- THE British were motivated by the desire to control all rich resources of the province of Bengal.

- Local bankers and merchants also supported British; because their own interests were closely connected with those of East India company.

- Mubhal Emperor Farrukhsiyar Granted a farman in 1717 due to which company enjoyed great privileges’ in Bengal.

- Without paying ant taxes, they could export and import goods from Bengal. Also they exercise right to issue passes (Dastaks) for movement for such goods. This farman



meant loss of revenue to Government of Bengal and also power to issue dastaks were misused by company servants to evade taxes on their private trade.

- Company also started levying large duties on goods coming into the Calcutta. - Murshid Quli Khan, Sarfarz Khan and Alivardi Khan, all these Nawabs of Bengal

objected to misuse of farman given by Emperor. They firmly suppressed the misuse of dastaks as well.

BATTLE OF PLASSEY: (23rd June 1757)

- Under the regime of Siraj –ud- Daula, the company openly abused the trading rights intrigues against the Nawab. British also had begun to fortify Calcutta. But the Nawab rightly interpreted it was challenge to his sovereignty.

- French had their trading station at Chandranager near Calcutta. Therefore, Nawab Siraj –ud – Duala ordered both French and British to demolish their fortifications. French agreed the Nawab’s but on the other hand British refused to do that. That is why Nawab attacked and took Calcutta in 1756 without much opposition.

- 146 British prisoners were thrown into a tiny room out of which20 died due to suffocation. (The room later known as The Black Hole)

- Due to this force under Robert Clive was immediately sent to Bengal. Siraj – ud – Daula done nothing to consolidate his gains. Clive breached neutrality and then he captured Chandernagar.

- Mir Jafar was chosen as puppet to replaced Siraj –ud –Daula. In May 1757 British Calcutta Council made a secret treaty with Mir Jafar promising to replace Siraj – ud- daula by him.

- Finally on 23 rd June 1757, the Battle was fought between forces of Siraj – ud – daula, his French support troops and Robert Clive led British forces on other had, at Plassey 100km north of Plassy.

- Nawab forces were defeated in this battle.

BATTLE OF BUXAR (22nd October, 1764):

- Once the company had won their victory at Plassey, successive Nawabs Mir Jafar and Mir Qasim were exposed to a series of demands which destroyed their authority within 10 years.

- The decisive Battle of Buyxar was fought on 22nd 23 rd October, 1764. The berlligerents were the East India Company on one side and combined forces of Mir Kasim (Nawab of Bengal), Emperor Shah Alam –II and Shuja –ud – Daula (Nawab of Awadh) on the other had. This alliance was thoroughly defeated.

AFTER THIS BATTLE:

1. Hector Munro commanded British. 2. Emperor Shah Alam –II became a virtual prisoner of the Biritish. 3. Nawab Shuja – ud – Daula fled and took refuge to Rohikhan.



4. Mir Kasim also fled and he died a few years later in extreme obscurity. The Battle of Buxar ended with the Treaty of Allhabad.

TREATY OF ALLAHABAD (16th August, 1766):

Treaty of Allahabad was signed between Lord Clive and Mughal Emperor Shah

Alam –II who had submitted to the British in the Battle of Buxar.

- Under this Treaty, Mughal Emperor granted Diwani rights to British Company. Diwani rights means right to administer the territory and collect taxes to the East India Company at Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

- In lieu of this Right, the Company gave an annual tribute of 26 lakhs Ruppes to the mughals.

- The district of Kora and Allahabad were returned to Mughal Emperor. - Awadh was returned to Shuja –ud – daula but Allhabad and Kora were taken from

him. - The Nawab of Awadh paid 53 lakhs ruppes of war indemnity to the British.

DUAL SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT IN BENGAL:

- Dual system of government was a brain child of Lord Clive. - East India Company had becomes the real master of Bengal at least from 1765. As a

Diwan, the East India Company directly collected its revenues while throught the rights right to nominate the Deputy Subhedar, it controlled the Nizamat or the police and judicial powers. So this system of separate Diwan and Nizam is called Dual administration.

- The British had power without responsibilities without power. - This Dual government was the beginning of the economic loot from India which made

England the wealthiest country in the world during that time.

FAMINE OF BENGAL (1770):

In 1770, there was a catastrophic famine in Bengal. Its effect proved one of the most terrible famines known in human History. Every 1 out 3 people in Bengal died and the population of 30 million reduced to 10 million.

EXTENSION OF BRITISH INFLUENCE (1765 -1792) : WAR WITH THE MARATHAS:

In the Battle of Panipat (1761), the Marathas got defeated. But still the Marathas managed to overcome this crisis and they recovered their control over Delhi after a decade. However old Maratha confederacy controlled by Peshwa had given way to five virtually independent states.

1. Peshwa at Pune 2. Gaikwads at Baroda



3. Bhosale at Nagpur 4. Holkars at Indore 5. Sindhias at Gwalior

Internal rivalries weakened Peshwa’s government and remaining four leaders were often hostile to one another; even though the Marathas were still a formidable power.

(immediately after the Battle of Panipat, third Peshwa of Mrathas Balj Bajirao died. He was succeeded by his son Mdhavrao I. Uncle Raghunathrao assisted him in the administrative affairs. Conflict arose between Mdhavrao –I and Raghunathrao. Madhavrao-I died shortly due to Tuberculosis. His brother Narayanrarobecame the next Peshwa who was murdered by Raghunathrao in 1773. Finally Raghunathrao became the Peshwa.

TREATY OF SURAT (1775):

Gangabai, the widow of late Narayanrao gave birth to son named Sawai Mdhavrao. Twelve Maratha chief led by Nana Phadnavis, one of the ministers of the late Narauanrao conspired to make sawai Madhavrao as the new peshwa.

- This conspiracy was called as ‘Barabhai Conspiracy’ or the ‘conspiracy of the Twelve’ since Nana Phadnvis was assisted by 11 more ministers.

- Due to this Peshwai made treaty with British in 1775 called Treaty of Surat. As per the treaty, in order to restore Raghunathrao to him, he ceded the territories of Salsette and Basse in to British.

REGULATING ACT OF 1773:

- Designated Governor General of Bengal - Established supreme court of Calcutta (in 1774) - This act has a condition in itself that after every 20 years the company’s

administration should be received & only after that the new approval be granted. According to this condition parliament enacted 4 charter acts. 1793, 1813, 1833 & 1853.

- British/ English East India Company wanted to increase its control over Indian states. So it made following two policies to expand British rule in India.

Subsidiary Alliance:

Developed during the governor –generalship of Lord Wellesly.Company kept her army near the boundaries of Indian state for protection of state& collected fee annually.

Due to this Indian states lost their sovereignty & states were not be appointed as heir. He divided states into 3 categories.

1) States created by British Charter. In case of Absence of real heir to such states would be merged into British India.



2) State subordinate to British East India Company Before nominating adopted son as heir, permission from East India Company’s government was mandatory.

3) Independent states. Free to nominate anyone: The policy of annexation based on first category of state is popularly known as ‘Doctrine of Lapse’. The victims of policy Satara (1948). Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854) etc. Till the time East India company was implementing principles which were advantageous to itself. So fiscal deficit which was positive became negative during reign of company. Lord Dalhousie implemented free trade system which abolished restriction an import – export trade. Company was exploiting India for manufacturing raw material & creating market place for finished products in England.

Land Revenue Policy

1) The Permanent Settlement (Zamindari System) 2) The Ryotwari Settlement 3) The Mahalwari system

1. The permanent settlement :

Permanent settlement was introduced in 1793 by Lord Corwallies in Bengal and Bihar Zamindars and revenue collectors were converted into landlords who not only acted as

government agents but also became the owners of the entire land in their Zamindaris. Their ownership right was made hereditary and transferable. Zamindars gave 10/11 th of the rent they collected from the peasantry to the state and

kept 1/11 th for themselves but the land revenue sum paid them was fixed in perpetuity. Even if the crop frailed because fo some reason, the zamindar had to pay his revenue

rigidly on the date, otherwise his land was to be sold. It the rental of a zamindar’s estate is increased due to improvement in agriculture or his

capacity to extract from his tenants or any other reason, zamindar would keep the entire amount of increase.

Initially the settlement was made for ten years in 1790 but on March 22 nd. 1793 the settlement was fixed to last forever. 2. The Ryotwari System

The pioneer of the Ryotwari System was Thomas Munro. The official believed that in the regions like Southern and South- Western India there

were no zamindars with large estates with whom settlement of land revenue could be made and the existing state of affairs could get upset by the introduction of the zamindari system.



Reed and Munro pointed out that under permanent settelement the company was a financial loser as it had to share collected revenue with the zamindars and also, the company could claim a share of growing income from the land.

Under Ryotwari System, the land revenue was directly collected from peasants as Ryot itself.

Ryotaar System of revenue collection was implemented in Madras, Malabar, Colmbatore, Karnool.

In this system peasants were made the owner of the land and 50% of the net produce was fixed as land revenue.

Due to this system, government retained the right to enhance land revenue at will and the Ryot had to pay revenue even when his produce was partially or completely destroyed by flood or drought. 3. The Mahalwari System

The Mahalwari System was pioneered by Halt Mackenzee. In this method, local zamindars were responsible on the behalf of peasants for the

payment of land revenue. Peasants had to deposit revenue with the zamindar. Peasants were free to sell or mortgage their lands. It was implemented in Punjab, United Province and some parts of the Central province. The revenue settlement was to be made village by village or estate (which means

Mahal) by estate with the landlords or heads of the families who collectively claimed to be the landlords of the village or the estate.

In Punjab, a modified Mahalwari system known as the Village System was introduced. In this method, land revenue was also periodically revised.

Wood’s Dispatch of 1854 ( for education )

Charles Wood was a British Liberal politician and Member of Parliament. He served as Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1846 to 1852. Later he became the President of the Board of Control of the East Indian Company. In 1854 he sent the “Wood’s dispatch” to the Governor General Lord Dalhousie.

As per this dispatch :

- 1. An education department was to be set in every province. - 2. Universities on the model of the London University be established in big cities such

as Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. - 3. At least one government school be opened in every district. - 4. Affiliated private schools should be given grant in aid. - 5. The Indian natives should be given training in their mother tongue also.



Wood’s Dispatch is called Magna cart of English Education in India. In accordance with Wood’s dispatch, Education Departments are established in every province and universities were opened at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857 on the model of the London University. Later more universities were opened in Punjab in 1882 and at Allahabad. 1887.



Revolt of 1857

India’s initial response to East India Co.’s colonial rule was not a united response. Different sections of society responded to it in a different way. For example, middle classes took to western education and newly emerging professions like government services as well as legal practice. But major sections of society like peasants, artisans, people working in army of East India co. and rural peasantry were strongly unhappy and there was a dormant volcano lying under the crest of society, which outburst with proper opportunity in 1857.

Main reasons of revolt of 1857:

1. Economic exploitation of country and destruction of traditional economic fabric: Heavy land revenue, peasants’ exploitation specially under Zamindari system, constant famines, high land revenue rates that too payment in cash, forcible cultivation under the British for cash crops and compulsory sell at low cost to provide raw material in Britain. And also, artisans were impoverished due to skewed trade balance, tax policies and deliberate destruction of Indian cottage industries.

