Mo Tiv Atio n

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Mo tiv ation


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Motivation can be defined as a condition that is initiated

by a physiological or psychological deficiency or need

of an individual, which causes the individual to behave

in a certain manner in order to achieve a particular goalor incentive.

Physiological/psychological deficiency

(NEED)

Achieve a particulargoal

(INCENTIVE)

Individual behaves in acertain manner

(DRIVE)

Motivation consists of three interacting and

interdependent elements needs, drives and incentives.

The Motivation Process


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Needs

A physiological or psychological imbalance leads to

the creation of a need.

Drives

Both physiological and psychological drives push

an individual towards achieving a certain goal or

accomplishing a certain task.

Incentives

Anything that can mitigate a need and decrease the

intensity of a drive is called an incentive.


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CLASSIFICATION OF MOTIVES

I) Primary Motives

A motive is termed as a primary motive when it

satisfies both the criteria it is not learned, and it isphysiologically based. The most common primary

motives are hunger, thirst, sleep, sex, avoidance of

pain and maternal concern.


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II) General Motives

A motive is considered to be a general motive ifit is

not learned, but is also not based on physiologicalneeds.

General motives stimulate tension within the

individual.

The motives ofcuriosity, manipulation, motive to

remain active and to display affection are examples

of general motives.


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1)The curiosity, manipulation and activity

motives

The motives of curiosity, manipulation and activity

are very beneficial for a person, as they often

result in innovations and better ways of doing

things.2) The affection motive-for e.g. love sometimes

resembles primary motive and sometimes

secondary motive.


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III) Secondary Motives

A secondary motive is a motive that has been learnedor acquired over time.

Important secondary motives are power, achievement

and affiliation. These are commonly referred as

nPow, nAch and nAff.


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1) The power motive

Alfred Adler, a close associate of Sigmund Freud,placed more importance on the future and a

persons drive to gain power and prove himself

superior to others.

A person tries to compensate for the feelings ofinferiority and also tries to fulfill his innate need for

power, which is then reflected in his lifestyle.


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2) The achievement motive

David C. McClelland, a Harvard psychologist, hasconducted extensive research on different aspects

of achievement. According to him, the achievement

motive is a persons desire to perform excellently or

to handle complex or competitive situationssuccessfully.


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3) The affiliation motive

Employees, especially those at the lower levels of the

organizational hierarchy, have a strong desire tobelong to and be accepted by other employees or the

whole group.

People with a high need for affiliation exhibit a high

degree of concern for social relationships. Managers with strong needs for affiliation tend to

create congenial work environments where people

enjoy working together.


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4) The security motive

People try to avoid insecurity rather than attempt to

achieve security.

The security motive helps individuals safeguard

themselves from various unfavorable developments

and avoid situations that would prevent them form

reaching their goals.


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5) The status motive

Status is defined as the rank a person holds relative

to others within a group, organization or society. When people are grouped together, a status

hierarchy emerges.

Status refers to position or ranking of individuals in a

group or organization, which may be high or low.

Status is influenced by the prevailing cultural values

and the importance ofdifferent roles in society.


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THE CONTENT THEORIES OF WORK

MOTIVATION

The content theories of motivation attempt to identify

and prioritize the needs and drives that motivate

people at work.


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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

According to this theory, once the needs at a particularlevel in the hierarchy of needs are satisfied, they are no

longer a motivating factor.


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(Challenging projects,

Opportunities for innovation

and creativity, training)

Self

actualization

needs

Esteem needs

(Important

projects, recognition, prestigious

office location)

Safety or Security Needs

(Job security; benefits like life insurance;

safety regulations)

Social needs

(Good coworkers, peers, superiors, customers

Physiological needs

( Basis pay, workspace, heat, water, company cafeteria)

A Hierarchy of Work Motivation


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Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

Good feelings employees had about their job were

related to thejob content and job experiences.

Negative feelings they had about their work theyrelated to job context factors or aspects that were

not directly related to their job but which had an

effect on the work environment.

Job satisfiers were associated with thejob content,andjob dissatisfiers were related to thejob context.


