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• Mere relation of vyapti is unable to account for inference. It is in need of paramarsa. While vyâpti is

a logical ground, paramarsa is psychological ground of inference. It is defined as the perception of

the mark again as qualified by the invariable relation ( vyaptivisista pakadharmata). This is said to be

the extra-ordinary cause (karana) of inference. In our inference of the presence of fire in a hill,we first

perceive a mark i.e. smoke,then we remember the universal relation between the madhya and the

sâdhya.

Again we perceive that the same mark as qualified by the universal relation between the madhya

and the sadhya is present in the paka. The smoke is present in the present hill also. This

knowledge leads to the inference of fire.

So, inference is defined as the knowledge arising through pramarsha, that is, knowledge of the presence

of the major term in the minor term through the middle term which resides in the minor term and is invariably

associated with the major term.

Basis of Inference –

1. Logical ground - vyapti

2. Psychological ground – Paramarsa

Classification of Inference

I. Swartha & Prartha anumana

• When inference is secured for oneself, it is swarthanumana. In this, we see hetu, recollect invariable

concomitance between hetu and sadhya and finally conclude. It is a psychological process and it does

not require formal statement.

• When it is required to be made for others, it is prarthanumana. It has to be presented in language

and has to be done to convince others. These are stated in five propositions known as pancha-avyaya.

These are:

1. The hill is firy, that is, pratigya.

a. It is a logical statement which has to be proved.

2. Because it has smoke. (Hetu)

a. It states the reason for the establishment of the proposition.

3. Whatever has smoke has fire. (udaharan)

a. Oven.

b. It is a vyapti statement. It gives the universal concomitance together with an example.

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Recap :

CATEGORIES / PADARTH

� What

• Metaphysical classification

� Two Classes

A. Bhava / Being B. Abhava / non-being

Bhava / Being

1. Dravya

2. Guna

3. Karma

4. Vishesha

5. Samanya

a. Class concept, class essence, universal

b. Subsists in

c. Samanya lakshan alaukika perception

d. Logico- epistemological controversy

e. Buddhist concept of Apoha

6. Samavayaa. Eternal relation

b. Samyoga and vibhagc. Difference between samavaya & Samyoga

Abhava /Non-Being

7. Abhava(i) Negative category

(ii) Non- existence of any thing (iii) Types

A) Anyonyabhava

B) Samsargabhava

1. Pragabhava2. Pradhavamsabhava3. Atyantabhav

Difference between anyoyaabhava & samsargabhava

� Critical Comment

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Shamkaracharya’s advaitavada

Brahman

“Brahman satyam, jagat mithya,Jivo Brahmaiva naparaha.”

According to Shamkaracharya, brahman is the only reality. It is absolutely indeterminate and non-dual.

Hence, Shamkaracharya’s philosophy is known as advaitavada, that is, unqualified monism. Brahman is the

only and ultimate reality. It is beyond speech and mind. It is indescribable because no description of it can be

complete.

According to Shamkaracharya, everything that exists originates in brahman, subsists in brahman and is

merged into brahman. Brahman is self-explained, self-luminous and pure consciousness. Brahman is sat, that

is, indubitable. Brahman is chit, that is, consciousness. Brahman is ananda, that is, bliss. Hence, brahman is

sacchidananda. Brahman is essentially pure existence, pure consciousness and pure bliss. These are not

attributes, but the very essence of brahman. These are not different. That which is existent is conscious, the

conscious is blissful and the blissful is existent. Sacchidananda are not gunas in ordinary sense, they are very

nature and aspects of brahman.

Brahman is nirguna. It is essentially indeterminate. Indeterminate does not mean devoid of qualities, but

beyond all qualities because empirical qualities involve contradictions whereas brahman is beyond all

contradictions. Hence, it could be best described as neti, neti…, that is, not this, not this, … because every

determination is negation. Brahman is one, partless, indivisible and distinctionless.

But, brahman, the ultimate reality, when viewed through the glasses of ignorance appears to the ignorant

jiva as jagat and Ishwara.

In this metaphysical scheme, Shamkaracharya admits three levels of reality such as:

1. Illusory, that is, pratibhasika.

2. Empirical, that is, vyavaharika.

3. Transcendental, that is, parmarthika.

The rope-snake illusion or the state of dream appears to be real only at the pratibhasika level, but are refuted at

the empirical level. Again, the empirical level or vyavaharika level is the experience of the wakeful state such

as to know the rope as rope. This level of reality is collective and comparatively more durable than

pratibhasika level, but it is still refuted at the transcendental level. The transcendental level of reality is

irrefutable in all the times and hence, brahman is the only uncontradicted reality.

Samkacharya denies the role of pramana in knowing brahman. Brahman can be neither perceived nor inferred

but sruti can remove ignorance and helps getting immediate, intuitive knowledge of brahman.

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