2. Unrest amongst Princes due to Lord Dalhousie’s policy of annexation and doctrine of lapse. As also, his aggressive policy of annexation for other reasons like inefficiency and so on.

3. Unrest in army of East India Co. due to reasons like low salaries, racism, no promotions for Indians, superiority given to British officials on basis of racial discrimination and so on.

4. Unrest amongst the people like scholars, priests, artisans and so on, who were supported by erstwhile Prinnces and rulers of India.

5. Unrest due to religious reasons : There was a common notion among Indians and specially among those in army that the East India Co. and Christian missionaries are trying to corrupt Indian religions and trying to convert people to Christianity. For instance some of the laws brought by the British like ban on tradition of ‘sati’ or forcing army men to cross seas to go to Bruma for fighting war fuelled unrest amongst the people.

Immediate cause of revolt:

‘Royal Enfield’ gun brought into use of company’s army was believed to have covering made of fat of cow and pig which are respectively sacred for Hindus and absolutely untouchable for Muslims. This resulted in unrest in company’s army. And finally it resulted in Mangal Pande’s individual heroism of assassinating British officials at Barackpur on 29th march, 1857; followed by his brief trial and hanging on 8th April, 1857.



Leaders of revolt:

Delhi – Bahadur Shah jafar (mughal emperor in 80s who couldn’t participate in war) + Bakhtkhan (Bahadur Shah’s general)

Jhansi –Rani Laksmibai

Ayodhya – Begum Hazarat Mahal

Kanpur: Peshwa Nanasahib and his general Tatya tope

Jagdishpur: Kunwar Ramsingh

Faizabad: Maulavi Ahmadullah

Reasons of failure of 1857:

1. No co – ordination amongst fighters at various places 2. No all India support to revolt for example, Sikhs and Gorkhas never participated in

the revolt and south India remained far away from revolt as also some Princes like scindias of Gwalior supported the British along with the newly emergent middle classes in cities.

3. Disciplined and well trained army of the British and rapid communication as well as advanced weapons with the British army

4. No common goal of the revolters and no robust future plan and no coherent ideology.

VARIOUS IDEOLOGICAL INTERRETATIONS OF THE REVOLT:

There have been lot of discussions and debated about the ideological interpretations of the revolt. There are two main schools of thought regarding the interpretations of the1857, one suggesting that 1857 was India’s first freedom struggle and the other suggesting that it was just a ‘mutiny of sepoys’ fuelled by local anger of sepoys in the army and their immediate and local causes. However the former view seems to have prevailed in Indian historical discourse, in recent times. Another novel interpretation of 1857 being ‘a jihad’ has been recently putforth by an eminent historian in Maharashtra.

Leaders of Revolt:

Delhi: Bahadur Shah Zafar and Bakht Khan

Jhansi: Rani Laxmi Bai

Bihar: Kunwar Singh

Mathura: Devi Singh

Meerut: Kadam Singh



Faizabad: Muhammad Ullah

Kanpur: Nana sahib, Tantya Tope and Azimullah Khan

Allahabad : Liaquat Ali

Gwalior : Tatya Tope.

1857 – 1885

After the ‘Revolt of 1857’, British learned their lessons and consequently devised their policies through legislations such as ‘Good Government of India Act 1858’, Indian council Act 1861’ to name a few. British reorganized army i.e. they increased number of native soldiers reduced from (2,38,000 to 1, 40, 000); proportion between the European and Indian troops was fixed at 1 : 2 in Bengal Presidency and at 1 : 3 in Bombay and Madras presidencies. Aftermath 1857, the policy of subordinate Union (1857 – 1835) was followed with the Indian Presidency state it took the form of British India Finance capitalism.

The Act of 1858 did not restructure administration significantly, only control of Indian administration was transferred from the East India Company to the Crown. There was provision for the appointment of secretary of state with an advisory body popularly called – India office.

Some of the developments that took place in 1860-1861 laid the foundations of future British policies and thereby future of the British Empire. These developments are:

1. In 1860: Income tax Act (By James Wilson) the first budget (in modern sense) of Government of India was represented the same year.

2. 1861 : Indian Penal code (IPC) came into effect. 3. 1861 : Archaeological Survey of India was established and Alexander Cunningham

was made its head. 4. 1681 : Indian Council Act 1861, it was the modest beginning of parliamentary System

in India. Let us see what it contained.

The Indian Council Act of 1861

It added a fifth member, who was to be jurist, to the Executive council of the Governor, General.

It expanded the Governor – General’s Executive Council by addition of “not less than 6 and not more than 12” additional ‘members, at least half of whom were to be non- officials.

Handicaps of Act of 1861 (Indian council Act)

1. The very purpose to establish closer contact with the public opinion was undermined by act itself. Indian members were only given non- official positions in legislative work.



And these members were either big landlords or Princes of the princely states who seldom represented public opinion.

2. The non- official members could hardly play any role. No questions could be asked and the budget could not be discussed.

3. Although the legislative powers of provincial legislative councils (e.g. Bombay Presidency etc.) were restored but Governor – General’s prior approval had to be obtained in majority of the decisions. Governor General (Viceroy) could issue ordinances too. Having several defects, Act of 1861 made modest beginning towards decentralization. Thereafter British followed policy of decentralization an administration. Of course it did not come easy way, Indians struggled and compelled British to decentralization during the time frame of 1857 – 1920: We already discussed Indian council Act 1861. Under this act legislative councils were setup in the provinces. Lord Mayo popularly hailed for financial decentralization, in 1870 introduced the system of provincial Finance. Several Municipal Acts were passed in 1870s constituting corresponding Municipalities. Even hated (by Indian people) and infamous Lord Lytton followed (or have to follow) policy of financial devolution. In 1877 provincial governments were given the control of expenditure on financial services like excise, land revenue reforms, law and justice etc. and also handed over some specified sources of revenue (e.g. excise, license fee etc) from their respective provinces. The powers of provincial legislative councils were enlarged by the Indian council Act 1892. The process was carried further through enactment Indian council Act 1909. The Government of India Act 1919 introduced ‘dyarchy’ in the provinces i.e. Provincial subjects were divided into two parts – the ‘Reserved” Transferred.” The middle class, remained alien to Revolt of 1887,began to lead the struggle. This western educated class initially believed in British sense of justice, but to their despair they observed discrimination in various fields and in each field including Justice, Army, Press etc. they felt this feeling of disillusionment (despair) deeply when they realized exploitative nature of British imperialism & colonialism. Among them were Dadabhai Naoroji., M. G. Rnade, R.C. Dutt who educated public opinion. These nationalist pointed out that India’s capital and wealth was being ‘drained’ to Britain in the from of salaries and Pensions of British officials working in India, Interest on loans taken by the Indian Government, profits of British Capitalists in India, and the Home chares or expenses of the Indian Government in Britain. Despite the words of nationalist leader, true nature of British Raj and its colonialism ws not realized by downtrodden and peasants in 19th century peasant movements in India and 20th century peasant movements is that former lacked an adequate understanding of colonialism. The peasant (in 19th century) often rebelled only when he felt that it was not possible to carry on in the existing manner. He was ready to pay rent but resent undue enhancement of rent and evictions. After the revolt in Indian political sphere change happened gradually, it took time to educate and form a public opinion. The public opinion was also shaped by religious



awakening and social reform movements. These movements are of the form: Revivalist or Reformist. Works of keshavchandra sen,Mahatma Jyotiba Phule , Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Ramkrishna Pramhans, Swami Vivekannanda etc .were remarkable. They provided necessary impetus for political work, ideology & practice. In 1866 East India association was established in London. In 1967 Poona Sarvajnik Sabha was set up in Maharashtra, whereas in Bengal Mohan Bose and Surendranath Banerjee. Repressive policies of Lord Lytton spread unrest which was blessings in disguise, as Arms Act, Vernicular Press Act, lowering eligibility age of civil services united Indians protesting against them. Path towards National Political Organization. The ida of National political organization was there, only it had to be given a concrete shape. Efforts were made, for Instance, in 1877 the Poona Sarvjanik Sabha had urged the representativfes of Bombay and Bengal to work together and the following year sent a deputation to Calcutta. And the following year sent a deputation to Calcutta. The Indian Association of Calcutta (Kolkata ) had plans to hold national conference. In 1883 Telang went from Bombay to Calcutta to arrange for ‘more political concert’ between Calcutta dn Bombay. Ilbert Bill controversy exposed British, and provided necessary stir to Speding up the process of formation of common national Political organization. During 1883-84 the various local associations in the presidency towns were forging towards unity. The effort of the Indian Association in general & Shri. Surendranath Benerjee in organizing the Indian National conference. The second National conference was arranged during X- mas week of 1885. The rise of Indian National Congress caught imagination of the nation, specially in earlier time of learned men & women.

Vernacular Press Act:

1) Lord Lytton promulgated the Vernacular press Act (1878) which imposed severe restrictions on the vernacular press –a major instrument in the hands of the intelligentsia in spreading nationalist ideas.

2) He wanted toward the seditious ambitions of the western educated elite.

Education in India:

1) 3 Institutions played important role in spreading Modern Education in India. a) Christian Missionaries b) The British Govt c) Progressive Indians 2) Missionaries started educational institutions which along with imparting modern

secular education also gave religious instructions in Christianity. 3) British Govt. established a network of schools and colleges in India which turned out

educated Indians well – versed in modern knowledge. 4) The main motive behind spread of modern education in Indians is to make them

polito- administrative and economic literate. 5) Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Keshab Chandra Sen, Rabindra Nth Togore, Ishwar chander

Vidyasagar, Ranad, Dayanand Sarswati, Ramakirshna Vivekanand , etc. worked towards the establishment of modern education.



6) Modern education was also the medium for spread of modern science and ideas of equality and liberty.

7) The printing press revolutionized the educational system in tehat the emphasis shifted from personal, oral communication to impersonal communication of idea through books, journals and other media.

8) Modern education was gradually thrown open to al castes, religious groups and to women.

9) Education opportunities helped one to acquire the necessary skills outside caste. Occupations thus become a relatively independent element.

Famine Under British Rule:

1) Delhi- Area region in 1860-61 suffered from great Famine. Col Baird Committee appointed to investigate the causes of famine but his committee performed no function and did not put forward any significant recommendation because of this basic factors and forces responsible for the famine remained intact.

2) In 1866 a great famine affected all India but its impact was mainly in Orissa. The government appointed George Campbell Commission to investigate the causes of famine and to recommend measures to prevent recurrences in future. committee held government system responsible for creating the famine like conditions and suggested that the government during famine times must organize the relief measures.

3) Due to ignorance of the recommendations of Cambell committee, serious famine reoccurred in many parts of country including Punjab, UP and Madras in 1876.

4) In accordance with the recommendation of Strachey Commission famine fund with amount Rs. 1 crore was set up and famine code was also formulated in 1883. This code has 4 parts. The first part of the code dealt with the government measures during the normal times. The second part dealt with relief campaing. The third part dealt with the duties of officials during relief measures. The fourth part dealt with the division of famine – affected areas.

