MISPRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH FINAL ALVEOLAR -ALVEOLAR … · 2017. 12. 18. · the participants. The...

MISPRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH FINAL ALVEOLAR

SMA SANTA MARIA YOGYAKARTA

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

KRIS RAHARDIAN RAHARDJOSIDHI

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM

MISPRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH FINAL ALVEOLAR-ALVEOLAR AND VELAR-ALVEOLAR

CONSONANT CLUSTERS BY THE STUDENTS OF


AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirementsfor the Degree of Sarjana Sastra

in English Letters

By


Student Number: 124214090

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM FACULTY OF LETTERS

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

2016




PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI





ENGLISH

ii

MISPRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH FINAL ALVEOLAR-ALVEOLAR AND VELAR-ALVEOLAR

CONSONANT CLUSTERS BY THE STUDENTS OF


AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirementsfor the Degree of Sarjana Sastra

in English Letters

By



ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM FACULTY OF LETTERS

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

2016





A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis

MISPRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH FINALALVEOLAR-ALVEOLAR AND VELAR-ALVEOLAR

CONSONANT CLUSTERSBY THE STUDENTS OF


ByKris Rabardian Rabardjosidbi


Approved by

Anna Fitriati, S.Pd., M.Hum.Advisor

Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A.Co Advisor

III

January 9, 2017

January 9, 2017


STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

I certify that this undergraduate thesis contains no material which has been

previously submitted for the award of any other degree at any university, and that,

to the best of my knowledge, this undergraduate thesis contains no material

previously written by any other person except where due reference is made in the

text ofthe undergraduate thesis.

Kris Rahardtan Rahardjosidhi

v


LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAHUNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma

NamaNomor Mahasiswa

: Kris Rahardian Rahardjosidhi: 124214090

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada PerpustakaanUniversitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul

MISPRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH FINALALVEOLAR-ALVEOLAR AND VELAR-ALVEOLAR

CONSONANT CLUSTERSBY THE STUDENTS OF


beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (hila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikankepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan,mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalandata, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet ataumedia lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta izin kepada sayamaupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama sayasebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di YogyakartaPada tan~gal 6 Januari 2017

Yang nYa~l~

;,t~/\ -Kris Rahardtan Rahardjosidhi

vi


vii

Never say “I can’t” before you try. -Fransisca Cabrini Sulistyowati-


viii

Hanya orang gila yang mampu mengubah dunia. -Pancasona Adji-


ix

For Mama, Sorry I could not make it punctually, but finally I made it,

I loved you, love you, and will always love you. -Anak Laki-Laki Mama-


x

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly, I want to deliver my gratitude to Jesus Christ for His guidance

along my life and everlasting love that He always gives to me. He is the only

reason I can go through every path in Sanata Dharma University for more than

four years. Only because of His love, I can finally finish my undergraduate thesis.

Secondly, I want to address my gratitude to my Mama and Papa, and also

my sister. They are my real life-supporters. Without their loves and supports, I am

not really sure I can stand strongly until today.

Thirdly, I am so thankful to my advisor, Anna Fitriati, S.Pd., M.Hum., for

her patience and understanding in guiding me. I thank for every detail correction

that she gave to me during the process of writing this undergraduate thesis. I also

want to say thanks to my co-advisor, Dr. Fr. Alip, M.Pd., M.A., for every

correction that also given to my undergraduate thesis.

Fourthly, I give my sincere thank to Sr. Ancilla, OSF, the principal of

SMA Santa Maria Yogyakarta for letting me conduct my research in that school.

Furthermore, I would like to extend my thankfulness to my choir students in SMA

Santa Maria Yogyakarta for sincerely being my participants during the recording

process.

Fifthly, I want to say thanks to all my friends for every support and care

that they have given to me. I thank them for coloring my life until today with their

own ways that make me feel as a special part in their lives.

Kris Rahardian Rahardjosidhi


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE .............................................................................................. ii APPROVAL PAGE .................................................................................... iii ACCEPTANCE PAGE ............................................................................... iv STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY .......................................................... v LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ILMIAH ....... vi MOTTO PAGE ........................................................................................... vii DEDICATION PAGE ................................................................................. ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................ x TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................ xi LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................... xiii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................. xv ABSTRAK ..................................................................................................... xvi CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION .............................................................. 1

A. Background of the Study ................................................................... 1 B. Problem Formulation ........................................................................ 4 C. Objectives of the Study ..................................................................... 4 D. Definition of Terms ........................................................................... 5

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE .......................................... 7

A. Review of Related Studies ................................................................ 7 B. Review of Related Theories .............................................................. 10

1. Phonology ................................................................................... 10 a. English Consonant Sound System ........................................ 11

i. Consonants based on the Place of Articulation ............... 11 ii. Consonants based on the Manner of Articulation ........... 12 iii. Consonants based on the Voicing ................................... 13

b. Indonesian Consonant Sound System ................................... 14 i. Indonesian Stop Consonants ........................................... 14 ii. Indonesian Fricative Consonants .................................... 15 iii. Indonesian Nasal Consonants ......................................... 17 iv. Indonesian Lateral Consonant ......................................... 17 v. Indonesian Flapped Consonant ....................................... 18 vi. Indonesian Approximants Consonants ............................ 18

c. English and Indonesian Consonant Sound System ............... 19 d. Consonant Cluster ................................................................. 20 e. Phonotactic Constrain ........................................................... 21

2. Second Language Acquisition..................................................... 22 a. Description of Second Language Acquisition....................... 22 b. Errors in Second Language Acquisition ............................... 23

i. Interlingual and Interference Errors ................................ 23 ii. Intralingual Errors ........................................................... 24

C. Theoretical Frameworks.................................................................... 24


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CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY .......................................................... 26 A. Object of the Study............................................................................ 26 B. Approach of the Study ...................................................................... 26 C. Method of the Study .......................................................................... 27

1. Data Collection............................................................................ 27 2. Data Analysis .............................................................................. 29

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ............... 32

A. The Distribution of English Final Alveolar-Alveolar and Velar-Alveolar Consonant Cluster .................................................... 32 1. English Words with Final Alveolar-Alveolar Consonant

Cluster ......................................................................................... 33 a. Stop-Fricatives ...................................................................... 33 b. Fricatives-Stop ...................................................................... 34 c. Nasal-Stop ............................................................................. 34 d. Nasal-Fricatives..................................................................... 36 e. Lateral-Stop ........................................................................... 36

2. English Words with Final Velar-Alveolar Consonant Cluster .... 37 3. English Words with Three Consonants as Final Consonant

Cluster ......................................................................................... 38 B. Mispronunciations by the Participants .............................................. 39

1. Mispronunciations in English Words with Final Alveolar-Alveolar Consonant Cluster ......................................... 40 a. Stop-Fricatives ...................................................................... 40 b. Fricatives-Stop ...................................................................... 41 c. Nasal-Stop ............................................................................. 42 d. Nasal-Fricatives..................................................................... 43 e. Lateral-Stop ........................................................................... 44

2. Mispronunciation in English Word with Final Velar-Alveolar Consonant Cluster ....................................................................... 46

3. Mispronunciations in English Words with Three Consonants as Final Consonant Cluster .............................................................. 46

C. The Errors in the Mispronunciation of Final Alveolar-Alveolar and Velar-Alveolar Consonant Cluster .................................................... 49 1. Interlingual and Interference Errors ............................................ 49 2. Intralingual Errors ....................................................................... 53