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The satisfiers were termed as motivators, while the

dissatisfiers were termed hygiene factors.

While hygiene factors were responsible forpreventing dissatisfaction, motivators were essential

to keep the employees satisfied.


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Contribution of Herzbergs theory to work

motivation

Herzberg considered hygiene factors to be very

important for an organization to maintain its human

resources; but these were not motivators.

Employees are motivated only if they have a

challenging job which not only gives them an

opportunity to achieve something, get recognition,

advance in their careers and grow in the

organization, but also allows them to handle greaterresponsibilities.


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Important motivators are:-

a) work itself

b) clear achievable goals c) appreciation for good work

d) giving adequate responsibilities to

employees

e) career growth


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Some important hygiene factors are:-

a) administrative policiesb) presence of able supervisors

c) fair pay

d) good interpersonal relations

e) conducive working conditions


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Alderfers ERG Theory

Alderfer recognized the importance of categorizing

needs and saw that there was a definite distinction

between lower-level and higher-level needs.

According to Alderfer, there are three basic groups of

core needs:

Existence needs (E) These are associated with

the survival and physiological well-being of anindividual.


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Relatedness needs (R) These needs emphasize

the significance ofsocial and interpersonal

relationships. Growth needs (G) These needs are related to a

persons inner desire for personal growth and

development.


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According to the ERG theory, a persons background

or cultural environment may cause the relatedness

needs to predominate over unfulfilled existenceneeds.

The intensity of growth needs will increase with an

increase in the degree to which they are satisfied.


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THE PROCESS THEORIES OF WORK

MOTIVATION

The process theories of motivation deal with the

cognitive antecedents that go into motivation or

effort, and more specifically, with the way the

cognitive antecedents of an individual relate to oneanother.


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Vrooms Expectancy Theory of

Motivation

The theory is based on three variables - valence,

instrumentality and expectancy and is therefore

commonly termed VIE theory.


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Meaning of the variables

Valence (V) denotes the strength of an individuals

preference for a particular outcome.

Instrumentality (I) refers to the degree to which a

first-level outcome would help in attaining the

desired second-level outcome. Instrumentality

serves as an input for valence. Expectancy (E) is the probability (ranging from 0 to

1) that performing a specific action would produce a

particular first-level outcome or effort.


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For e.g.- Superior performance of an employee is the

first-level outcome, which is considered

instrumental for getting a promotion, thesecond-level outcome.

Expectancy is the effort to achieve first-leveloutcome

Instrumentalityrelates first-level outcome tosecond-level outcome.


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Three types of relationships are identified in Vrooms

theory:

Effort-performance relationship: This shows an

individuals perception of the probability that a

specific level of performance would result if he

exerts a certain amount of effort.

Performance-reward relationship: It denotes theextent of an individuals belief that a particular level

of performance would result in achieving the

desired outcome.


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Rewards-personal goals relationship: This refers

to the degree to which an individuals personal

goals or needs are satisfied by the rewards given

by the organization and his perception of theattractiveness of these rewards.


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The Porter-Lawler Model

The model holds that performance in an organization is

dependent on three factors: An employee should have the desire to perform,

i. e. he must feel motivated to accomplish the task.

Motivation alone cannot ensure successful

performance of a task. The employee should alsohave the abilities and skills required to successfully

perform the task.


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The employee should have a clear perception ofhis

role in the organization and an accurate knowledge

of thejob requirements. This will enable him to

focus his efforts on accomplishing the assignedtasks.


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THE CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF

WORK MOTIVATION

Equity Theory

The degree ofequity or inequity perceived by an

employee with reference to his work situation plays a

major role in work performance and satisfaction.

An employee compares the outcome: what he gets from

his job in relation to what he gives to the job, i.e. jobinputs.


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Equity is represented schematically as:

=Persons outcomes

Persons inputs

Others outcomes

Others inputs

Inequity is represented as followed:

Persons outcomes

Persons inputs

or


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Self-inside: The employee compares his

experiences in the present position with theexperiences ofthose holding a similar position in the

same organization.

