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Writing introductions – the CARS model

The purpose of this memo is to introduce a pedagogical model for teaching novice writers how to write introductions to research papers and/or argumentative essays. The model’s name is “Creating a Research Space” (CARS). It was developed by John Swales, a professor of linguistics at the University of Michigan, based upon extensive analysis of a set of published research paper introductions in a variety of disciplines. The version presented here is adapted from Swales and Feak (2004).

It is not uncommon for college students to experience difficulty when writing introductions. Many times, such difficulties stem from the students’ lacking a conceptual and generic model within which to position their opinions or conclusions. This can be particularly problematic for students because the research paper is a required genre in many undergraduate courses (Samraj 2004). While not all instructors of English 125 assign research papers, most of us do assign argumentative essays. The CARS model can be useful for teaching students how to write introductions for that kind of essay; in particular, it can help us to complicate the notion of the thesis statement by showing how such statements need to be related to the overall communicative goals and structure of the introduction and the paper as a whole. Furthermore, the CARS model can serve as a basis for the research papers that students will have to write in other undergraduate courses.

Before reading the model, consier the following introduction from an argumentative essay written by an English 125 student. Try to identify problems and think about possible solutions. Then, read the rest of the memo and see if the discussion of the CARS model helps you to think about effective ways of giving feedback to this student. Here is the sample introduction:

1Stereotyping can be seen almost everywhere in the world today. 2The most basic stereotyping is that of attaching certain roles to the genders. 3The easiest way to split up the world would be by gender. 4The whole ‘women are from Venus; men are from Mars’ does not help much either. 5One of the main problems is that this stereotyping begins when we are born and follows us throughout our whole lives. 6Baby girls are expected to act a certain way, even if they are not aware of it. 6Though unfair, this is hard to prevent because of how it is ingrained in society. 7These stereotypes can turn into expectations and, from there, evolve into discrimination and the creation of a “norm.” 8These stereotypes may follow us from the ultrasound and into religion or the media, but one of the main reasons for the stereotype is society’s thinking. 9From the moment we enter the world, we are categorized by our gender. 10Baby girls are swaddled in pink blankets and boys in blue. 11The way we are brought up also reflects gender related stereotypes. 12Girls play with dolls while boys are loud to (sic) roughhouse and play sports. 13This creates a “norm,” or a way that people are supposed to act. 14While this cliché does not reign true for everyone, there is definitely some reality to it. 15While people are becoming more open to deviations from this “norm,” there is still the problem that some of our wants and needs may reflect natural instincts. 16The nature versus nurture battle has been going on for ages and no one has been able to make a definite conclusion.

The CARS model

At the core of the CARS model is the idea that a discursive space for inserting one’s opinions or claims needs to be created through the prose in the introduction. Swales (1997) and Swales and Feak (2004) suggest that the discursive space is created by a series of communicative moves which include

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obligatory and optional steps. Experienced writers are often unaware that they are making all these moves; less experienced writers can be greatly aided by becoming consciously aware of the moves readers are expecting. Below is a summary of such moves and steps adapted from Swales and Feak (2004, p. 244).

Move 1. Establishing a research territory/Claiming centrality

a. By showing that the general research area is important, central, interesting, problematic, or relevant in some way (optional).

b. By introducing and reviewing items of previous research in the area (obligatory, although sometimes only brief with more detailed surveys later).

Move 2. Establishing a niche

a. By indicating a gap in the previous research or by extending previous knowledge in some way (obligatory).

Move 3. Occupying the niche

a. By outlining purposes or establishing the nature of the present research (obligatory).b. By listing research questions or hypotheses (optional).c. By announcing principal findings (optional).d. By stating the value of the present research (optional).e. By indicating the structure of the research paper (optional).

It should be noted that not all professionally written introductions follow this sequence in a linear fashion. Sometimes new claims to centrality are made after the niche for a previous claim has been occupied, leading to a new series of moves. Other times, two or more claims are made in move 1 and then moves 2 and 3 in the subsequent sentences or paragraphs need to be performed several times, in different orders, to address the different claims in move 1. And there is of course discipline-specific variation in the specific phraseology and grammar used to perform the moves. The model is therefore not to be taken as a rigid series of steps that is followed slavishly, but as an representation of fairly typical patterns that, nevertheless, do vary in their many actual realizations.