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION

A. Conclusion ........................................................................................ 55 B. Suggestion ......................................................................................... 57

BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................... 59 APPENDICES ............................................................................................. 61

Appendix 1: The Reading Material ........................................................ 61 Appendix 2: Result of Participants’ Pronunciation ............................... 63 Appendix 3: General Summary of Participant’s Pronunciation............. 78


xiii

LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Phonetic Symbols for American English Consonants

(Fromkin et al, 2011:205) ..................................................... 13

Table 2.2 The Example of English Words in Presented in Phonetic Symbols ................................................................................. 14

Table 2.3 The Example of English Words in Presented in Phonetic Symbols ................................................................................. 19

Table 2.4 The Comparison of English and Indonesian Consonant Sound System (Fromkin et al, 2011:205 and Dardjowidjojo, 2009:50) ....................................................... 20

Table 3.1 Phonetic Transcription of the Selected English Words......... 28

Table 3.2 Result of Participant’s Pronunciation.................................... 30

Table 3.3 General Summary of Participants’ Pronunciation................. 31

Table 4.1 Phonetic Transcription of English Final Stop-Fricatives Alveolar Consonant Cluster .................................................. 33

Table 4.2 Phonetic Transcription of English Final Fricatives-Stop Alveolar Consonant Cluster .................................................. 34

Table 4.3 Phonetic Transcription of English Final Nasal-Stop Alveolar Consonant Cluster .................................................. 35

Table 4.4 Phonetic Transcription of English Final Nasal-Fricatives Alveolar Consonant Cluster .................................................. 36


xiv

Table 4.5 Phonetic Transcription of English Final Laterals-Stop Alveolar Consonant Cluster .................................................. 37

Table 4.6 Phonetic Transcription of English Final Velar-Alveolar Consonant Cluster ................................................................. 38

Table 4.7 Phonetic Transcription of English Words with Three Consonants as Final Consonant Clusters .............................. 39

Table 4.8 General Summary of Participants Result of English Final Stop-Fricative Alveolars Consonant Cluster ......................... 41

Table 4.9 General Summary of Participants Result of English Final Fricative-Stop Alveolars Consonant Cluster ......................... 42

Table 4.10 General Summary of Participants Result of English Final Nasal-Stop Alveolars Consonant Cluster .............................. 43

Table 4.11 General Summary of Participants Result of English Final Nasal-Fricative Alveolars Consonant Cluster ....................... 44

Table 4.12 General Summary of Participants Result of English Final Lateral-Fricative Alveolars Consonant Cluster ..................... 45

Table 4.13 General Summary of Participants Result of English Final Velar-Alveolar Consonant Cluster ........................................ 46

Table 4.14 General Summary of Participants Result of English Final More Than Two Consonant Clusters .................................... 49

Table 4.15 English Words with the Omission of Last Consonant in the Consonant Cluster ................................................................. 50


xv

ABSTRACT KRIS RAHARDIAN RAHADJOSIDHI (2017). Mispronunciation of English Final Alveolar-Alveolar and Velar-Alveolar Consonant Clusters by the Students of SMA Santa Maria Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: English Letters Department, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University.

The role of English as one of the universal languages makes people tend to learn this language. For some Indonesian people, English has been their second language besides Indonesian, their first language. English also has been one of the subjects that is taught in the formal school. The Indonesian students are taught about English since elementary school or even kindergarten until high school. However, the mastery of English, especially for the pronunciation, is often influenced by the first language. One of the examples is the pronunciation of English consonant clusters. English consonant clusters become one of the hardest parts to perform since Indonesian people are not really familiar with various consonant clusters in Indonesian.

There are two problems to lead the discussion in this research. The first is to find out the mispronunciation of final alveolar-alveolar and velar-alveolar consonant clusters that often made by Indonesian native speaker. The second is to analyze the reason behind the mispronunciations.

This research uses audio-records as the instrument to collect the data from the participants. The object of the study is the fifteen students of SMA Santa Maria Yogyakarta that admitted using Indonesian as their first language. The reading material is from the English module Fokus Bahasa Inggris Kelas X of the participants and presented in sentences.

Based on the data analysis, there are 295 mispronunciations of final alveolar-alveolar and velar-alveolar consonant clusters from 405 pronunciations (15 participants x 27 English words). From the analysis, there are two errors that contribute to the mispronunciations. The first is the interlingual or interference error. This error contributes to the 291 mispronunciations of final alveolar-alveolar and velar-alveolar consonant clusters. The participants had tendencies to omit the last consonant in the consonant clusters. For example, all participants omit the [d] in the pronunciation of English word kind [kΛInd]. The participants also often changed the voiced consonant into voiceless since Indonesian word does not have voiced consonant in the final position of a word. Besides, there is also addition of schwa [ə] whenever there is a letter [e] between two consonants in the final position. Lastly, the participants swapped the consonants to ease the pronunciation as in Indonesian. The second is the intralingual error that contributes to the four mispronunciations. The example of the error is the mispronunciation of the consonant cluster influenced by the linkage.


xvi

ABSTRAK

KRIS RAHARDIAN RAHADJOSIDHI (2017). Mispronunciation of English Final Alveolar-Alveolar and Velar-Alveolar Consonant Clusters by the Students of SMA Santa Maria Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Peran bahasa Inggris sebagai salah satu bahasa universal membuat orang cenderung untuk mempelajarinya. Bagi sebagian orang Indonesia, bahasa Inggris menjadi bahasa kedua selain bahasa Indonesia sebagai bahasa pertama. Bahasa Inggris juga sudah menjadi salah satu pelajaran yang diajarkan di sekolah formal. Pelajar Indonesia diajarkan bahasa Inggris sejak sekolah dasar atau bahkan taman kanak-kanak sampai sekolah menengah atas. Hanya saja, penguasaan bahasa Inggris, terutama dalam hal pengucapan, masih sering dipengaruhi oleh bahasa pertama. Salah satu contohnya adalah pengucapan gugus konsonan bahasa Inggris. Gugus konsonan bahasa Inggris menjadi salah satu hal tersulit untuk dilakukan karena orang-orang Indonesia tidak mengenal berbagai macam gugus konsonan dalam bahasa Indonesia.

Ada dua rumusan masalah dalam penelitian ini. Pertama adalah untuk mengetahui kesalahan pengucapan apa saja yang muncul dari pengucapan konsonan alveolar-alveolar dan velar-alveolar sebagai gugus konsonan di akhir kata berbahasa Inggris. Kedua adalah untuk mengetahui alasan dibalik kesalahan pengucapan tersebut.

Penelitian ini menggunakan rekaman audio sebagai instrumen untuk mengumpukan data. Obyek dari penelitian ini adalah lima belas siswi SMA Santa Maria Yogyakarta yang mengaku menggunakan bahasa Indonesia sebagai bahasa pertama. Materi bacaan diambil dari modul bahasa Inggris milik responden dan disajikan dalam bentuk kalimat-kalimat.