5) In spite of the formaulation to famine policy and its implementation a number of famines struck India repeatedly. A severe famine occurred in 1896-97 and another famine occurred in 1899-1900. The government of Lord Curzon appointed Anthony McDonald Committee in 1900 to suggest measures to counter the famine effectively.

6) In 1942-43 a severe famine struck the Bengal regaion. The government appointed John Woodhad Committee. The Committee recommended that all Indian Food Council should be set up. The dept of food and agriculture should be merged and steps should be taken to increase agriculture production. Though British government initiated number of steps but these steps failed to improve the condition of Indian masses in any way.



Social Reforms

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL REFORMS:

With the coming of Britiths, not only the political and social set up of Indian society radically and fundamentally transformed but also there was a great churning in social and religious spheres. Work of Christian missionaries in India and deliberate attempts of the British to spread western values made Indians in three ways: viz.

1. Acceptance of western values as sacrosanct without any changes or ‘indianisation’ of those values.

2. Making reforms in Indian religions like Hinduism and Islam to inculcate some of Western values and reform them without accepting all western values. This is known as ‘Reformism.’

3. Strengthening the original forms of religions and radically, known as ‘Radicalism’. Best example of radicalism is ‘Deoband’ school of Islam.

Brahmo Samaj:

1) Founded by Raja Rammohan Roy in 1828. 2) Movement against Sati, support to window remarriage, encourage intercaste

marriage. 3) Opposed caste system & child marriage. 4) Against sacrifices & superstitions

Yong Bengal Movement:

1) Founded by a teacher of the Hindu college, Henry Vivian Derozio. 2) Influenced by the ideals of the French Revolution 3) Preached Liberty, Equality & Fraternity. 4) Against superstitions & sacrifices 5) More emphasis on women education & freedom of press

Prarthana Samaj:

1) Founded in 1867 in Bombay. 2) The aim of refining the Hindu religion through the light of modern knowledge. 3) R.G Bhandarkar and Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade (important persons associated) 4) Influenced by the Brahmo Samaj 5) Faith in One God.

Annie Besant and the Theosophical Society:

1) Madame Blavastsky in India in 1882 introduced theosophical Society (atyar in Madras)



2) “theosophy embodied in itself the truths which underlay all religions”. 3) Annie Besant came to India in 1893 and became the leader of the movement. 4) She devoted herself to the revival of Hindu religion with its philosophy, rituals and

modes of worship. 5) She helped to impart to the educated Indians a sense of pride in their own country.

Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh Movement:

1) Sir Ayed Ahmed Khan was a British Govt Servant & supporter of British Rule. 2) He wanted to remove the bitter enmity between Muslims & British Ruler. 3) Bring Muslims in conformity with modern science and philosophy. 4) Persuade Muslims to receive modern education and enter the services. 5) In 1862 he founded the Scientific Society to translate and publish scientific works in

Urdu to familiarize the people with modern science 6) Established Mohmmedan Anglo – Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875 which later

became Aliharh Muslim University.

Vivekananda and The Ramkrishna Mission:

1) Propagate the teachings of Rama Krishna Pramhamsa. 2) He argued that the Vedanta was the religion of all and not of the Hindus alone. 3) He was interested in the improvement of all aspects of national life. 4) He was impressed by the economic prosperity of the West and the status of women

enjoyed there. 5) Vivekannda combined in him dynamism and nationalism and greatly influenced the

younger generation to take pride in their country. Arya Samaj:

1) Founded in 1875 by Swami Dayanand Saraswati. 2) Reformation in Hindu religion in north India. 3) Believe in one God & worshipped in Spirit not in Images. 4) He held the Vedas to be infallible and the fountain of all knowledge. 5) “Sayarth Prakash” book written by Dayanand Sarawati 6) Guiding 10 principles : Study Vades & other related to tenets of Virtue & Morality. 7) There was no room for caste distinctions and social inequality. 8) Opposed child marriage and encouraged remarriage of widows. 9) A network of schools and colleges was established throughout northern Indian to

promote the objects of Arya Samaj 10) The Dayanand Anglo – Vedic School of Lahore which soon developed into a premier

college of Punjab set the pattern for such institutions. 11) His mover for the reconversion of those Hindus who had been converted. For this

purpose a purificatory ceremony called Shuddhi was prescribed.



*Impact of the Reform Movement:

1) Emancipation of women. 2) In 1856 law was passed permitting widow remarriage. 3) In 1860 raised the marriageable age of girls to ten. 4) Many superstitions also began to disappear. 5) The reform movements contributed a great deal to the birth of Indian nationalism. 6) The reform activities united people and the attack on institutions like caste which

hampered social unity created a sense of oneness in the people. Limitations:

1) The questions to which they gave primacy concerned only small section sof Indian society.

2) Some of them failed to emphasize or even recognize that colonizal to the interests of the Indian people.

3) Most of them worked within the framework of their respective communities in a way tended to promote identities based on religion or caste.

Wahabi Movement (1820 – 1870):

1) An Islamic socio –religious reform movement. 2) Tried to purify Islam by eliminating all the un – Islamic practices which had crept in to

Muslim society through the ages. 3) Saiyad Ahmad of Rae – Bareily was the founder of this movement in India. 4) His actual ambition was to revive Muslim power in Hindustan by overthrowing the Sikhs

in Punjab and British in Bengal. 5) After Saiyad Ahamad’s death in the battle of Balakot against the Sikhs (1831), Patna

became the centre of this movement . 6) In Bengal Saiyad Nissar Hussain led this anit- British struggle which sometimes took a

communal turn. 7) The British took strong measures against this movement and were able to subdue it

completely around 1870.

Kuka Movement in the Punjab (1860-1872):

1) Founded by Bhagat Jawahar Mal in 1840. 2) “To purify the Sikh religion by removing all the abuses, superstitions and ill-

practices from it”. 3) But after the British annexation of Punjab revival of Sikh power and sovereignty

became the major objective of the Kukas. 4) Britishers took various measures between 1863 and 1872 and were finally able to

suppress this movement.



Santhal Rebellion (1855 – 1856)

1)Under the leadership of Sidhu and Knhu thousands of Santhals revolted against the oppressive British and their local Indian collaborations.

1) Destroyed the houses of landlords. Moneylenders, planters and British officials. 2) Other people from lower orders also joined them. They proclaimed the end of British

rule. 3) After a series of initial setbacks, the British authority could ultimately subdue the

santhal rebellion but only with a military aid.

Indian National Congress:

Events like the passage of the Vernacular Press Act in 1878 and the IIert Bill of 1882, as well as the reduction of the age limit for the Civil Services Exams in 14876 resulted in a wave of opposition from the middle class Indians. Consequently some of them came together and formed a number of small political parties that came out in the streets fro protests and rallies. The British foresaw the situation resulting in another rebellion on the pattern of the War of Independence of 1857. To avoid such a situation, the British decided to provide an outlet to the local people where they could discuss their political problems. In order to achieve this goal, Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant, had a series of meetings with Lord Dufferin, the Vioceroy. Hume also had the support of a large number of Englishmen in India, including Sir William wedderbun, George Yule and Charles Bradlaugh.

On his return from Britain, Hume consulted the local Indian leaders and started working towards the establishment of an Indian political organization. He invited the convention of the Indian National Union, an organization he had already formed in 1884, to Bombay in 1884, to Bombay in December 1885. Seventy delegates, most of whom were lawyers, educationalists and journalists, attended the convention in which the Indian National Congress was established. This first session of Congress was presided over by Womesh Chandra Banerjee and he was also elected as the first president of the organization.

INC’s early aims and objectives were:

1) To seek the cooperation of all the Indians in its efforts. 2) Eradicate the concepts of race, creed and provincial prejudices and try to form

national unity. 3) Discuss and solve the social problems of the country. 4) To request the government, give more share to the locals in administrative affairs.

As time went by, the Congress changed its stance and apparently became the biggest opposition to the British government. Muslims primarily opposed the creation of Congress and refused to participate in its activities. Out of the 70 delegates who attended the opening session of the Congress only two were Muslims.



Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, who was invited to attend the Bombay session, refused the offer. He also urged the Muslims to abstain from the Congress activities and predicated that the party would eventually become a Hindu party and would only look after the interests of the Hindus. Syed Ameer Ali, another important Muslim figure of the era, also refused to join Indian National Congress.

(1885-1905) By 1885, a stage had been reached in the political development of India when collective efforts were felt strongly necessary to accomplish certain objectives. Inspired by these objectives, leaders practicing different political trends, convictions and ideologies had met on 28 December 1885 at Gawalia Tank Ground in Bombay (now Mumbai) to initiate a new chapter of our history.

Mr.A.O. Hume. A liberal retired official of the Government of India had helped to give practical, definite shape to an all – India had helped to give practical, definite shape to an all- India organization. British authorities were still in ‘Mutiny complex’ those days, observing it from close quarters; political workers adopted a strategy that did not arouse official hostility. Such cooperation form British noblemen and early nationalist’s viewpoint of apprehension that anarchy and disorder would prevail in India if British Government was superceded --- was looked on with suspicion by many of the liberals, Extremists and even historians. And it is held that Indian National Congress was established by the likes of A. O. Hume under the direction of Lord Dufferin, Viceroy, to provide a safe constitutional outlet for the rising discontent among the masses. The theory. But it is a myth. The official attitude stiffened after 1887 and Lord Dufferin challenged the national character of the Congress as representing only ‘microscopic minority’ and its demands as ‘a big jump into the unknown’. Had he directed to use Congress as a safety valve, he would not have willingness to oppose Congress’ propaganda and that too only after two years from its establishment.

Broadly Speaking Indian National movement is characterized by these three phases mentioned:

1. period of Moderate politics (1885-1905) 2. rise of extremism or Radical politics (1905-1920) 3. period of mass movements aptly called ‘Gandhian age’ (1920 till Independence)

with several other flows joining the steam of national movement had contributed greatly for nation’s cause. Now we will focus on contribution of Moderates.

1. Period of Moderate politics (1985 – 1905) From the beginning moderate leaders took hold of the organization. The national lderders like Dadanhai Naoroji, Pheroze Mehata, D..E. Wacha, W.C. Bannerjee,G.K Gokhale were staunch believers in moderation and liberalism. In the words of M.G.



Ranade (Political guru of G.K. Gokhale)- “moderation implies the conditions of venver vainly aspiring after the impossible or after too remote ideals, but fairness.”

Objectives and methods of Moderates:

The basic objectives:

1. To lay foundations of a secular and democratic national movement . 2. Politicizing and politically educate people to develop public opinion. 3. To develop, nurture and propagate an anti - colonial nationalist ideology.

Methods:

Popular 3 Ps: Prayer (or petition) – Press – Protest. Their methods reflected their perceptions about British Raj and its sense of justice.

Moderates believed – British people were just, righteous and freedom loving. So moderates preferred to prepare their case with detailed study and present and plead it before the British Parliament and they believed that their grievances would be redressed and justice would be done. They persuade their case tirelessly.

A British Committee of the Indian national Congress was setup in London which published a weekly journal India to present India’s case before the British Public.

During this phase, the congress demanded few concessions and not freedom for the nation.