The sample introduction above clearly does not follow the CARS pattern. The conceptual moves, however, are there, but the lack of a clear organization disorients the reader as to the purpose and claims of the student’s paper. For example, from sentences 1-3 we know that the student’s topic is gender stereotypes. The student seems to be problematizing this (step a of move 1) 5 by saying that “one of the main problems is that stereotyping begins…” but this problematization strategy lacks sophistication because it is not directly tied to previous publications, which she alludes to in sentence 4 (“men are from Mars, women are from Venus”), or to a theoretical foundation, like the nature vs. nurture debate the student brings up at the end. The student then goes on to present a view that

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gender roles are the result of socialization or nurture (sentences 6 through 14). Finally, she attempts to problematize such view by suggesting that “some of our wants and needs may reflect natural instincts.”

This student seems to know the conceptual underpinnings of an introduction, namely establishing a territory by presenting a topic and claiming that the topic, or a position about it, is important and/or problematic. But she falls short of establishing a niche and articulating the purpose of her paper, arguably to explain and support her opinion on the issue. And the issue itself is ill-defined: will she be taking a position along the lines of the nature vs. nurture debate? Will she suggest that gender roles are a matter of both nature and nurture? Or will she take up the issue of the insufficient problematization of gender roles in popular psychology books, which she seems to hint at in sentence 4? Clearly, for the student to turn this introduction into a more effective one, she needs not only “follow the steps,” but make decisions about a) how to construct discursively the conversation she wants to enter, and b) how to position herself in it. Arguably, presenting the model could help the student to clarify her thinking about the subject matter, her own position about it, and the goals of her paper. Swales and Feak also offer some phraseology for performing the moves that might be useful for the student once she has clarified what her territory, niche and claims are.

Move 1a phraseology

Recently, there has been growing interest in the culture of market economies.

The possibility of a negotiated Arab-Israeli peace has generated wide interest In the PLO’s claims that…

The development of new tests to diagnose the illness has led to the hope that…

Knowledge of historical events has a great importance for the study of tuberculosis.

The study of ethics has become an important aspect of the university student’s curriculum.

A central issue in the psychology of language is the use of context for the retrieval of…

Move 1 step b phraseology

Reference to single studies, usually in the past tense, e.g. Jones (1997) concluded that…

Reference to areas of inquiry, usually in the present perfect, e.g. Jones has concluded that…

Reference to state of current knowledge, usually in the present simple, e.g. Plato argues that…

Move 2 Phraseology

However, little is known about the size and health of bird populations in our national parks

Little attention has been paid to the interpretations that observers make for helpers’ actions…

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Previous discussions have neglected to consider/overestimated/overlooked/been restricted to…

Move 3 Phraseology

This paper discusses the taxation of U.S. citizens living in Canada.

In this paper I present a somewhat different reading of these events by looking at…

The aim of the present paper is to determine the usefulness of the MDQ as an instrument…

The primary focus of this paper is on drug use during and after pregnancy.

For argumentative essays that do not include a strong research component, the nature of the moves and the phrases used to perform them may change due to the fact that, often times, students’ positions are developed without references to previous theory or published research. However, as Barton (1993) shows, the overall strategy of stating a topic, saying that some aspect of it or positions about it are problematic (moves 1a and 1b), indicating why they are problematic (move 2) and then suggesting alternatives or establishing a distinct position on the issue (move 3), also obtains in argumentative essays. Below are some sample paragraphs from professionally written argumentative essays taken from Barton’s study, showing the use of problematization strategies.

The recent federal court decision upholding the Virginia Military Institute’s policy of excluding female students raises several important issues about how research is used in creating educational policy.

The controversy at Stanford in 1988 over changes in required courses in Western Culture has grown into a national debate about the issue of multiculturalism… Unfortunately, the Stanford battle cast the argument in the wrong terms.

Editorials and commentaries from the political left, right and center seem to agree on at least one point—that a crisis exists in the way we determine the collective priorities and policies that make up our public culture… There is little agreement, however, on how to revitalize public debate in the United States.

A full summary of Barton’s findings about argumentative essays is beyond the scope of this memo, but the interested reader may find it useful to refer to the original source. Below are four more sample introductions from real English 125 student papers. We suggest that you read them and try to determine which moves and steps each one includes as well as whether there are ways in which those moves and steps may have been performed more effectively. Are there missing moves or steps whose inclusion would help writers to make their positions clearer? Are there instances where the phrases suggested by Swales and Feak may help the writers to better organize their ideas and/or increase their stylistic sophistication? It can also be helpful to work through introductions and questions like these with your students in class, together applying the principles for introductions to actual student writing.