Berdasarkan analisis data, ditemukan 295 kesalahan pengucapan pada konsonan alveolar-alveolar dan velar-alveolar sebagai gugus konsonan di akhir kata berbahasa Inggris dari 405 pengucapan (15 responden x 27 kata berbahasa Inggris). Dari analisis, ada dua kesalahan dalam pengucapan gugus konsonan. Pertama adalah kesalahan interlingual atau interferensi. Kesalahan ini terjadi pada 291 kesalahan pengucapan pada konsonan alveolar-alveolar dan velar-alveolar sebagai gugus konsonan di akhir kata berbahasa Inggris. Responden memiliki kecenderungan untuk tidak mengucapkan konsonan terakhir yang muncul dalam gugus konsonan. Sebagai contoh, seluruh responden menghapus pengucapan [d] pada kata berbahasa Inggris kind [kΛInd]. Responden juga mengubah konsonan getar menjadi konsonan tidak getar karena bahasa Indonesia tidak memiliki konsonan getar di akhir kata. Selain itu juga terjadi penambahan schwa [ə] pada kata dengan huruf [e] di antara dua huruf konsonan di akhir kata. Terakhir, juga terjadi penukaran konsonan untuk mempermudah pengucapan seperti dalam bahasa Indonesia. Kedua adalah kesalahan intralingual yang terjadi pada empat kesalahan pengucapan. Contoh kesalahan yang terjadi adalah kesalahan pengucapan gugus konsonan sebagai pengaruh dari penggabungan pengucapan.


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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

English is one of the universal languages taking a really important part in

human lives nowadays. English often becomes the way for people to communicate in

several countries. It is not only to have the international communication but also

regional communication. The role of English as one of the universal languages

requires people around the world to learn it.

Jenkins says that from the 15th century English has been taught for people

even for those whom English was not their mother tongue (2000:5). This concept also

relates to what happens in Indonesia right now. English has affected the perception of

how people in Indonesia think about the future with its demands related to the

communication. Indonesian people nowadays are aware that by mastering the English

skills, they can communicate with foreigners or practice themselves to face the global

demand.

Some Indonesian people have been introduced English as the second language

besides Indonesian or the other mother tongues to their children in the very beginning

of the learning process. The process of language-imitation is done by the parents to

their children. In the next level, the children are taught about English formally in the

schools. The Indonesian students learn English since in the kindergarten until in the

level of high school. Some international schools in Indonesia even use English as the


2

language of instruction in the teaching and learning process. The Indonesian students

are expected to master the four aspects of English skills, which are reading, writing,

speaking, and listening.

Despite the fact that English has been taught to Indonesian people through

language-imitation and formal education, the first language still affects the

pronunciation of English words by Indonesian people. Some English words have

strange characteristics that make Indonesian people hard to pronounce them. Yuliati

states that for Indonesian people, consonant clusters are hard to perform because of

the different nature between English and Indonesian (2014:514). The pronunciation

of consonant clusters still hard to perform even for high school students. In fact, the

high school students have experienced the English teaching process more than nine

years. Although students have done the language-imitation from their teachers, they

still use the Indonesian phonotactic constraints to ease the pronunciation of consonant

cluster.

The phenomenon about the errors in pronouncing English consonant clusters

by high school students, whose first language is Indonesian, becomes the main

interest in conducting this study. To analyze the errors, a contrastive analysis is

needed to provide evidence and give the reason why certain errors occur. This science

also becomes the basic to find out the reason of the mispronunciation that is often

being spoken by the Indonesian students in pronouncing English final consonant

cluster.


3

Related to the topic of the study, there will be a comparison about two

languages which are English and Indonesian. The comparison is part of the

contrastive analysis in finding the answers of the formulated problem. For the

example, English and Indonesian sound system share some similarities yet still have

different details. Indonesian sound system does not consider interdental consonants as

part of Indonesian consonants. English interdental consonants which are [θ] as in

thigh [θaI] and [ð] as in the [ðə] do not exist in Indonesian words. Therefore, some

Indonesian people can not perform this pronunciation perfectly. On the other hand,

English sound system does not allow nasal velar [ŋ] in the initial position of a word

while Indonesian does. English native speakers are not accustomed to pronounce

Indonesian word ngopi [ŋɔpi:] easily.

The difference consonant sound systems between English and Indonesian also

affect the rule about the consonant clusters. A study conducted by Wardhana (2007)

proves that Indonesian people are not accustomed to the English final consonant

clusters. For example, he proves that Indonesian people mispronounce the English

word mosque [mask] since there is no consonant cluster of /sk/ in the final position of

an Indonesian word (2007:44). This shows how the Indonesian rules about the sound

system affect how Indonesian people pronounce the English words.


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B. Problem Formulation

From the background of the study, here is the problem formulation in

conducting this study:

1. What kinds of mispronunciations of English final consonant clusters of alveolar-

alveolar and velar-alveolar consonants are made by the students of SMA Santa

Maria Yogyakarta?

2. Why do the mispronunciations occur?

C. Objectives of the Study

There are two major objectives of the study to achieve in conducting this

study. First, this study is to find out what kind of mispronunciations of English final

alveolar-alveolar and velar-alveolar consonant clusters made by the students of SMA

Santa Maria Yogyakarta whose first language is Indonesian. This will be the proof of

the theory that is used in this study related to the different rules about sound system

between English and Indonesian.

Second, this study is to identify the reason behind the mispronunciations that

occur in the pronunciation of English words end with consonant clusters of alveolar-

alveolar and velar-alveolar consonant. This reason leads to the finding of the

phenomenon that comes whenever those specific consonant clusters are pronounced

by Indonesian native speakers.


5

D. Definition of Terms

This section explains the terms that are used in this study: consonant cluster,

alveolar consonant, velar consonant, and errors.

First is the term of consonant cluster. A consonant cluster is a combination of

at least two consonants and it is considered as the peripheral part of the syllable

(Yuliati, 2014:513). A consonant cluster may come as the onset that comes before a

syllable or the coda that comes after a syllable. A consonant cluster in the onset can

be two or maximum three consonants, such as structure and psychology. On the other

hand, a consonant cluster in the coda can be minimum two or more consonants, such

as trust /trΛst/ and texts /teksts/.

Second is the term of alveolar consonant. An alveolar consonant is a

consonant that is produced by raising the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge

(Ladefoged, 1993:6). The consonants included as the alveolar consonants are [t], [d],

[n], [s], [z], [l], and [r]. These consonants are the same in the place of articulation but

some of them are different in the manner of articulation.

Third is the term of velar consonant. Different to the alveolar consonant, a

velar consonant is produced by raising the back of the tongue to the velum or soft

palate (Ladefoged, 1993:7). The consonants included as the velar consonants are

[k], [g], and [ŋ].

Fourth is the term of errors. As cited in Ellis (2012), James (1981) briefly

describes that an error is problematic. He adds that an error is the difficulty centre

around number of issue (Ellis, 2012:47). Moreover, Ellis states that an error is not the


6

same as mistake. While an error is the result of lack of knowledge, a mistake is more

likely a reflection of processing failure. Gass and Selinker (1994) also describes that

errors are different with mistakes. While mistakes generally are the one-time-only

event, errors occur repeatedly (1994:67). They add that errors are only errors refer to

the rule of the target language (1994:67). In this study, the error is related to the

mispronunciations done by the participants.