National demands in the period under review. Were: Councils with enlarged powers and more representation to Indians in them,

Indianization of civil services, freedom of the press and broadening of the basis of civil liberties, the right to bear arms, reduction of military expenditure and more expenditure on education, the right of Indians to join semi – military Volunteer corps, the right of Indian judges to try Europeans in criminal Caes, Separation of judiciary from executive work in district administration, no reduction of import duties on textile imports, enquiry into the backward industrial conditions, higher expenditure on famine relief, no expansion in Afghanistan or Burma, improvement in the conditions of the lot of Indians in South Africa and the Empire generally, the appeal to British voters to vote for a party which would listen to Indians etc.

If we carefully analyze these demands we observe trend in these demands, for instance, more representation to Indians, civil liberties, decentralization, economic critiques, relief work, foreign policy were the elements of concern in these demands.

Use of Press

It was obvious to use press to propagate anti- imperialist ideas and to educate people as one third of the founding fathers of the Congress were journalist. Also initially, the congress had no formal Structural set up for carrying on political work. Naturally press was a handy medium to propagate its resolutions and proceedings. Newspapers also became view papers, some of the contributors were –



The Hindu and Swadesamitran under the editorship of G.Subramaniya Iyer, Bengalee under Surendranath Banerjee, Voice of India under Dadabhai Naoroji etc. (It is historical fact that Extremist leaders used the press more effectively. Best example: B.G. Tilak)

Newspapers played an institutional role of opposition to the Government policies were severely criticized. In Villages educated people read it for whole community which included majority of illiterates. In this way mild beginning of political participation was started.

Propaganda in Legislatures:

Indian Council Act 1892 only appeased and not satisfied Moderate’s demands. But still nationalist leadership with their limited powers in legislature, used legislative proceedings for ventilating grievances, exposing the shortcomings of bureaucracy and defects in the government policies. Nationalist leaders like P.M. Mehta, G.K. Gohale. Etc. used Legislative Councils to enhance their own political stature and build a national movement.

Assessment of moderates

A. Contribution 1. Moderates introduced modern politics, politics of prayer, petition and memorials

was new for Indian people. They laid the foundations of politicization of people. 2. The word ‘Congress’ was borrowed from American history which means an

assembly of people. The Congress was organized in the form of Parliament and sessions were conducted democratically through debate and discussions over all the issues. It was indeed the great work of the Congress, and not the British State, to imbibe, popularize Parliamentary democracy in India.

3. Moderate leaders assessed the economic impact of British Raj on India. They focused public attention on the fact of Indian poverty and explained that this poverty was largely due to the colonial exploitation of India’s economic resources by Britain.

4. Their main practical achievements were: Appointment of a public service commission in 1886. Enactment of the Indian Councils Act 1892. Resolution of the House of Commons in 1893 for simultaneous examination for the I.C.S in London and India. Appointment of Welby (Royal) Commission on Indian Expenditure.

5. Judging by the objectives set their achievements are quite substantial as they laid strong foundation for national movement, politicized public and evolved anti- colonial ideology.

B. Criticism 1. Although Moderates evolved and developed anti-colonial ideology, they failed to

understand the character of the colonial state in the beginnings.



2. Their political style was widely criticized as ‘political mendicancey’. For instance, Lala Lajpat Rai wrote: “It was at best an opportunist movement. It opened opportunities for treacheries and hypocrites. It enabled some people to trade in the name of patriotism”.

3. Their loyalty to the Crown was also subject matter of criticism. Their belief that India lacked some of the essential elements which constituted a nation and British rule kept them together was widely criticized by ardent nationalists & Extremists.

4. They did not reach to the masses. Their reach was limited, they initially politicized educated Indians. And so, the Marxist interpretations held them responsible to hold interest of capitalist class. Nowtwithstanding this criticism, as eminent historian Bipan Chandra puts it --- “They (moderates) rooted their nationalism in a hard – headed and penetrating analysis of the complex mechanism of modern imperialism and the chief contractions between the interests of the Indian people and British Rule Inspite of their many failures the early nationalists laid strong foundations for the national movement to grow upon and that they deserve a high place among the maker of modern India”. One of the earnest achievements of moderates, during period under review (1885 -1905): Indian council Act 1892. We will have a look at it.

INDIAN COUNCIL ACT 1892

The act achieved there things

1. It increased the number of members in the central and Provincial legislatures: Central Legislature: 6 members of Executive Council + Not less than 10 and not more than 16 of Governor – general additional members. Bombay, Madras and Bengal: Maximum 20 additional members North Western Provinces and Oudh: Maximum 15 additional members. II. It introduced election system partially. Approximately 2/5th of the members of council were elected. Only non – official members were elected and hence there was official majority. Some of the non- officials were nominated. III. Enlarged the functions of the Council. The members were empowered to discuss the budget with certain restrictions. They could ask questions to Government on matters of public interest.

Handicaps of the Indian Council Act 1892

i) The Act of 1892 fell short of fulfilling the demands made by the Congress. Nature of British Rule remained as before: despotism.

ii) Elections were indirect. Principle of election implemented ensured that Governor would have final say and election is reduced to mere nomination as Governor



could accept or reject indirectly elected member who got elected through district boards, chamber of commerce etc (i.e. given electorate). The rules of election were unsatisfactory. Certain classes were over – represented while others did not get any representation at all.

iii) Annual Budget could be discussed but members were neither allowed to vote nor to move a motion to amend it.

iv) Supplementary questions could not be asked. Even questions had to put with certain conditions (restrictions) imposed, on matters of public interest, and prior notice had to be given (six days prior). And still any question could be disallowed without assigning any reason. In this way Act of 1892 was not intended to mark the beginnings of parliamentary system in India, nevertheless, it was a definite milestone on the road that led to the establishment of Parliamentary Government later on.



INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT 1905 -1920 Rise of Extermists

- Recognition of ht etrue nature of British rule in India at that time. - Self respect and confidence grew among the Indian people. - Growth of education and consequently growth in awareness among these educated

Indians. - International infulences viz emergency of Asian country like Japan as an industrial

power, demolitioi of myths of European invincibility and notionalist movement in Ireland, Russia, Egypt, Turkey, Perisa & Chaina.

- Reaction to the increasing westernisation in the British India. - Achievements of the moderate leaders failed to satisfy other younger elements within

the congress. - Policies of Lord Curzen during his viceroyalty. - Existence of extremists school of thought within the country under the leadership

Tilak, Bipin ChandraPal, Aurobindo Ghosh, Ashwini Kumar Dutta etc. - Emergenceof trained leadership which could provide a proper way to the immense

potential of masses in the political struggle.

Drawbacks of Early nationalists

- British accepted very few of the reforms for which early nationalsit agatated. - During this phase, moderates did not assign an important role to the masses in the

struggle. - There was concentration of this political activity in the presidencies only. - Most ot them were criticised because of their slow methods. - Another major drawback was for moderates politics remained as part time affair.



PARTION OF BENGAL - The partition of the Bengal was the most unpopular measure of Lord Curzon during

his viceroyalty. The reson given by Curzon was that, the province of Bengal was too big unwieldy to be administered by a single provincial government effectively. But the main motive behind the partition plan was the Carzon’s desire to weaken the Bengal which was ht enave centre of Indian nationalism at that time. The government’s decision of partition of Bengal had been made public in Dec. 1903. The Bengal was partitioned into two parts viz a) Eastern Bengal and Assam Which indluded Chittagong, Dacca & Rajshahi

Divisions Hill Tippera & Malda apart from Assam and b) The rest of Bengal.

With the partition Bengalis were not only divided into two parts but also felle under minority in Bengal itself. Curzon aimed to prop up all Muslim communities as a counter to Indian National Congress and split the Indian community.

Swadeshi and Boycott movement

- The partition of Bengal formally came into force on Oct. 16, 1905. Down to the last day before the partition, moderates intensively used their conventional methods. But they failed to won the British favour.

- Swadeshi literally means ‘of one’s own country’. - To promote Indian interpirse and industry and to generate partiotism, swadeshi

movemtn implied theat people should use goods produced within India. - Swadeshi and Boycott were comlementary to each other. - Advocacy of ‘Boycott’ also accompanied the promotion of swadeshi. - By organising Boycott of Foreign goods. Britains economic interests could be hurt

and the Brititsh Government could be forced to concede to the Indian demands. The ‘day of mourning’ was declared on the actual day of partition throughout the Bengal. In the houses chullahs wre kept unlit. All the people tied rakhis on each other’s hand as a symbol of unity.

Annulment of Partition of Bengal:

it was decided to annual the partition on Bengal in 1911 mainly to curb th emenace of revolutionary terrorism.

The Surat Split -1907

1) Banaras session: President Ghokhale 2) Extremists leaders wantedto extend beyond and swadeshi to extend beyond Bengal

and to include all forms of asociations in Boycott programme.



Dec 1906-Calcutta session:

- Extremists wanted Tilak of Lajput Rai as president buton the other hand moderates wanted dadabhai Naorojee as president. Dadabhai elected as a president who was widely respected by all the nationalists

- The word swaraj was first time used in the congress session but its meaning was differently interpreted by moderates and Extremists.

- 1907: Extremists wanted 1907 session to be held in Nagpur but moderates wanted it to be held in Surat to exculde Tilak from Presidency because a leader from the host province could not be session president and likely to drop resolutions of swadesh,

- Boycott and national education. Both sides were not ready for compromise, so split became inevitable.

- For extremists, final battle for freedom had began as the people had been aroused and it was a time for a big push. They felts, moderates had exhausted their historical role and they were a big drag on the movement.

- Moderates on the other hand were determined to part Company with extremists. Because in they knew to remain with extremists was a danger. Differences between moderates and extremists. Moderates

Extremists

1) Zamindars and upper middle classes in towns is the social base.

2) Western liberal thought and

European history was their ideological inspiration.

3) Moderates believed in England’s providential mission in India.

4) Believed political connection wit Britain to be in India’s social, political and cultural interests.

5) Professed loyalty to the British crown.

6) Moderates believed that the

movement should be limited to the middle class intelligent, masses yet not ready for participation in political work.

7) Demanded constitutional reforms and share for Indians in services.

Educated middle and lower middle classes in towns are social base.

Indian history, cultural heritage, and Hindu traditional symbol was their ideological inspiration. Extremists rejected providential mission theory as an illusion. Extremists believed that the British political connections would perpetuate British exploitation of India. Extremists had immense faith in capacity of masses to participate and to make sacrifices. Extremists had immense faith in the capacity of masses to participate and to make sacrifices. Demanded swaraj as the panacea for Indian ills.



8) Insisted on the use of constitutional methods only.

9) They were patriots and did not

play the role of a comprador class.

Did not hesitate to use extra constitutional methods like Boycott and passive resistance to achieve their objectives. They were the patriots who made sacrifices for the sake of the country.

Also British policy of carrot and stick helped in the Surat split.

INDIAN COUNCILS ACT OF 1909 (Morley Minto Reforms)

[morley – secretary of state and Minto – Viceroy.]

- Provisions: 1. The act formally introduced the principle of elections for the first time. 2. The size of the legislative council (both provincial and state) increased due to this

act. Members in the central legislative council were increased from 16 to 60. But the various provincial legislative councils had different number of members.