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Sample introduction 2

As any good University of Michigan college student can tell you, football Saturdays are something special. The pre-game tailgating, the rowdy fans, and the exuberant atmosphere of the self-proclaimed “Big House” all add to the tradition that makes up the University of Michigan Football. However, it has recently come to the public’s attention that the long-standing tradition is to be altered in a dramatic way – the University officials have decided to renovate Michigan Stadium, the “Big House,” by adding high-priced luxury boxes around the entire upper portion of the bowl-shaped stadium. While it is true that the majority of stadiums these days include suites and upscale seating areas, the University of Michigan’s stadium has long been known for its bench style seating and cramped arrangements. It is this change of tradition that compels me to speak my mind, because I believe that the University officials should stay true to the past and obey the institutions set in place by our founders.

Sample introduction 3

Stereotypes are all around us. The casual observation that women are horrible drivers, that a real man never shows his feelings, that white people can’t dance, and black people are great at sports confirms this. Even this essay contains a stereotype – it is assumed that you, the audience, understand what stereotypes are. These controversial assertions state a grossly generalized fact about a population. Most often, stereotypes are caused by the ignorance of one group towards another. Exaggerated stories are made into facts though word of mouth, and in turn become stereotypes.

While stereotyping may come off as a harmless way to get a laugh at another’s (or even your own) expense, the truth is that stereotypes are dangerous. Stereotypes not only cause severe emotional damage, but they can also lead to actual physical harm. They create a manner of thinking that promotes prejudice, which in turn leads to violence. I believe that stereotypes are the main causes of physical abuse, hate crimes, and in a more extreme case, war and genocide.

Sample introduction 4

For years, there have existed prejudicial claims that are related to education in the United States. One of these claims that have been made by the media is that the more education an individual has the less likely they would be prejudiced. The article Education and Prejudice: Do Liberal Attitudes Lead to a Less Prejudice Society? written by Gabriella Beckles states that the more education an individual has the more liberal their thought of the nation’s society are. But is there a comparable decrease in prejudicial injustice? I became very interested in the subject of prejudicial issues when I was a victim of a prejudicial event, which led me to follow up in some research of prejudice in such areas as education, professional careers, and in the United States general society. After researching these issues for about a year and a half I was then able to clearly see how prejudice was present in many situations regardless of an individual’s level of education. A recent example of such prejudice is companies refusing to issue jobs to workers who have an inherited illness, or a genetic predisposition to a particular disease, because the company knows the worker may have to take an extended leave of absence for medical assistance. Without social justice within the liberal educational system to influence individuals in a society to act equally towards each other, then there is no possible way to decrease prejudicial acts.

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Sample introduction 5

Circumcision has been the most commonly practiced and controversial surgery in the world for centuries. Almost all people are affected in some way by the decision to perform or not perform the practice. Routine infant circumcision is an issue so controversial that it is only overshadowed by issues like abortion. The underlying warrant regarding the essay is that a child’s rights are invaluable. This warrant and the fact that the infant cannot make the decision for himself will drive the entire essay and be an explicit reason to postpone the circumcision decision. From this position, the use of logos and pathos are essential components of crafting a vibrant editorial with a young pregnant female demographic in mind. The purpose is to convince them that routine infant circumcision is not going to benefit their sons.

With new studies, the topic of infant male circumcision has entered an incredibly heated new debate within the last two months. This kairos involves a reworking of the current medical position to a reluctant acceptance of the parents’ wishes, without the medical professional advocating for the procedure, which had occurred in the past. “Circumcision does not appear to shield men from the types of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) common in the developed world, according to new research from New Zealand (Reuters).” Circumcision was widely popularized in the United States for its apparent medicinal benefits. The medical endorsement of routine infant circumcision ended over the past two decades, while the procedure has not. Today, the biological reasons for circumcision in America have greatly declined, while over half of newborn males in the United States are circumcised. There is still a significant American preference for circumcising newborn male infants, but current trends show an increasing number of American parents deciding that circumcision is not appropriate for their child. So the current situation in America is an ideal time to discuss the procedure with parents expecting children.

To learn more

Barton, E. (1993). Evidentials, Argumentation, and Epistemological Stance. College English 55, 7, 745-69.

Swales, J. & Feak, C. (2004). Academic Writing for Graduate Students. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.

Samraj, B. (2004). Discourse Features of the Student-Produced Academic Research Paper. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 3, 5-22.

It examines the influence of narrative structure and lexical aspect on the use of tense aspect morphology by adult learners.

Topic: aspect hypothesis(lexical )and the discourse hypothesis (narrative). + empirical research investigations. An approach that views the language as competing frameworks