7

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er eht sdnif osla sumotsosirK ,yduts gnicnuonorp ni ecnereffid eht dniheb nosa

.eugnot rehtom ro egaugnal tsrif tnereffid eht ot detaler yllaicepse ,sdrow hsilgnE

taht slaever sumotsosirK eht etanimile ot dnet srenrael hsilgnE holabmE kayaD

noitisop lanif eht ni semoc taht rettel tnelis eht etutitsbus ot dna sdrow hsilgnE fo

ni tsixe ton seod ti esuaceb tnanosnoc s’holabmE kayaD otni stnanosnoc hsilgnE

.emenohp s’holabmE kayaD


9

deltitne itailuY yb detcudnoc yduts eht si yduts htfif ehT tnanosnoC laniF

raeL naisenodnI yb noitacifilpmiS sretsulC ni ytilibigilletnI stI dna hsilgnE fo sren

txetnoC lanoitanretnI )4102( tsom sah taht seiduts eht fo eno si yduts s’itailuY .

ni retsulc tnanosnoc fo noitaicnunorpsim tuoba yduts eht htiw noissucsid ralimis

itailuY .sdrow hsilgnE fo noitisop lanif eht etats fo eno no sesucof yduts reh taht s

sdnif itailuY .ytilibigilletni sti dna retsulc tnanosnoc si hcihw serutaef hsilgnE eht

tsom ecnis retsulc tnanosnoc lanif gnicnuonorp ni noitacifilpmis a si ereht taht tuo

e ton seod retsulc tnanosnoc lanif hsilgnE eht fo lacigolonohp naisenodnI ni tsix

.elur

sgnidnif eht no desaB , tsrif ehT .yduts siht troppus seiduts suoiverp eht

woh tuoba yduts siht fo sisehtopyh eht htiw tluser ralimis eht evah seiduts ruof

onorp elpoep woh stceffa yllaer egaugnal tsrif ro eugnot rehtom htiw sdrow ecnu

era sebirt tnereffid htiw elpoep naisenodnI ,esac siht nI .egaugnal tnereffid

nwo rieht yb detceffa segaugnal tsrif fo stluser ehT .sdrow hsilgnE gnicnuonorp ni

naisenodnI yb sdrow hsilgnE fo noitaicnunorp eht taht yas seiduts ruof esoht

ps .noitaicnunorp hsilgnE dradnatS eht htiw tnereffid si sebirt tnereffid morf srekae

itailuY yb yduts deweiver tsal ehT )4102( yduts gnitroppus tsom eht si

sah ti ecnis tsom eht .yduts siht htiw cipot ralimis itailuY yb enod yduts ehT

)4102( essucsid ylesolc woh tuoba s eht lanif eht yfilpmis srekaeps naisenodnI

naisenodnI ylekil erom sdnuos ti ekam dna sdrow hsilgnE fo retsulc tnanosnoc

tI .elyts srucco taht tcaf eht ot eud fo tsom eht retsulc tnanosnoc hsilgnE s ton od

ni sa tsixe .sdrow naisenodnI ehT yduts itailuY yb )4102( ot cisab eht semoceb


01

raloevla fo noitaicnunorp eht ot neppah tahw tuo dnif - ralev dna raloevla - raloevla

.yduts siht ni sretsulc tnanosnoc hsilgnE

raloevla lanif fo noitaicnunorpsim tuoba yduts ehT - ralev dna raloevla -

sulc tnanosnoc raloevla sevorpmi sret woh no ylno gnisucof yb seiduts evif esoht

naisenodnI segaugnal tsrif eht sa lanif hsilgnE fo noitaicnunorp eht stceffa yllaer

.sretsulc tnanosnoc tcaf eht ot detaler dnuorgkcab eht sevorpmi osla yduts sihT

woh tceffa nac egaugnal tsrif taht .egaugnal dnoces eht ecnuonorp elpoep

.B seiroehT detaleR fo weiveR

eseht retaL .yduts siht troppus ot desu era taht seiroeht owt era erehT

o cisab eht emoceb seiroeht n gniwollof eht ni depoleved gnieb si yduts siht woh

.retpahc

.1 ygolonohP

si dnuos woh no nrecnoc taht yduts scitsiugnil fo trap si ygolonohP

ygolonohP .)41:9002 ,ojojdiwojdraD( hceeps lautca eht ni dezilaer dna degnarra

nrettap eht tuoba snrael osla fo woh ,ygolonohp nI .desu si ti revenehw dnuos eht

cigolonohp demrof era sdrow .yduts siht fo cipot eht semoceb osla ylla

siht fo cipot eht ot detaleR .egaugnal yreve rof seirav elur lacigolonohP

elur ehT .elur lacigolonohp tnereffid emos evah naisenodnI dna hsilgnE ,yduts

nanosnoc fo elur eht si yduts siht ni debircsed gnieb si taht .retsulc tnanosnoc dna t


11

.a metsyS dnuoS tnanosnoC hsilgnE

i stnanosnoc sebircsed ygolonohp ,yllareneG t n eerh tsriF .seirogetac

noitalucitra fo ecalp eht no desab stnanosnoc eht si yrogetac , eht si dnoces

noitalucitra fo rennam eht no desab stnanosnoc na , no desab stnanosnoc si driht d

.gniciov eht

.i noitalucitrA fo ecalP eht no desaB stnanosnoC

,noitalucitra fo ecalp eht no desaB hsilgnE eht otni dedivid era stnanosnoc

decudorp era stnanosnoc laibaliB .stnanosnoc laibalib si tsrif ehT .seirogetac thgie

rb yb ,nikmorF( rehtegot pil rewol dna reppu eht gnigni ,smayH ,namdoR

hT .)691:1102 ]t[ si tnanosnoc siht fo elpmaxe e .

era stnanosnoc latnedoibaL .stnanosnoc latnedoibal si dnoces ehT

nikmorF( hteet reppu eht ot pil mottob eht gnihcuot yb detalucitra la te ,

stnanosnoc ehT .)691:1102 [f] dna ]v[ .tnanosnoc latnedoibal fo selpmaxe eht era

yb decudorp era stnanosnoc esehT .stnanosnoc latnedretni si driht ehT

nikmorF( hteet eht neewteb eugnot eht fo pit eht gnitresni la te ehT .)691:1102 ,

tnedretni fo selpmaxe era stnanosnoc la [θ] dna [ð] .

eht fo eno emoceb stnanosnoc raloevlA .stnanosnoc raloevla si htruof ehT

.yduts siht ni sesucof T detalucitra eb nac stnanosnoc raloevla eh pit eht gnittup yb

egdir raloevla eht ot eugnot eht fo nikmorF( la te ehT .)691:1102 , eht fo selpmaxe

era stnanosnoc raloevla [t] dna [s] .

eht gnittup yb rucco stnanosnoc esehT .stnanosnoc latalap si htfif ehT

nikmorF( etalap eht ot eugnot eht fo trap tnorf la te fo selpmaxe ehT .)691:1102 ,

era stnanosnoc eseht [ʃ] dna [ʒ] .