Self-outside: The employee compares his

experiences in the present position with the

experiences of those holding a similar position in

another organization.

The various referent comparisons used by an

employee are:


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Other-inside : The employee compares his

experience in the present position with the

experience of another individual or group of

individuals holding a different position but belongingto the same organization.

Other-outside: The employee compares his

experiences in the present position with that of

another individual or group of individuals holding adifferent position and belonging to a different

organization.


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There are four variables that influence an

employees choice of referent. These are the

genderof the employee, length of tenure of the

employee in the organization, level at which theemployee is working in the organization, and level of

education or professional qualifications of the

employee.


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If an employee perceives an inequity, he will make

certain choices.

i) Change in inputsii) Change in outcomes

iii) Distort perceptions of self

iv) Distort perception of others

v) Choose a different referent

vi) Leave the field


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Attribution Theory

It identifies attributions made by people as the basis

for their motivation.

Explains the relationship between personal perception

and interpersonal behavior.


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Common assumptions of attribution theories:

They try to provide a logical explanation to all that is

happening.

They attribute actions of individuals to internal or

external causes.

Those theories propose that individuals follow a fairly

logical approach in making attributions.


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The theory states that since the causes and reasons

for an individuals behavior cannot be directly

observed, one has to depend to a great extent on

the perception of the individual in order tounderstand his behavior.

Attribution theory also assumes that humans arerational and motivated beings.


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Locus of control attributions

Locus of control refers to the chief source offactors

that creates a result or gives rise to an outcome inthe employees perception.

Those employeeswho believe that there is an

internal control for all outcomes feel they have the

power to change or influence the outcomes bymeans of their ability, skills and efforts.


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Those employees who believe that there is an

external control for all outcomes feel that they are in

no position to control them. In their opinion, external

factors like luck, chance, etc. are responsible forinfluencing outcomes.


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Other attributions

Bernard Weiner, a social psychologist, found that the

stability of attribution was also important indetermining motivation.

Employees with longer work experience tend to have

stable internal attributions about their abilities and

unstable internal attribution regarding effort.


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Kelley suggested other dimensions such as

consensus, consistency and distinctiveness having

an impact on the type of attributions made by

individuals. Consensus denotes the extent to which others

behave in a similar manner in the same situation.

Consistency refers to a pattern of behavior, which

may be relatively stable or unstable. This shows

whether a person behaves similarly in a similar

situation or if a particular behavior is just an

infrequent occurrence.


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Distinctiveness indicates whether a persons

behavior is similar for all tasks or whether his

behavior differs from one task to another.

An individual having high consensus, consistency,as well as distinctiveness can be expected to make

attributions to external or environmental factors.

Individuals showing low consensus, high

consistency and low distinctiveness, can be

expected to attribute outcome or results to internal

or personal causes.


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Control Theory And Agency Theory

Control is a cognitive phenomenon. It reflects anindividuals ability to control his life and aspects

associated with his job.

Perceived control enhances job satisfaction and

reduces absenteeism.


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An agency relationship is said to exist when one or

more individuals i.e. the principal, engages another

person i.e. the agent, to perform some activity on

his or their behalf.

The interests of principals and agents sometimes

conflict with each other.

O O O O C


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MOTIVATION OF PERFORMANCE

THROUGH JOB DESIGN AND GOAL

SETTINGMotivating Performance through Job

Design

This theory advocated the structuring of work tasksinto highly standardized and specialized jobs to

simplify the process of hiring, training and

supervision.

The primary objective of this exercise was tominimize the operational costs involved at each stage

of the production of good and service.


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This kind oforganizational structure led to a high

degree of control over workers.

The design of a persons job has a considerable

impact on his/her behavior.

Job Design can be defined as the process of

structuring tasks and responsibilities into a job in an

attempt to make thejob more meaningful, significantand satisfying.


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Approaches to job design

Job engineering approach to job design

The job engineering approach is concerned with

issues like plant layout, design of processes and

tools, and the measurement and

standardization of work processes and human-machine interactions.


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Job enlargementapproach

Horizontal expansion of jobs means increasing the

number of jobs performed by the worker, thereby

making thejob less specialized and monotonous.