3. It allowed provincial legislative councils to had non – official majority but retained official majority in the central legislative council.

4. At both central and provincial level, act enlarged the deliberative function of legislative councils viz, members were allowed to ask supplementary questions more resolutions on the budget etc.

5. Association of Indians with the executive councils of the viceroy and governors was provided. Appointing as law member, satyndra Prasad Sinha became first Indian to join viceroy’s executive council .

6. The act introduced a system of communal representation for Muslims through separate electorates. Separate electorate means Muslim members were to be elected only by Muslim voters i.e. legalization of communalism and from then – viceroy minto comes to knows as ‘father of communal electorate’.

7. This act also provided for the separate representation of presidency corporations, universities, rramindas and chambers of commerce professional classes etc.

Rise of Revolutionary freedom movement:

- Groth of militant nationalism gave rise of the revolutionary terrorism in India which acquired a more activist form after the fall of Swadeshi and Boycott movement.

- Few nationalist leaders along with several news papers viz. ‘Sandhya’ and ‘yugantar’(Bengal) & ‘Kal’ secretly began to advocated revolutionary terrorism after 1905.

- Henchandra Kanugo of Anushilan samiti was one of the most remarkable figure among first generation of revolutionaries. He went abroad to get military training. A combined regllous school and a bomb factory was set up after his return in 1908.



- Activities of the revolutionary terrorist took two forms:- a) The association of opperasive affricials or trailers from their own ranks. b) The dacoities to raise the funds for arms popularly known as Swadeshi dacoities.

- Dacca Anushilan, Yungantar Party, Abhinave Bharat, etc these are organizations which arried their activities from different party from India.

- These terrorist also established their centers in the abroad.

Separatist trends in the Indian nationalist politics:

The Muslim League

All India Muslim league was founded at the end of 1906 in Dacca by a group of Big Zamindars ex bureaucrats & appear class muslim like Agakhan. The Nawab of Dacca & Nawab Mohanshin – al – mulk.

- It supparated the partition of Bengal always raised the slogans for separated muslims interests & demanded special safeguards for muslims in the government sewices.

- In 1908, a branch of muslimes laeg was set up by Amir Ali in London. - Its main task, was to keep emerging intelligentsia among the muslims form joining

the Indian national congress. - Their activities werw anti- congress & anti Hindus but not anti – British. In 1912, a

brilliant congress leader M.A. Jinnah was invited to join muslim League which advited setting up of self – government as one of its objective.

1920 – 1947 Gandhiji returned to in India on 9th Jan 1915. Lokmanya Tilak passed away on 1st August 1920. Sesequently the leadership of Indian National congress undisputedly passed in the hands of Mahatma Gandhi. After his return to India he had given more importance to programmes of rural reconstruction, use of Khadi etc.

ROWLATT ACT:

The Government passed the Rovlatt act in addition to the continuation of its carrot and stick policy in early 1919. Most of the Indian members of Legislative council opposed it but the Government was firm on its decision. This act gave government was firm on its decision. This act gave government right to detain and arrest anyone without presenting him/her before magistrate for the maximum period of two years.

Jallianwala Bagh Incident.

Not aware of the banning on the meetings on Baisakhi Day 13th April 1919 unarmed crowd was gathered in the Jalianwala Bagh in Amritsar in Punjab. The park was enclosed from all the sides. General Dyer’s troops fired upon the unarmed crowd. Gandhiji started



Movement Calling it as Himalayan blunder on April 18. Also Rabindranath Tagore renounced hi knighthood and expressed his anger through his famous letter.

Non Cooperation Movement:

Background:

Indians had participated in the First World War on behalf of British Govt. and had fought valiantly across the globe. The political ambitions in India were high post war, with Indians demanding their rightful share government.

The congress which had split in Surat session in 1907 came together once at Lucknow in 1916. The Muslim League and Congress also kept aside their differences to make a ‘patch – up’.

The Home Rule movement was beinning to take shape. The British Govt. at this stage decided to send Secretary of State Lord Montagu to India to discuss the next political installment. In August, 1917, Montagu made his declaration which was hailed by some as the ‘Magna Charta’ of India but criticized by many for falling short of the Indian ambilitions. The idea of ‘Self Government’ was put in ambiguously without a clear road map.

Meanwhile, Gandhiji, who had returned from Africa in 1915, began to take active part in Indian politics in with Kheda, Ahmedabad Satygraha.

Early struggles By Gandhiji in India… Most of the Ruropean

planters forced Indian peasants to grow indigo and again sell the same to the them at the prices fixed by them.

This system was also called as Tinkathia System .

Several peasants from Champaran invited Gandhiji to help them; because they had aleady knew about Gandhiji’s work in South Africa

He along with Rajendra Prasad, JB Kriplant, Mahadev Desai and Mzar – ul –

Kheda (1917- 1918) The various famines

and Plague after 1899 had worsened the condition of common people in the country.

Also the prices of important goods like kerosene, ironware, cloths and salts were increased a lot along with poor production.

Government ignored the appeal for remission of revenue made by pattidars. (The Word Pattidars means small peasants)

Gandhiji and Vithalbai Patel

Ahmedbad (1918) Reason – Plague

bonus conflict between mill workers and their owners in Ahmedabad

Workers demand was 50% hike in wages but the members were willing to provide only 20% hike…

But after Gandhiji’s intervention and the sue of hunger strike workers got 35% wage increase.

Significance of Ahmedabad.

Significance of Ahmedabad



Huq reached there. A local ban his entry

was lifted. After his affords this system was abolished and then his popularity was spread in whole country.

confirmed the validity of peasants Case.

Vallabh Bahi Patel and Indulal Yajnik joined Gandhiji during this satygraha.

Finally government instructed that revenue should collected from those peasants which were able to pay.

saatyagraha was that Gandhiji’s first ue of weapon of Hunger strike.

Anusaya Behn joined Gandhiji in this struggle.

The British Government had decided to enact a stringent law to put check to Revolutionary Terrorism. The infamous ‘Rowlett Act was seen by Congress as the ultimate repressive tool and they decided to protest against it.

Gandhi’s innovative way ‘Satyagrah’ was used to protest which attracted severe repression from British government. Marshal law was imosed at various places. In Amrutsar, on the 14th April 1919, General Dayer ordered and executed the most inhuman massacre at Jalianwala Bagh. The incident shook the Indian minds. Protest arose in entire nation with Tagore returning his Knighthood.

At the same time the issue of Caliph of Turkstan was burning up. So Gandhiji, who had become an important leader in Congress by this time decided to launch a movement. The movement would include anti British protest with the case of Calph as well. A new body, All India Khilafat Conference was convened in 1919 and Congress in Nagpur in 1920 decided to initiate mass struggle.

Non Cooperation



The movement that began with Ganghiji’s declaration soon engulfed India. Particularly the influence was large in West, North – West, and Northern part along with Bengal

The incident at Chauri Chaura in UP, made Gandhiji to withdraw the movement. Immediate cause could have been Chauri Chaura. One of the major reasons to withdraw movement was the very nature of movement. Masses can not be put into prolonged struggle. They tend to loose the initial enthusiasm and can not stand long against heavy government repression. Gandhiji knew this and so he withdrew the movement even at the strong dissenting tone of his colleagues.

Thus with the withdrawal of the movement, Gandhi and Congress made their way for Constructive work that was to be done.

Significance:-

- The Non Cooperation Movement (NCM) was the first systemic attempt by Congress to launch a mass struggle. It included various tools like Hartal, Strike, Mass agitations etc.

- The Gandhian way of protest was not practiced so far. He took up the old ways (Swadeshi, Boycott etc) and blended them together with his own principles (Ahimsa, Fasting etc) significantly well to expand their reach and effectiveness.

- The success of the mass struggle lies in the support it can gather. NCM was first all India movement to gather support and agitations were held at all the parts.

- The National Education goal resulted in formation of various education Institutions that thrive even today

- Factories were established with the zeal of Indian ownership of factories. (Ex: Bengal Chemical Factory by P C Ray)

No Changers and Swarajists.

After the suspension of Non cooperation movement by the Ganhdhiji, the disillusionment and demoralization prevailed in the Indian National Congress. Two main groups were emerged in Congress named No Changers and Swarajajists. Let us see the difference between these two groups.

No Changers These leaders advocated

concentration on the Gandhian constructive rural work.

Leaders – Rajendra Prasad, VallabhBahi Patel etc.

Swarajits These leaders put forward a radical

justification for the proposal of council entry.

Leaders – Mtilal Nehru, Vithabai Patel, Hakim Ajmal etc.

Peasant Movements in India: Region Punjab 1. Fazi –i- Hussain’s Unionist party was trying to protect



agriculturists from urban moveylenders. 2. This party was muslim baased. 3. Akalis were engaged in a struggles with Maharaja of

Patiala in East Punjab. Bihar Sami Sahajanand started one aashram at Bihta in Patna District to

promote the social development of Bhumihars. But later on he worked for Kisan movements.

South Various leaders like Vennati satanarayana, T Prakasam, Konda Venkatapya, Dandu Naranraju etc. Led a powerful agitation in the various parts of South India.

Maharashtra and Gujrat

Barodi There was asuccessful humanitarian and organizational work for tribal inhabitants & low caste untouchables also called Kalipraj. Night schools were started. Also minimum food and cloths assured to them by Pattidars. 2. Mostly Vallb Bhai Patel contributed To no rent campaign which was carried out in determined and peaceful manner.



Civil Disobedience Movement Background

After Gandhiji suspended Non Co- operation movement, many of his followers and the Congress went on to the path of ‘Constructive Work’. There was a mainstream political void in the country. Few leaders like CRD as and Motilal Nehru were of the opinion that Congress should contests the election for legislative council (formed under 1919 Act) and weaken the government within. These ideological differences are known as ‘Pro – changers’(i.e. those for council entry) and ‘No – changers’(i.e. those opposed to Council entry)

A compromise was set in after a new ‘Swaraj Party’ was formed under Motilal Nehru. The political atmosphere was partially warning and then British government with the obligation under 1919 Act, decided to send a statutory commission. It was headed by Sir John Simon and there was no India member in it.

India National Congress decided to boycott eh commission in 1927 Madras Session. Agitations were held in all parts of the country.

In the following developments, Lord Birkenhead, challenged Indians to form their own Constitution. The challenge was taken and a committee under Motilal Nehru was set up to form the constitution. This committee gave its report in August 1928. One of the key recommendations of Nehru report was to accept the demand of Dominion status in one year. That time lapsed in 1929 and Congress now decided to Fight British government head on. Congress in 1929 session at Lahore passed the Resolution on ‘Poorna Swaraj’, implying Complete Independence would be the goal of freedom struggle. Authority was given to Gandhiji to launch the movement.

The Resolution decided to, Adopt January 26, 1930 to be celebrated as ‘Poorna Swaraj Diwas’. Boycott elections and Legislative Councils Civil Disobedience Movement Gandhiji decide to inaugurate the movement in the most innovative way. He decided

to travel from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi to protest the Salt tax. Viceroy thought it as joke, even Gandhiji’s followers was skeptical of it.