21

si htxis ehT rehtona emoceb osla stnanosnoc esehT .stnanosnoc ralev

sucof [ tnanosnoc ehT .yduts siht ni k] tog si ti dna stnanosnoc ralev eht fo eno si

nikmorF( mulev ro etalap tfos eht ot eugnot eht fo kcab eht gnittup yb la te ,

.)691:1102

tsal ehT si xe ehT .stnanosnoc lattolg [ si stnanosnoc lattolg fo elpma h] .

eht sessap neht dna sittolg eht hguorht swolf ria eht nehw rucco stnanosnoc esehT

nikmorF( spil dna eugnot la te )691:1102 ,

.ii noitalucitrA fo rennaM eht no desaB stnanosnoC

ht si yrogetac dnoceS .noitalucitra fo rennam eht no desab stnanosnoc e

yaw eht ot srefer noitalucitra fo rennaM ro ton ro dekcolb si maertsria eht woh no

.ton ro etarbiv sdroc lacov eht woh

ehT .stnanosnoc fo sepyt evif era ereht ,noitalucitra fo rennam no desaB

pots si tsrif eht morf maertsria eht esuaceb rucco tnanosnoc esehT .stnanosnoc

nikmorF( ytivac laro eht ni dekcolb si sgnul la te xe ehT .)102:1102 , fo selpma

[ era stnanosnoc eseht t] , [d] , [k] dna , [ʔ] .

evitacirf si dnoces ehT ehT .stnanosnoc dereves ni noitcurtsbo swolfria eht

nikmorF( stnanosnoc tnaunitnoc eht ni noitcirf sesuac ,la te ehT .)202:1102

[ era selpmaxe f] dna [s] .

pots a nehw rucco stnanosnoc esehT .stnanosnoc etacirffa si driht ehT

er laudarg yletaidemmi yb dewollof si erusolc taht erusolc eht fo esael eht stceffa

evitacirf nikmorF( la te )202:1102 , . ;stnanosnoc etacirffa owt ylno era erehT [tʃ]

dna [dʒ].


31

.stnanosnoc sdiuqil si htruof ehT nehw decudorp era stnanosnoc esehT

nikmorF( noitcirf tceffa ot hguone ton tub maertsria eht fo noitcurtsbo si ereht te

la )202:1102 , . [ ylno era stnanosnoc diuqiL l] dna [r] .

elttil eht fo esuaceb rucco stnanosnoc esehT .stnanosnoc edilg si tsal ehT

nikmorF( maertsria eht ni noitcurtsbo la te .)302:1102 , era stnanosnoc edilG

.drow a fo noitisop lanif eht ni reven dna lewov yb dewollof

.iii eht no desaB stnanosnoC gnicioV

ygolonohP osla lacov eht ni gniciov eht no stnanosnoc eht sezirogetac

revenehw rucco taht tnanosnoc eht si tnanosnoc decioV .sdrohc sdrohc lacov eht

nikmorF( noitaicnunorp eht gnirud gnitarbiv era ,la te rehto eht nO .)891:1102

sa dellac era stnanosnoc eht sdrohc lacov eht ni noitarbiv on si ereht nehw ,dnah

nikmorF( tnanosnoc sseleciov la te )891:1102 , .

stnanosnoC hsilgnE naciremA rof slobmyS citenohP :1.2 elbaT nikmorF( la te )502:1102 ,

laibaliB ibaL latnedo latnedretnI raloevlA latalaP raleV lattolG

potS - decioV ]b[ [d] [g] [ʔ] - sselecioV [p] [t] [k]

lasaN )deciov( [m] [n] [ŋ] evitacirF

- decioV [v] [ð] [z] [ʒ] [h] - sselecioV [f] [θ] [s] [ʃ]

etacirffA - decioV [dʒ] - sselecioV [tʃ]

edilG - decioV [w] ]j[ [w] - sselecioV [ʍ] [ʍ]

diuqiL [l], [r]


41

eht esu taht sdrow hsilgnE fo noitpircsnart citenohp eht era ereH

.elbat eht ni detneserp stnanosnoc

2.2 elbaT hsilgnE fo elpmaxE ehT : slobmyS citenohP ni detneserP sdroW

laibaliB latnedoibaL latnedretnI raloevlA latalaP raleV lattolG potS

- decioV [b k:u ] [d p:i ] [g :il ] [ʔ]uh - sselecioV [p l:u ] [t nr:з ] [k p:i ]

lasaN )deciov( [m n:u ] [n n:u ] [sIŋ] evitacirF

- decioV [v r:з b] [ðə] [z :u ] [ :ur ʒ] [hIm] - sselecioV [f lu ] [θaI] [sΛn] [ʃ :u ]

etacirffA - decioV [dʒIn] - sselecioV [tʃIn]

edilG - decioV [waIp] [j ]:u [w] - sselecioV [ʍItʃ] [ʍ]

diuqiL [l k:u ], [r t:u ]

.b metsyS dnuoS tnanosnoC naisenodnI

eht ,yllacisaB eht htiw elur ralimis sah metsys dnuos tnanosnoc naisenodnI

osla metsys dnuos tnanosnoc naisenodnI ehT .metsys dnuos tnanosnoc hsilgnE

fo rennam ,noitalucitra fo ecalp ;seirogetac eerht otni stnanosnoc sedivid

002( ojojdiwojdraD .gniciov dna ,noitalucitra naisenodnI eht snialpxe rehtar )9

eht sedivid eH .noitalucitra fo rennam eht no desab metsys dnuos tnanosnoc

.seirogetac neves otni stnanosnoc naisenodnI

.i stnanosnoC potS naisenodnI

era erehT thgie tsrif ehT .yrogetac siht ni dedulcni stnanosnoc owt

nosnoc stna era eht [ era hcihw slaibalib pots p] dna [b] laibalib pots sseleciov ehT .


51

,laidem ,laitini eht ni dnuof eb nac /p/ ro ehT .drow naisenodnI na fo noitisop lanif

laibalib pots deciov [b] ,laidem ,laitini eht ni dnuof eb nac ro na fo noitisop lanif

nodnI laibalib pots deciov eht ,revewoH .oot drow naise [b] ylekil erom si

sa deredisnoc [p] naisenodnI na fo noitisop lanif eht ni sa semoc ti revenehw

sa hcus ,drow babes [sə pab ] .

raloevla pots era stnanosnoc owt rehto ehT [t] dna [d] stnanosnoc htoB .

,laidem ,laitini eht ni dnuof eb nac ro ehT .drow naisenodnI na fo noitisop lanif

fo eerged deciov - raloevla pots deciov eht ni ssen [d] decuder si eht ni si ti nehw

drow naisenodnI na fo noitisop lanif osnoc sihT .)83:9002 ,ojojdiwojdraD( tnan

ekil sdnuos [t] sa hcus ,drow naisenodnI na fo noitisop lanif eht ni semoc ti nehw

daba [ʌbʌt].

hsilgnE eht ot tnereffiD .]j[ dna ]c[ latalap pots era stnanosnoc owt txen ehT

latalap [tʃ dna ] [dʒ morf tnereffid dnuos osla tnanosnoc naisenodnI eseht ,] eht

fo tnorf eht si rotalucitra evitca eht nehw rucco tnanosnoc esehT .seno hsilgnE

.)86:8002 ,onosraM( setalap drah eht si rotalucitra evissap eht dna eugnot

sralev pots era stnanosnoc owt tsal ehT [k] dna [g] rehto eht ot ralimiS .

stnanosnoc pots deciov ralev pots deciov naisenodnI eht , [g] gnorts evah ton seod

fo noitisop lanif eht ni sa semoc ti nehw yllaicepse ,seod hsilgnE eht ekil noitarbiv

.)93:9002 ,ojojdiwojdraD( drow naisenodnI na si enohpolla eht ,eroferehT [g<]

pots deciov naisenodnI eht nehw [ ralev g hsilgnE ni gnorts sa decnuonorp ton si ] .