Job rotation

The rotation of workers between various departmentsreduces the boredom of performing the same job

activities.


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Job enrichment

Vertical expansion results in an increase in the

content of work and requires employee to have a

high level of skill and knowledge.

It also facilitates an increase in the level of

autonomy by allowing workers to plan, direct,

control and evaluate their own performance on the

job.


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Quality of work life andsociotechnical approach to

job design

QWL is concerned with the overall climate at theworkplace. This approach deals with the impact of

work on the employees and on organizational

effectiveness.


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Job characteristics approach to job design

Identifies certain features of jobs that result in

certain psychological states.

The core dimensions orcharacteristics of a job that

affect its nature are skill variety, task identity, task

significance, autonomy and feedback.

Skill variety refers to the degree to which a worker isgiven the opportunity to use his knowledge and his

wide range of skills and abilities, to perform his job.


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Task identity refers to the extent to which an

employee is responsible for the completion of a

distinct, identifiable module of the job assigned.

Task significance refers to the importance attachedto a specific job in the organization.

Autonomy refers to the amount of freedom a worker

has in performing his job.

Feedback refers to any appraisal received by the

employee about his performance on the job after its

accomplishment.


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Realization of criticalpsychological states

The psychological states discussed below, play an

important role in shaping individuals job motivation

and satisfaction.

Meaningfulness

Responsibility

Awareness of results

Personal of work outcomes


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Job enrichment

Job enrichment results in increasing the

responsibility and accountability of the job rather

then simply increasing the number of tasks to beperformed.

Provides employees with the opportunity to plan and

execute their of job and evaluate their own

performance.


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Measuring task scope

Task scope refers to a dimension for describing jobs

at various levels of the organization. This task scope

encompasses the variety of activities a person hasto perform to complete as particular job.

Redesigning jobs

Combination of tasks


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Vertical loading

Employees are not only given adequate

opportunities to develop their skills, but are also

empowered to plan, schedule and execute activitiesthemselves. The employees are thus made

completely accountable for their performance.


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Formation of natural teams

The management must encourage the formation of

informal, self motivated teams within the existing

structures of the organization. This facilitates

interaction among the various groups of employees,

irrespective of the type of work they are involved in.

The formation of such teams enhances skill variety,

builds emotional relationships among employeesand facilitates free interaction among them.


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Motivating Performance through Goal

Setting

The theory of goal setting originated at the turn of thecentury with the emergence of the theory of Scientific

Management by F W Taylor.

The theory of goal setting as propounded by Locke,

Wood and Mento is based on the principle that difficultgoals stimulate performance and commitment.


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Lockes theory assumes that human behavior is

purposeful and that goals direct and sustain their

behavior in a particular manner.

Two primary attributes of goals, content andintensity, drive behavior towards the

accomplishment of tasks.

The content attribute of goals refers to the level of

difficulty involved in attaining the goal.


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Intensity refers to the process by which a goal is set

and accomplished.

It relates to employee participation in goal setting

and then commitment towards achieving the goal setby them.


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Goals should be specific

Goals should be difficult and challenging

Goals must be owned and accepted

Goals must have a specific time frame

Goals should be measurable

Performance enhancement through goal

setting


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Barriers to effective goal setting

Lack of top management support

Lack ofcommunication

Content of the goal

Technical incompetence

APPLICATION OF GOAL SETTING TO


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APPLICATION OF GOAL SETTING TO

ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEM

PERFORMANCE

The theory of goal setting is usually implemented

through a system called Management by Objectives,

popularly knows as MBO. The term MBO was

coined by Peter Drucker.

MBO refers to the process of setting goals and

objectives through the participation of the

management and the workers.

MBO therefore, is a program consisting of a specific

set of goals to be achieved within a pre-determined

time period.


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The common features of all MBO programs are goal

specification, participative decision making, an

explicit time period for the achievement of targets,

and performance feedback.


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Consensus on key goals and objectives

Sketch a plan of action

Control of behavior

Periodic appraisal and reviews

An MBO program generally consists of four

stages

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