But as he started with the march, political fervor reached pinnacle. In North- West Frontier Provinces, Khan Abdul Gaffarkhan, (popularly known as

frontier Gandhi) launched the Movement. The movement reached extreme corners of the country

British reaction followed with mass imprisonment, censorship and heavy repression in usual British way.

Meanwhile in Britain announcement was made of the Round Table Conference of Indian leadership from all the sections (which British deemed fit) to discuss the report of Simon Commission. Congress at first boycotted the Conference and naturally it remained fruitless. On the negotiating side, British now decided to extend



some favors to Congress including release of Political prisoners. This was an attempt to bring Congress to Round Table Conference. So the Congress suspended movement and Gandhiji went to London to participate in it.

Soon, disillusioned with British attempts to increase divide and disunity among Indians, he decided to come back. He relaunched the movement and the Indian government under Lord Willingdon decided to repress the movement. Gandhiji and others were put into prison and the movement. Worst brutalities were committed by British government to suppress the movement and to their success the agitations and movement came to standstill in lated 1930s. Congress officially withdrew movement in 1934.

Significance of the Movement:

Looking at the objectives set and results achieved, CDM was not success, moreover it was a failure. But that should not be the final assessment of the movement. For every mass movement in human history has seldom achieved the goals which it set.

For the first time after British Conquest, a non violent mass struggle and Congress aimed for ‘Complete Independence’. Though Revolutionary freedom struggle aimed for the same, they were clearly not the mainstream political force in the country. It was Congress, and this was a great shift from early congress demands.

CDM was important for it brought in larger masses of people in mainstream political situation. Huge mass public gatherings, increased Congress membership and Common people and particularly students and Women were the significant protestors.

The Movement for the first time offered the Congress equal position at negotiating table. This gave the Congress legitimate right and hegemony to proclaim its position with respect to British government and in the eyes of common people. Congress used this ‘elevated status’ well in negotiating the Transfer of Power.

Gandhiji’s novel feature of Dandi March was a successful political tool to be used henceforth in India. And it continues to be used today.

The Poona Pact between Gandhi and Ambedkar after separate electorates influences Indian politics even today.

Round Table Conferences

In order to discuss issues related constitutional framework of India, British Government decided to invite concern parties in India. These conferences are called Round Table conferences. There were total three round table conferences held. Let us discuss these conferences in short.

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT 1935

This act was a significant towards the completely responsible government in India. Let us discuss some of the important features of this act



Establishment of All –India Federation which would include all the provinces and the various Princely states.

The division of powers by the inclusion of three lists viz. federal list, Provincial list and the Concurrent list. But the princely states refused to join it that’s why this federation never came in the existence

This act introduced ‘provincial autonomy’ by abolishing diarchy in the provinces. The act provided diarchy at centre. In six provinces the act introduced bicameralism. The principle of communal

representation was extended to women, labours by providing separate electorate for them.

Establishment of Federal public service commission along with Provincial Public Service commission and Joint Public service commission.

Establishment of Federal Court.

Provincial legislature elections (1937):

as per act of 1935, Congress got majority in five provinces and formed coalition government in two provinces. In Madras, Bombay Central province, Orrissa, Bihar and UP Congress formed ministries. Subhash Chadra Bose.

In the INC session at Haripura (Gujarat) S.C. Bose as President unanimously elected as president. it indicated popularity of radical, socialist groups on Congress.

This created the differences in radical fraction and Gandhiji’s supporters.

In march 1939 at Tripura’s session of INC, Subhash Chndra Bose defeated Pattbhi sitaramayya (Gandhiji’s Supported candidate) for the post of President. Factionalism in INC makes S.C.Bose functioning impossible and S.C.Bose quits from INC to form ‘Forward Bloc’.

Jinnah’s two nation theory

In March 1970 at the annual session of congress at Lahore the Muslim League propounded the theory that Muslims are not a minority but a nation so they must have separate nation.

August Offer

During 2nd world War Gandhiji wrote’ we do not seek our independence out of British Ruin’. INC offered the co – operation with Britain in the war efforts if at least provincial national government was constituted in the centre and Great Britain acknowledged right of India to complete independence. On 8th august 1940 Britain responded in statement known as “August Offer”. INC rejected August offer.

‘Cripps Mission’ under Sir Stafford Cripps comes in India in 1942, offers dominion status and constituent assembly after war ends. Gandhiji describes it as post dated cheque on a failing bank”.



THE QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT –AUGUST 1942

Passed at Wardha on July 14 ,1942 .Also known as August resolution’ “British rule in Indian must end immediately” was the main demand of this resolution. Retified by: (AICC) All India Congress committee at Bombay on August 7, 1942. This

place is now known as ‘August Kranti Maidan’. In this session Gandhiji made his famous “Do or die” speech.

This resolution sanctioned the non violent mass struggle under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi ji.

The British government wanted to crush the rebellion, during the progress of the movement police arrested Mahatma Gandhi, Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad & all eminent congress leaders.

The moment thereafter passed through hartals, mob violence, wide spread destruction of public property. This phase of movement is known as ‘the great August uprising’.

This movement passed through three phases: 1) August uprising wide scale disturbances, mob violence after Gandhiji’s arrest. 2) Rise of non violent Civil Disobedience movement. Students moving out from the

cirties to lead peasant rebellions. 3) Rise of serious crimes & shift towards revolutionary terrorism. The movement

went underground in Septmber 1942, iwht start of underground radio stations& revolutionary terrorist activities.

4) During this last phase movement was supported by congress socialists like Ram Manohar Lohia, main leader was Jay Prakash Narayen & Aruna Asaf Ali.

5) The British crushed the movement with ruthless brutality & thus, Independence was placed on the immediate agenda of the national movement.

Cabinet Mission Plan –

Prime Minister Attlee decleared Cabinet mission to visti and find agreement on the issue of interim government and constitution making. Cabinet mission consisted of Lord Pathick Lawrence (Secretary of the State), Sir Stafford Cripps and AV Alexander. It suggested division of provinces into 3 groups ------Group A, B, C were made as per population of the Hinus and Muslims in that state. And constitution was to be formed by a Union constituent Assembly, the members of which to be elected on a communal basis by provincial assemblies. Though this plan did not satisfy INC, it was accepted as last resort to avoid partition. The Congress decided to join proposed constituent assembly.



Direct Action Day and Interim Government-

In July 1946, members of various legislative Assemblies elected the members of constituent Assembly. Jinnah described the majority got by congress as ‘Brute majority.’ Expressing its determination Muslim league withdrew its assent to the Cabinet Plan.

Even though Muslim League refused to co – operate interim Government was formed and Nehru took oath for the office of Vice – President. But later on after discussions with Viceroy Muslim league decided to join the government.

The 14 members of Interim Government are as follows Members Portfolio Jawaharlal Nehru Vallabhbhai Patel Baldev Singh Dr. Joh n Matthai C. Rajgopalchari C.H. Bhabha Dr. Rajendra Prasad Jagjivan Ram Asaf Ali Liaqat Ali Khan T.T. Chundrigar Abdur Rab Nishtar Jogendra Nath Ghazanfar Ali Khan

Vice –President of the Executive council, External affairs and Commonwealth relations Home, Information and Broadcasting Defence Industries and supplies Education Works, mones and power Food and Agriculture Labour Railways Finance Commerce Communications Law Health

Constituent Assembly

On 9th December 1946 the newly elected constituent assembly met for the first time. Muslim League boycotted the assembly but the members of other parties and communities met. Pandit Nehru moved ‘Objective Resolution’ on 13th December 1946.



Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the President of constituent assembly. All the ideas and issues related with the drafting of constituent assembly. All the ideas and issues related with the drafting of constifution were discussed.

Attlee’s Announcement

On 20th Feb 1947 Prime minister Attlee declared in his famous speechin British Parliament the decision of British to quit India. 30th June, 1948 was the date decided y the British for their withdrawal from India. Lord Mountbatten became new viceroy of India.

Mountbatten Plan

Lord mountbatten suggested the plan which was also known as ‘Plan Balkan’, suggesting Balkanization of India that is partition on communal lines to form Pakistan (East and West) and India and to withdraw from India. Plan accepted by all parties by 2nd June. 1947.

In June 1947 British Parliament passed Indian Act as per Mountbatten Plan and setup two boundary commissions to draw oundary lines between India East and West Pakistan, both jointly headed by Radcliffe.

Independence and Partition, followed by integration of principal states, first Indo- Pak war of 1948 and enforcement of constitution of India from 26th January 1950.



GOVERNORS – GENERAL AND VICEROYS OF INDIA : SIGNFICANT EVENTS IN THEIR RULE

Governors – General 1. Warren Hastings 1773-1785

i) Regulating Act of 1773 ii) First Maratha War in 1775 – 82 and the Treaty of Salbai in 1782 iii) Strained relationships with Chait Singh, the Maharaja of Benaras, which led to Hastings’

subsequent impeachment in England. iv)

2. Lord Cornwallies 1786 – 1793 i) Incorporating several judicial reforms, and separation of revenue administration and ciil

jurisdiction. ii) Permanent Settlement of Bengal, 1793. iii) Introduction of civil services.

3. Sir John Shore 1793 -1798

4. Lord Wellesley 1798 -1805

i) Subsidiary Alliance System ; first alliance with Nizam of Hyderabad. ii) Treaty of Bssein (1802).

5. Sir George Barlow 1805 -1807 6. Lord Minto 1807 – 1813

i) Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh (1809).

7. Lord Hastings 1813- 1823 i) Strife with Pindaris (1817 -1826) ii) Establishment of Ryotwari System by Thomas Munro, governor of Madras (1820).

8. Lord Amherst 1823 -1828 9. Lord Wiliam Bentinck 1828 – 1835

i) Abolition of sati and other cruel rites (1829) ii) Suppression of thugi (1830) iii) Charter Act of 1833 iv) Educational reforms and introduction of English as the official language.



v) Abolition of the provincial courts of appeal and circuit set up by Cornwallies, appointment of commissioners of revenue and circuit.

10. Lord Metcalfe 1835 – 1836 i) New press law removing restrictions on the press in India.

11. Lord Auckland 1836 – 1842 12. Lord Ellenborough 1842 -1844 13. Lord Hardinge I 1844 -1848

i) Abolition of female infanticide and human sacrifice.

14. Lord Dalhousie 1848 -1856 i) Introduction of the Doctrine of Lapse ii) “Wood’s Educational Despatch” of 1854 and opening of Anglo –vernacular schools and

overnment colleges. iii) Railway Minute of 1853; and laying down of first railway line connecting Bombay and

Thane in 1853 iv) Telegraph v) Ganges Canal declared open: separate public work sdepartment in every province. vi) Window Remarriage Act (1856)

15. Lord Canning 1856 -1857

i) Revolt of 1857.

Viceroys Lord Canning (1856 -1858 as Governor General, 1858 – 1862 as viceroy) :

1) Doctrine of lapse was withdrawn. 2) Establishment of three universities at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. 3) Indian council Act 1861. The imperial legislative council came into existence after the

act. 4) Indian Civil Services Act 1861 theoretically opened the services to allsubjects but

exams only in London. 5) 1863 Satyendra Nath Tagore became the first Indian to qualify for the Civil Services. 6) Issued the Queen’s Proclamation at a durbar in Allahabad on Nov 1 1858 by hwihc

the British crown assumed direct responsibility for theadministration of the country.