61

.ii naisenodnI stnanosnoC evitacirF

.stnanosnoc evitacirf naisenodnI eht sa dedulcni stnanosnoc evif era erehT

nanosnoc tsrif ehT [ latnedoibal evitacirf eht si t f] ni raeppa nac tnanosnoc sihT .

eht ot tnereffiD .drow naisenodnI na fo noitisop lanif ro ,laidem ,laitini eht

eht redisnoc ton seod metsys dnuos naisenodnI ,metsys dnuos tnanosnoc hsilgnE

latnedoibal evitacirf deciov eht fo ecnetsixe [v] < si ereht hguohT . eht ni >v

sa hcus ,naisenodnI na fo gnilleps airav sa decnuonorp ylekil erom si drow eht ,

[fʌrIʌ].

raloevla evitacirf eht si stnanosnoc owt rehto ehT ]s[ dna [z] sseleciov ehT .

raloevla evitacirf [s] na fo noitisop lanif ro ,laidem ,laitini eht ni dnuof eb nac

raloevla evitacirf deciov eht ,dnah rehto eht nO .drow naisenodnI [z] eb nac ylno

si tnanosnoc sihT .drow naisenodnI na fo noitisop laidem dna laitini eht ni dnuof

htiw detanretla netfo [dʒ] ro [s] drow eht ni sa hcus , namaz [zʌmʌn] ro [dʒʌmʌn].

latalap evitacirf eht si tnanosnoc driht ehT [ʃ] hsilgnE eht ekilnU . [ʃ] eht ,

naisenodnI [ʃ] ,ojojdiwojdraD( spil eht fo noisurtorp eht yb dewollof ton si

laidem ro laitini eht ni sraeppa ylno tnanosnoc sihT .)24:9002 na fo noitisop

drow naisenodnI eht ni si tnanosnoc siht fo elpmaxe ehT .drow naisenodnI riays

[ʃΛI .]r

eht si tnanosnoc htruof ehT ralev evitacirf [x] yb detalucitra si dnuos sihT .

eht gnihcuot tuohtiw mulev eht ot esolc evom eugnot eht fo kcab eht gnivah

sseleciov eht sa dedulcni osla si tnanosnoc sihT .)24:9002 ,ojojdiwojdraD( mulev

f eb nac tnanosnoc siht fo elpmaxe ehT .tnanosnoc drow naisenodnI eht ni dnuo

sahk [xʌs].


71

cirf eht si tnanosnoc tsal ehT [ lattolg evita h] siht taht setats ojojdiwojdraD .

sdlof lacov eht otni sgnul eht morf sessap taht ria eht morf detalucitra si tnanosnoc

.)24:9002( dedepmi gnieb tuohtiw htuom eht ot eunitnoc dna nac tnanosnoc sihT

I na fo noitisop lanif dna ,laidem ,laitini eht ni dnuof eb sa hcus ,drow naisenodn

amah [hʌmʌ].

.iii naisenodnI stnanosnoC lasaN

lasan naisenodnI eht ,metsys dnuos tnanosnoc hsilgnE eht ot tnereffiD

era hcihw stnanosnoc ruof fo tsisnoc stnanosnoc [m] , [n] , [ŋ] dna [ň] ehT .

laibalib lasan naisenodnI [m] raloevla lasan dna [n] ,laitini eht ni dnuof eb nac

hsilgnE eht ekilnU .drow naisenodnI na fo noitisop lanif ro ,laidem [ŋ] eht ,

ralev lasan naisenodnI [ŋ] fo noitisop lanif dna ,laidem ,laitini eht ni dnuof eb nac

drow eht ni sa hcus ,drow naisenodnI na ipogn [ŋɔ :ip ] tnanosnoc naisenodnI ehT .

latalap lasan eht sah osla metsys dnuos [ň] hsilgnE eht ni tsixe ton seod hcihw

.metsys dnuos tnanosnoc eht ot eugnot eht fo pit eht gnittup yb decudorp si tI

eb nac tnanosnoc sihT .)54:9002 ,ojojdiwojdraD( maertsria eht skcolb taht etalap

sa hcus ,sdrow naisenodnI fo noitisop laidem dna laitini eht ni tup iayn [ňʌ :i ] dna

aynat [tʌňʌ].

.vi naisenodnI tnanosnoC laretaL

tnanosnoc laretal naisenodnI ehT [l] eht ot citsiretcarahc ralimis eht sah

yb detalucitra si tI .tnanosnoc laretal hsilgnE eht ot eugnot eht fo pit eht gnittup

.)64:9002 ,ojojdiwojdraD( ytivac lasan eht esolc mulev eht dna egdir raloevla

,laitini eht ni sa semoc ti nehw ti ecnuonorp ni melborp on evah elpoep naisenodnI


81

eht nehw taht si melborp ehT .drow naisenodnI na fo noitisop lanif ro ,laidem

tnanosnoc laretal [l] hsilgnE eht ni sa hcus ,drow hsilgnE eht ni ciballys semoceb

drow elddim [mI ld ] awhcs eht niater ot dnet elpoep naisenodnI ehT . [ə] eht ni

:9002 ,ojojdiwojdraD( noitaicnunorp .)74

.v naisenodnI tnanosnoC deppalF

tnanosnoc palf naisenodnI ehT [r] hcuot eugnot eht fo pit eht nehw srucco

.)74:9002 ,ojojdiwojdraD( semit ynam egdir raloevla eht tnanosnoc palf ehT [r]

.drow naisenodnI na fo noitisop lanif ro ,laidem ,laitini eht ni dnuof eb nac sihT

pS ni sa hcus ,hsinapS ni dnuof eb nac osla tnanosnoc drow hsina orep ehT .

si drow naisenodnI ni palf naisenodnI eht fo elpmaxe ajar [rʌdʒʌ].

.iv stnanosnoC tnamixorppA naisenodnI

si tsrif ehT .tnanosnoc tnamixorppa sa dedulcni stnanosnoc owt era erehT

eht laibalib tnamixorppa [w] gnieb spil owt eht yb detalucitra si tnanosnoc sihT .

eht ni dnuof eb nac ylno tI .)84:9002 ,ojojdiwojdraD( gnidnuor spil htiw ot esolc

tnamixorppa eht si dnoces ehT .drow naisenodnI na fo noitisop laidem dna laitini

latalap [y] alucitra si tnanosnoc sihT . eht ot eugnot eht fo elddim eht gnittup yb det

.)84:9002 ,ojojdiwojdraD( ti gnihcuot tuohtiw tub etalap era stnamixorppa ehT

tsomla era stnanosnoc eseht fo noitcudorp eht ecnis slewov imes sa dellac netfo

woH .)84:9002 ,ojojdiwojdraD( slewov eht ot ralimis erom si noitcnuf rieht ,reve

.naisenodnI ni slewov naht rehtar stnanosnoc ekil


91

stnanosnoc eht esu taht sdrow naisenodnI eht fo elpmaxe eht era ereH

.elbat a ni detneserp

citenohP ni detneserP sdroW naisenodnI fo elpmaxE ehT :3.2 elbaTnoitpircsnarT

laibaliB latnedoibaL latnedretnI raloevlA latalaP raleV lattolG

potS - decioV [b ]uku [d ulu ] [jΛrI] [g lu Λ] - sselecioV [p lu Λŋ] [tΛk] [cΛrI] [kΛk ]u

lasaN )deciov( [mΛkΛn] [n ]n:u [ňʌi ]: [ŋɔ :ip ] evitacirF

- decioV [zʌmʌ ]n [xʌ ]s [hΛr ]u - sselecioV [fʌ Ir ʌ] [sΛmpʌn] [ʃ IΛ ]r

edilG - decioV - sselecioV

laretaL [l ku ʌ] palF [rʌdʒʌ]

tnamixorppA [wʌdʒʌ ]r [yΛŋ]