Lord Elgin ( 1862 – 1864)

1) Wahabi movement broke out. They were defeated in 1863 2) Transfer of Indian navy to admiralty



3) Ambala campaign of NWFP. 4) Amalgamation of the Supreme Court and Sadr courts into High Courts.

Sir John Lawrence (1864 – 1869):

1) War with Bhutan in 1864. 2) Establishment of High courts at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in 1865. 3) Passed the Punjab Tenancy Act (1868)

Lord Mayo (1869 – 1872)

1) In 1870 Lord Mayo’s first provincial settlement. 2) Wahabi and Kuka movement was active. 3) Organization of Statistical Survey of India 4) Decentralization of finances. 5) A proper system of budgeting as a result of which persistent deficits were converted

into surpluses. 6) Introduced prison reforms, famine measures and development of local self –

government . 7) Rajkot College at Kathiawar and the Mayo collage at Ajmer, for Political Training to

inidan Princes. 8) Started State Railway System.

Lord Northbrook (1872 – 1876)

1) In 1872 Kuka revolt took place. 2) In 1873 the Simla Conference. 3) In 1873 famine took place in Bihar. 4) Trial of Gaekwad of Baroda. 5) Visit of Prince of Wales in 1875.

Lord Lytton (1876 – 1880)

1) Imperial Darbar in 1877 to mark the assumption of the title of Empress of India by Queen Victoria.

2) Proposed to constitute Imperial Privy Council comprising of princes. 3) Vernacular Act passed in 1878, Arms Act 1878 repealed and Factory Act was

finalized. 4) Second Anglo – Afghan war in 1878. 5) The Provincial Government was given the control of the expenditure upon all

ordinary provincial services including land revenue, excise, stamps, law and justice and general administration.

6) The British parliament passed the Royal Titles Act investing Queen Victoria with the title of Kaiser- I –hind or Queen Empress of India.

7) Introduced the gold standard into the monetary system .



Lord Ripon (1880 – 1884)

1) Repealed the Vernacular Press Act 1882. 2) First Factory Act 1881. 3) Financial Decentralization as the source of revenue was divided into three- Imperial ,

Provincial and Divided. 4) Resolution on Self- Government in 1882 (Fatrher Of Local self Govt) 5) Hunter Commission in 1882 to review the education 6) First census of India in 1881 with 254 million population. 7) Sir C.P Elbert was law member of the Viceroy Council introduced a bill on 2nd Feb

1883, the bill sought to abolish at once and completely every judicial disqualification based merely on racial discrimination.

8) Introduced the direct election for the first time in India.

Lord Dufferin (1884 – 1888)

1) Bengal Tenancy Act and Bengal Local Self – Government Act. (1885) 2) Third Anglo – Burmese War started in 1885. 3) In 1886 Upper Burma was annexed and delimitation of Afghan Northern boundary

took place. 4) Aitchison Committee. 5) Number of new taxes were introduced such as salt tax and petroleum tax.

Lord Lansdowne (1888 – 1894)

1) In 1889 abdication of the Maharaja of Kashmir took place. 2) Prince of Wales second visit in 1889. 3) In 1891 Factory Act was passed. 4) In 1891 military expedition against Manipur was conducted 5) In 1892 the Indian Councils Act was passed. 6) Age of Consent Act 1891 which forbade marriage of girls below 12. 7) Categorization of civil services into imperial, provincial land subordinate.

Lord Elgin – II (1894 – 1904)

1) In 1896 famine took place all over India. 2) In 1897, plague broke out at Bombay. 3) Afridi uprisings and Santhal uprisings in 1899 -1900 4) Sir James Lyall Commission appointed.

Lord Curzon (1904 – 1905)

1) Raleigh Commission – Educational commission 2) MacDonell Commission – Famine commission 3) Robertson Commission – Irrigation commission 4) North West Frontier Province was created in 1900.



5) In 1901 death of Queen Victoria and Habibullah became the Amir of Afghanistan. 6) Indian University Act was passed in 1904. 7) Bengal partition took place in 1905. 8) A famine Commission was appointed under the chairmanship of Sir Colin Scott

Moncrieff to investigate into the whole question of irrigation. 9) Thomas Robertson was invited to restructure railways.

Lord Minto –II (1905- 1910):

1) Father of civil services in India 2) On 16 th Oct 1906 Partiion of Bengal came into force. 3) Anti- partition and Swadeshi movements 4) Foundation of Muslim League in 1906. 5) Morley – Minto Reforms in 1909 increased the number of elected members in the

central and provincial legislatures, also introduced the system of communal electorates.

6) In 1907 Indian Decentralization Committee was appointed under Sir Charles Hobhouse.

7) In 1910 Dept. of Education under the separate member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council was established.

Lord Hardigne (1910- 1916)

1) Capital shifted to Delhi and Delhi Darbar on 12th December. 1911. 2) Annulment of the Partition of Bengal in 1911 and Creatioin of Bengal Presidency. 3) On 23rd December 1911 bomb thrown at Lord Hrding. 4) In 1912 Delhi was made a province. 5) In 1914 Forest Research Institute and College opened at Dehra Dun. 6) In 1916 Saddler Committee on Universities appointed – BHU was founded. 7) In 1920 Women University was founded in Pune. 8) In 1916 Tilak founded Indian Home Rule League.

Lord Chelmsford (1916 – 1921)

1) In 1916 Home Rule League was formally inaugurated by Annie Besant. 2) 1916 Lucknow Session, INC & Muslim League. 3) Rowlett Committee appointed and submitted its report in April 1918 4) In 1919 Third Afghan War started & peace Treaty with Afghanistan at Rwalpindi. 5) In 1920 Aligarh Muslim University estbl. 6) Esher Committee on military submitted its report. 7) In 1921 Shea Committee appointed to prepare a scheme for the complete

indianization of the officers in the Indian Army. 8) On 17th November 1921 Prince of Wales came to Bombay. 9) Khilafat Movement and beginning of Non- Cooperation movement.



10) Montague – Chemsford Reforms in 1919 introduced Diarchy in the Provinces and increased the powers of the centre.

Lord Reading (1921 -1925):

1) Vishwabharti University was started by Rabindranath Tagore. 2) 1924 Lee Commission on civil services submitted its report. 3) 1925 Devdasi system was abolished. 4) On 22 nd August 1925 V.J Patel elected the first Indian President of the Legislative

Assembly. 5) Chauri Chaura incident on 5th Feb 1921, Moplah Rebellion. 6) Formation of Swaraj Pa4rty. 7) Skeen Committee or Indian Sandhurst Committee on on Army reforms in 1925. 8) Yong Hilton committee on currency in 1926.

Lord Irwin (1926 – 1931)

1) In 1928 Simon Commission 2) In 1929 Jinnah formulated 14 points 3) On 8th April 1929 Bhagat Singh and Batukeshvar Datta drop bombs in the Legislative

Assembly. 4) on 29th October 1929, Lord Irwin announced that the goal of the British policy was the

attainment of Dominison Status by Indian. 5) On 12th March 1930, Gandhiji started his Dandi March. 6) The first round table conference inaugurated by George V and continued upto 19th

jan 1931. 7) Gandhi – Irwin talks begin and concluded on 5th March 1931. 8) In 1931 Gandhiji left for London to participate in the 2nd Round Table Conference 9) Poorna Swaraj Declaration in 1929 Lahore Session. 10) Royal Commission on Labour in 1929 under John Henry Whitley.

Lord willingdon ( 19.31 -34)

1) 1st December 1931 Ramsay Macdonald announces the decision to constitute NWFP into a governor’s province and Sindh ws made a separate province.

2) In 1932 Poona pact was signed between Gandhiji and Ambedkar. 3) 7th November to 24th December 1932 the third Round Table Conference took place. 4) Government of India Act signed in 1935. 5) Orssa, Sindh and Bihar were made new states in 1935. 6) Foundation of Congress Socialist Party by Acharya Narendra Dev and Jai Prakash

Narayan. 7) Formation of All Indian Kisan Sabha in 1936. 8) Gandhiji starts Harijan Seva (depressed and untouchables classes) in 1934.



Lord Linlithgow (1934 -35 and 1936 – 1937, 1938 – 1943)

1) Longest serving viceroy of India. 2) First general elections were held in 1937. 3) Resignation of the Congress membership and formed the Forward Block in 1939. 4) Subhas Chandra Bose resigned from Congress membership and formed the Forward

Block in 1939. 5) Escape of Bose from India and organization of Indian National Army. 6) In Oct 1937, Gandhiji formulated Wardha Educational Scheme. 7) Individual Ciuvil Disobedience Movement started in 1940. 8) In 1942 – Cripps Mission arrived in India offering dominion Status to India and setting

up of a Constituent Assembly and in April 1942 C. Rajgopalachari formula was proposed.

9) In August 1942 Congress session started in Bombay and on 11 August the Quit India Movement started.

10) Divide and Quit slogan at the Karachi Session(1944) of the Muslim league.

Lord Wavell (1943 -1947)

1) Shimla Conference begins on 25th June 1975. 2) In January 1946 Wavell introduced Government’s intention to set up an Executive

Councial of political leaders. 3) In February 1946 Mutiny of the Indian Naval in Bombay. 4) In March 1946 Attlee announces the Cabinet Mission and it arrives in Delhi on 24th

March 1946. 5) On 6th August 1946, Wavell invistes Nehru to from an Interim Government. 6) On 16th August 1946, Muslim League begins the Direct Action Day. 7) On 5th January 1947, all India Congress Committee accepts Provincial Grouping

under the Cabinet Mission Plan. 8) On 20 th February 1947, Attlee announces end of British rule in India.

Lord Mountbatten (1947 – 48)

1) Viceroy on 24th March 1947. (Last British Vicroey) 2) 2nd June 1947 Mountbatten Plan was annou8nced 3) 4th June 1947 Mountbatten announced transfer on power on 15th August. 4) 4th July 1947 India Independence Bill was introduced in the House of Commons. 5) 6th July referendum took place in NWFP boycotted by Abdul Ghaffar Khan . 6) 11tj August 1947, Constituent Assembly of Pakistan Meets and elects Jinnah as

President 7) On 15th August 1947 India became independent.