.c metsyS dnuoS stnanosnoC naisenodnI dna hsilgnE

naisenodnI dna hsilgnE tuoba noitanalpxe eht ot gnidroccA tnanosnoc

dnuos tnanosnoc neewteb nosirapmoc eht fo elbat eht si ereh ,metsys dnuos

.segaugnal owt eht fo metsys


02

.2 elbaT 4 fo nosirapmoC ehT : dnuoS tnanosnoC naisenodnI dna hsilgnEmetsyS

nikmorF( la te , 502:1102 )05:9002 ,ojojdiwojdraD dna

fo ecalP noitalucitrA stnanosnoC hsilgnE stnanosnoC naisenodnI laibaliB

potS [p] , [b] [p], [b] lasaN [m] [m] edilG [ʍ], [w]

tnamixorppA [w] latnedoibaL

evitacirF [f] , [v] [f] latnedretnI

evitacirF [θ] , [ð] - raloevlA

potS [t] , [d] [t], [d] evitacirF [s], [z] [s], [z]

lasaN [n] [n] laretaL [l], [r] [l]

palF - [r] latalaP

potS - ]j[ ,]c[ evitacirF [ʃ], [ʒ] [ʃ] etacirffA [tʃ], [dʒ] -

lasaN - [ň] edilG ]j[ -

tnamixorppA - [y] raleV

potS [k] , [g] [k] , [g] lasaN [ŋ] [ŋ]

evitacirF - ]x[ edilG [ʍ ,] [w]

lattolG potS [ʔ] -

evitacirF [h] [h]

.d retsulC tnanosnoC

noitanibmoc eht si retsulc tnanosnoC sa deredisnoc si ti dna stnanosnoc

)315:4102 ,itailuY( elballys fo strap larehpirep eht eb yam retsulc tnanosnoC .

tnereffid ni decalp drow a fo ecalp laitini na sa tup eb nac retsulc tnanosnoc ,tsriF .


12

drow eht ni sa hcus ,drow eht fo noitisop sserts ]serts[ retsulc tnanosnoc ,dnoceS .

drow eht ni sa hcus ,drow eht fo noitisop laidem a sa eb nac langis [sIgnəl] ,drihT .

lanif a sa eb nac retsulc tnanosnoc drow eht ni sa ,drow eht fo noitisop knab

[bæŋk].

hsilgnE fo noitaicnunorp eht ni stsixe osla noitcuder sretsulc tnanosnoC

nikmorF( tcelaid tnereffid htiw srekaeps yb enod sdrow la te nikmorF .)444:1102 ,

la te eht si tsrif ehT .noitcuder sretsulc tnanosnoc eht fo selpmaxe owt evig

laidem fo noiteled [d] drow eht ni t’ndid d[ I [ semoceb ylnommoc hcihw ]tnd dI tn ] .

eht ni sa spots sseleciov erofeb slasan gnicnuonorp ni noiteled eht si dnoces ehT

drow tnih [hI tn ] cihw sa decnuonorpsim ylnommoc h [hIt].

.e niartsnoC citcatonohP st

nikmorF la te fo noitatimil eht sa stniartsnoc citcatonohp ebircsed

stnanosnoc stcirtser tniartsnoc citcatonohp ehT .)162:1102( stnemges fo ecneuqes

.egaugnal a fo erutcurts eht ni selballys dna

tup eb ot retsulc tnanosnoc hsilgnE swolla niartsnoc citcatonohp ehT

)315:4102 ,itailuY( adoc ro elballys a retfa dna tesno ro elballys a erofeb hsilgnE .

tpecxe stnanosnoc eht lla evah yam sdrow [h] , [v] , [z] , [ʒ] , [ð] , [m] , [n] , [ŋ] , [l] ,

[w] , [r] , [ dna j] .retsulc tnanosnoc laitini eht fo tnanosnoc tsrif eht sa mrof ot

raloevla wolla stniartsnoc citcatonohp hsilgnE - ralev ro raloevla - mrof ot raloevla

.sretsulc tnanosnoc sa ,elpmaxe roF [n] yb dewollof eb nac [d] lanif sa mrof ot

sa hcus retsulc tnanosnoc dnah [læ dn ].


22

tnanosnoc ssel sah naisenodnI ,metsys dnuos hsilgnE eht ot tnereffiD

lc .sretsu mrof ot stnanosnoc owt swolla ylno niartsnoc citcatonohp naisenodnI

.)315:4102 ,itailuY( adoc ro tesno rehtie ni sretsulc tnanosnoc naisenodnI ehT

nac ]r[ emenohp [ yb dedecerp eb p] , [t] , [k] , [b] ro [d] tnanosnoc a sa mrof ot

sa hcus retsulc ajarp [ rp ʌdʒʌ] ro latsirk [ rk I ts ʌl].

.2 noitisiuqcA egaugnaL dnoceS

.a noitisiuqcA egaugnaL dnoceS fo noitpircseD

eht retfa segaugnal yna fo noitisiuqca eht si noitisiuqca egaugnal dnoceS

.)6:2102 ,sillE( eugnot rehtom fo noitisiuqca reffid ot desu si dnoces mret ehT

.egaugnal tsrif eht morf eht ot ralimis spahrep egaugnal dnoces taht yas emoS

cnis egaugnal lanoitidda eht hguorht tnrael si taht egaugnal eht si egaugnal siht e

ngierof dna dnoces neewteb noitcnitsid a si ereht ,eroferehT .ssecorp gninrael

tnereffid ekat tub ssecorp gninrael eht hguorht tnrael era segaugnal htoB .egaugnal

noitisiuqca egaugnal dnoceS .elor ngierof naht efil laicos eht ni selor erom sekat

sevig ylno dna moorssalc ni tnrael si noitisiuqca egaugnal ngierof elihW .egaugnal

.efil yliad ni elor laminim

rehtonA noitcnitsid eht no desab si noitisiuqca egaugnal dnoces tuoba

dna citsilarutan ;ssecorp .noitisiuqca egaugnal dnoces detcurtsni N citsilaruta

yb yllarutan tnrael si egaugnal dnoces eht taht snaem noitisiuqca egaugnal dnoces

dnoces detcurtsni ,dnah rehto eht nO .egaugnal eht ot detaler ecnadiug fo pleh eht

s no sesucof erom noitisiuqca egaugnal metsys egaugnal eht fo ni stcepsa emo

ro noitisiuqcA egaugnaL dnoceS eht fo laog eht taht setats sillE .)6:2102 ,sillE(


32

evitacinummoc sa hcus ecnetepmoc gniylrednu s’renrael eziretcarahc ot si ALS

.)6:2102( ecnetepmoc citamgarp dna

tcnitsid a osla si erehT gninrael ticilpxe dna ticilpmi eht neewteb noi

ro ssenerawa yna tuohtiw ssecorp eht si gninrael ticilpmi ehT .2L fo ssecorp

2L fo srenrael ,ssecorp gninrael ticilpmi nI .noitnetni evorpmi ot detcepxe era

t dna 2L eht tuoba atad gnittupni yb egdelwonk rieht detagitsevni gnieb neh

ton ro rehtehw ees ot enod si noitagitsevni sihT .)7:2102 ,sillE( gninraw tuohtiw

tnereffiD .ssecorp eht hguorht 2L eht tuoba gnihtemos deniag evah srenrael eht

srucco taht ssecorp eht si gninrael ticilpxe eht ,eno ticilpmi eht morf .yllanoitnetni

sillE( nrael yeht 2L fo atad eht ot elur ticilpxe eht ylppa ot deksa era srenrael ehT