C Rajagopalachari (1948 -50)

Last Governor General Of India



CHRONOLOGY OF PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN INDIAN HISTORY

BC

2800- 2000 –Harappan culture

1200- 1800 – Expansions of the Aryans in the Ganga Valley

600 –Age of the 16 Mahajanapadas of Northern India 563 – 483 – Gautama Buddha 540 – 468 – Mahavira 542 – 493 – Bimbisara rules Magadha 493 – 461- Ajatshtru rules Magadha 413 -362 – Shishunga dynasty 362 – 321 - Nanda dynasty 327 – 326 – Alexander’s invasion 321 – Chandragupata Maurya establishes the Mauryan Empire 315 – Visit of Megasthenes to India 268-232- Ashoka’s reign 185 – Fall of the Mauryan Empire 1 st century – Bactrian rule in the North –west 1 st Century – Sangam period in the south. AD 78 – Kanishka’s accession and the beginning of the Shaka era 3 rd century – Decline of th eKushanas 3 rd century – Decline of the Satvahanas 319 – 320 – Accession of Chandragupta I and establishment of the Gupta dynasy 335- 375 – Samudragupta 375 – 415 – chandragupta II 405 – 411 – Visit of Fa – Hien 450- The first Huma attack on the Gupta Empire 560- 903 – The Pallavas establish their kingdom 543- 755 – The rise of Chalukyas of Vatapi 606- 647 – Reign of Harshavardhan 630 – 643 – Hieun Tsang in India 609 – 642 – Reign of Pulakesin II, the Chalukya king 622 – Beginning of the Hijri era 712 – Arab conquest of Sind 750 – Pala dynasty founded by Gopala in estern Inida 753 – Rise of the Rashtrakuta Empire



800- Shankaracharya 840 – Rise of the Pratiharas under Bhoja 907 – Prantka I establishes Chola power in south India 973 – 1192 – Foundetion of the kingodom of th elater chalukyas is laid 985 – 1014 – Reign of Rajaraja Chola 1014 – 1044 – Reign of Rajendra Chola 100- 1027 – Invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni 1030 – Alberuni in India: Death of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni 1191 – I st battle of Tarain 1192 – Second battle of Tarain, defeat of Prithviraj III by Muhammad Ghori 1206 – Death of Muhammad Ghori 1206 – Qutub – ud – din Aibak founds the Slave dynasty 1210 – Death of Qutub – ud – din Aibak 1210 – Accession of Iltutmish 1236 – Death of I ltutmish and accession of Raziya 1265 – 1285 – Reign of Balban 1288 – 1295 – Marco Polo visits south India 1290 – Khilji dynasty founded 1296 – 1316 – Reign of ala – ud – din Khilji 1302 – 1311 – Malik Kapur’s campaign in south india 1320 – Tuglaq dynasty founded 1325 – 1351 – Reign of Muhammad – bin – Tughlaq; Ibn Batuta in India 1336 – Foundation of Vijaynagar kingdom is laid 1347 – Foundation of the Bahamani kingdom is laid 1351 – 1388 – Reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq 1398 – Timur’s invasion 1414 – 1451 – Reign of thd Sayyid dynasty 1451 – 1526 – Reign of the Lodi dynasty 1440 -1518 – Kabir 1469 -1539 – Nanak 1482 – 1518 – Dissolution of the Bahamani emergence of five new kingdoms – Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, Bihar, and Berar 1498 –Arrival of Vasco – de – Gama in India 1509- 1530 – Reign of Krishnadevraya 1526 – First battle of Panipat, Babar defeat Ibrahim Lodi, Mughal Empire founded in India 1527 – Battle of Khanwa, Babar defeats Rana Sanga 1530 – Death of Babar and accession of Humayun at Chausa 1545 – Death of Shar Shah 1556 – Death of Humayun and accession of Akbar 1556 – Second Battle of Panipa, Akabar defeats Hemu 1565 – Battle of Talikota



1568-1595 – Akbar captures Chittor, Ranth – ambor, Gajrat, Bengal, Kashmir, Sind, Orissa, central India and Qandh 1600 – Queen Elizabeth grants Charter to the company of merchants in London to trade with the east 1605- Death of Akbar and Accession of Jahangir 1616 – Sir Thomas Role received by Jahangir 1627 – Death of Jahangir 1628 – Shah Jahan proclaimed Emperor 1630 – Birth of Shivaji 1658 – Accession of Aurangzeb 1674- Shivaji assumes Royal title 1680 – Death of Shivaji 1686 – Annexation of Golconda 1707- Death of Aurangzeb 1707 – 1712 – Reign of Bahadur Shah 1717 – Farrukhsiyar grants firman to the English India Company exempting their trade in Bengal from payment of duties in return of lumpsum payment of Rs. 3000 per annum 1739 – Nadir Shah occupies Delhi 1744 – 1748 - First Anglo – French Carnatic War 1748 – 1754 – Second Anglo – French Carnatic War 1757 – 1763 – Third Anglo – French Carnatic War 1747 – 1761 – Invasion of Ahmed Shah Abdali 1757 – Battle of Plassey. The British establish control over the rich provinces of Bihar, Bengal and Orissa 1760 – Battle of Wandiwash. French are decisively defeated by British and the French dream of an Empire in India comes to an end. 1761 – Third Battle of Panipat – Abdail defeats the Marathas 1764 – 1765 – The Battle of Buxar. Introduction of dual system of Government of Bengal 1767 – 1769 – First Anglo – Mysore War 1770 –The great Famine in Bengal 1772 – End of dual government in Bengal. The Company starts direct administration of Bengal. Warren Hastings assumes office as governor 1773 - The Regulating Act 1775 – 1782 – First Anglo – Maratha War 1780- 1784 – Second Anglo – Mysore War 1784 – Pitt’s India Act 1790 – Third Anglo – Mysore War 1793 – Third Anglo – Mysore War 1793 – Permanent Settlement introduced in Bengal 1798 – 1805 – Wellsley is Governor General of Bengal 1799 – Fourth Anglo Mysore War. Death of Tipu Sultan, Ranjit Singh captures Lahore



1803 – 1805 – Second Anglo – Marath War 1813 – Charter Act 1814 – 1816 – Anglo – Nepal War 1817 – 1818 – Third Anglo – Maratha War. Marathas decisively defeated. Prohibition of Sati 1829 – Prohibition of Sati 1833 – Renewal of the Company’s Charter and abolition of its trading rights 1839 – Death of Ranjit Singh. New treaty forced on the Amirs of Sindh 1843 – Britih annex Sindh 1845 – 1846 – second Anglo – Sikh War and annexation of Punjab 1853 – First Railway line in India from Bombay to Thana is opened. First telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra. Renewal of the Company’s Charter 1854 – Charles Wood despatch on Indian education 1857 – Outbreak of a vast revolt. Establishment of universities at Bombay, Calcutta and Madras 1858 – British Government takes over administration of British India from the East India Company. Queen Victoria’s proclamation 1861 – The Indian Councils Act. Enactment of the Indian Civil and Criminal Code 1865 – Telegraphic communication with Europe opens 1869 – Opening of the Sueq Canal 1876 – 1877 – Delhi Durbar. The Queen of England proclaimed Empress of India 1883 – Illbert bill 1885 – The Indian national Congress is founded 1892 – Indian council’s Act passed 1905 – Partition of Bengal announced 1906 – Muslim League formed at Dacca 1909 – Morley – Minto reforms 1911 – King George V visits India. A durbar hld at Delhi. The capital of India is transferred from Calcutta 1914 – Oubreak of World War I 1916 – Foundation of the Banaras Hindu University is laid. Home rule league founded. The Indian National Congress and Muslim League sign Lucknow pact. 1917, April – Gandhi launches Champaran campaign in Bihar to focus attention on grievances of Indigo planteres. Montague’s announcement regarding introduction of responsible government in India 1918 – Trade union movemtn begins in India. All India Depressed Classes League formed 1919, April 6 – Call for all – India hartal against Rowlatt Bills 1919, April 9 – Deportaion of Dr Satyapal and Dr Kitchlew. Trouble begins at Amritsar 1919, April 13 – Jallianwala Bagh tragedy at Amritsar. Government of India Act, 1919 passed



1920- First meeting of All – India trade Union Congress. Foundation of Aligarh Muslim University laid. Hunter Commission Report on Jallianwala Bagh massarce published. First Non – cooperation Movement launched by Gandhi 1922, February – Violent incidents at Chauri Chaura. Gandhi calls of Non – cooperation movement 1925 – Communist Party of India organised a Kanpur 1927 – Appointment of Simon commission 1928 – Nehru report 1929 – Congress adopts the goal of complete independence for India 1930, February 14 – congress passes Civil Disobedience Movement resolution 193o, March 12 – Gandhibegins Dandi March to manufacture illegal salt. First round table conference held in London 1931 – Gandhi – Irwin Pact. Civil Disobedience movement suspended. Second round table conference held 1932 – R macDonald announces communal award (modified by the Poona Pact, Sptember 24) 1935 – Congress ministries formed in provinces 1938 – All – India Kisan Sabha formed 1939 – Subhash Chandra Bose resigns as president of Conress. Second World War begins. Resignationof congress ministries in provinces 1940 – Muslim League adopts the Pakistan resolution. Congress starts individual civil disobedience movement 1941 – Death of Rabindranath Tagore (1861- 1941) 1942, February – Japanese bombardment of Rangoon Singapore fails 1942, March – April – Cripps Mission visits India 1942, August – September – Quit India Movement launched 1945 – Simpla Conference held 1945, 26 th Jule – Labour government comes into power in Britain 1945, December – January – General Election in India 1946, February – Mutiny of naval ratings at Bombay and Karachi 1946, March – A three member cabinet mission comes to India 1946, 16 th May – Cabinet Mission announces its constitutional scheme 1946 – Jule – Elections held in the provinces. Congress wins massively in the general constituencies. League’s success in the Muslim League decides on ‘Direct Action’ For winning Pakistan. 1946, August – The Muslim League decides on ‘Direct Action’for winnings Pakistan 1946, 16 th August – Violence breaks out between Hindus- Sikhs and Muslims in Calcutta and Noakhali 1946, 2 nd September – Congress forms Interim Government with Nehru decides to join the Interim Government 1946, 13 th October – Muslim League decides to join the Interim Government 1946, 3 -6 December – British Prime Minister, Attlee, meets some Indian leaders; talks fail



1946, 9th December – Constituent Assembly begins its session 1947, 29th January – Muslim League demands the dissolution of Constituent Assembly 1947, 20 th February – Attlee announces in British Parliament the decision to quit India by June 30 th 1948 1947, March – Lord Mountbatten arrivfes as Viceroy 1947, March – The congress high command voted for dividign the Punjab into Muslim – majority and hindu – Sikh majority halves asks for the application of a similar principle to Bengal 1947, 3 rd June – Lord Mountbatten announces transfer of power in August 1947 1947, 16 th Jule – Last meeting of the Interim government 1947, Jule – India Independence Act passes. India is to be partitioned 1947, 11 th August – Jinnah is elected as the President of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan 1947, 14 th – 15 th August – At midnight India celebrates Independence. Mahatma Gandhi tours Noakhali in East bengal to restore communal harmony. Lord Mountbatten was sworn as the Governor General, who inturn swore J.L. Nehru as the Prime Minister of free India 1948, January – Gandhi undertakes his fast in Delhi 1948, 30 th January – Gandhi fails prey to Nathuram Godse’s bullets 1948, 20 th June – C. Rajagopalachari is sworn in as the first Governor General of Independence India 1949, 26 th November – Constituion of India is ready and signed 1950, 26 th January – The constitution comes into force. India becomes a republic. Dr. Rajendra Prasad becomes its first President and Jawaharlal Nehru the first Prime Minister 1950, January – The Election Commission of India is set up 1951, October – First General elections are held 1952, February – India in 1952. India gets its first Parliament.

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