.)7:2102

.b srorrE ni noitisiuqcA egaugnaL dnoceS

eht fo esuaceb rucco noitisiuqcA egaugnaL dnoceS eht ni srorrE

laugnilartni dna refsnart laugnilretni si ereht ,refsnart laugnilretni eht nI .refsnart

.noitisiuqca egaugnal dnoces eht gninrael ni stceffa taht ecnerefretni osla

.i laugnilretnI ro ecnerefretnI srorrE

nesraL morf detic sa ,)1791( sdrahciR - )1991( gnoL dna nameerF , snialpxe

taht ro egaugnal ecruos eht ot detatimi eb yam taht srorre eht ot dettimmoc llits LS

sebircsed nworB ,noitidda nI .)85:1991( ecnerefretni 1L laugnilretni eht sa srorre

ton sah srenrael erofereht egaugnal dnoces gninrael ni ssecorp gninnigeb yrev

2L ni elur eht dootsrednu yllaer egaugnal tsrif esuaceb srucco sihT .)771:7891(

evah srenrael eht taht ecneirepxe ylno eht si metsys tsom eht tnrael .)771:7891(


42

nesraL - eht fo trap si rorre ecnerefretni taht nialpxe osla gnoL dna nameerF

ymonoxat rorre fo elbat eht ni nwohs sa laugnilretni .)95:1991( sillE morf detic sA

1L eht yb detceffa era srorre renrael eht taht sebircsed )1791( sdrahciR ,)2102(

tnereffid fo tluser eht si noitisiuqca 2L ni srorre taht snialpxe eH .ecnerefretni

orre fo sdnik tnereffid setartsulli dna sdnuorgkcab egaugnal noitcudorp eht ot sr

syas sdrahciR ,noisulcnoc eht sA .)05:2102( flesti egaugnal fo noitubirtsid dna

elihw egaugnal niatrec fo stnemele fo esu eht nehw rucco srorre ecnerefretni taht

.)35:2102 ,sillE( egaugnal rehtona gnikaeps

.ii laugnilartnI srorrE

eht revresbo ot liaf era srenrael eht nehw rucco srorre laugnilartnI

nesraL( egaugnal dnoces eht ni seiradnuob - .)85:1991 ,gnoL dna nameerF

,eromrehtruF nesraL morf detic sa ,)1791( sdrahciR - ,)1991( gnoL dna nameerF

o mrof eht sa srorre siht seifissalc osla .)85:1991( srorre noitazilarenegrevo eht f

HW eht ezisahpme ot seirt renrael nehw ekil si elpmaxe ehT - ti nehw noitseuq

wonk I“ ,ecnetnes eht ni ekil ecnetnes evissergorp ni ton tnemetats a ni semoc

arenegrevo renrael ,ecnetnes siht nI .”gniog uoy era erehw ylppa ot sliaf dna sezil

tcejbus eht fo elur eht - .noisrevni yrailixua

.C krowemarF laciteroehT

ni pleh ot seiroeht niam owt sesu yduts siht ,ylsuoiverp dessucsid gnieb sA

seiroeht owt ehT .atad eht gnizylana era yllanif ot yduts siht troppus ot nesohc


52

tsrif esohw stnapicitrap eht yb snoitaicnunorpsim dniheb nosaer eht tuo erugif

egaugnal sah .egaugnal dnoces eht morf selur tnereffid

lonohp fo yroeht eht si tsriF dnatsrednu ot yduts siht spleh ygolonohP .ygo

odnI dna hsilgnE htob ni metsys dnuos eht tuoba hguorht nees eb nac sihT .naisen

ygolonohp ,yltsriF .metsys dnuos hceeps eht sa tnanosnoc tuoba noitanalpxe eht

eht htiw etairporppa si taht tnanosnoc eht yfissalc ot yroeht cisab eht semoceb

,sediseB .cipot eht ecruos eht semoceb osla tnanosnoc fo yroeht yllanif ot

eht yb decnuonorpsim era taht sretsulc tnanosnoc tahw tuoba dnatsrednu

tuoba noitanalpxe eht sevig ygolonohp fo yroeht eht ,noitidda nI .stnapicitrap

elur tnereffid s dna tniartsnoc s sa mrof ot desu eb nac stnanosnoc eht woh ni

sretsulc tnanosnoc sa dellac si noitanalpxe sihT . citcatonohp tniartsnoc . ehT

p citcatonoh tniartsnoc elur eht gnirapmoc yb snoitpircsed sevig s eht fo hsilgnE

.egaugnal hcae ni metsys lacigolonohp eht tuoba naisenodnI dna ,eroferehT eht

citcatonohp tniartsnoc evig s rtnoc eht noitubi niatrec fo nosaer eht ot

daer yeht nehw rekaeps evitan naisenodnI eht yb srucco taht noitaicnunorpsim

.sretsulc tnanosnoc hsilgnE

fo yroeht eht si dnoceS noitisiuqcA egaugnaL dnoceS yroeht sihT . desu si

laever ot yduts siht ni eht dniheb nosaer eht fo nosirapmoc ni noitaicnunorpsim

eht semoceb ALS .egaugnal dnoces dna egaugnal tsrif eht tahw tuo erugif ot cisab

fo dnik taht srorre rucco enod snoitaicnunorpsim eht ot detaler .stnapicitrap eht yb


62

III RETPAHC

YGOLODOHTEM

.A ydutS eht fo tcejbO

hT era yduts siht fo stcejbo e neetfif airaM atnaS AMS fo stneduts riohc

taht timda dna efil yliad ni naisenodnI esu ohw stneduts eht era yehT .atrakaygoY

eht ot eud nesohc era stneduts esohT .eugnot rehtom rieht semoceb naisenodnI

nal hsilgnE eht ot railimaf era sreganeet naisenodnI taht tcaf hguorht egaug

.syadawon ot pu ngis yeht aidem laicos ro ,sgnos ,seivom sah osla stcejbo ehT

ti tnrael sah meht fo emos neve loohcs yratnemele ecnis egaugnal hsilgnE tnrael

ecnuonorp ot elba eb ot detcepxe era stcejbo eht ,eroferehT .netragrednik ecnis

trec nesohc era sdrow hsilgnE detceles eht ,noitidda nI .yltcerroc sdrow hsilgnE nia

eludom rieht morf , X saleK sirggnI asahaB sukoF eht ecnis tol a meht spleh tI .

.meht ot railimaf era seirots eht ni sdrow

.B ydutS eht fo hcaorppA

golonohp eht seilppa yduts sihT detalumrof eht laever ot hcaorppa laci

htiw laed ot sah yduts siht ecnis yduts siht ni deilppa si hcaorppa sihT .smelborp

eht .noitaicnunorp eht ni raeppa yam taht snrettap tahw dna noitaicnunorp ehT

p tuoba egdelwonk eht sevig osla hcaorppa lacigolonoh noitatimil eht si tahw

.yduts siht ni derapmoc era taht naisenodnI dna hsilgnE fo segaugnal owt neewteb

hT e detcepxe eht ot noisulcnoc dna rewsna eht tuo dnif ot spleh elur lacigolonohp -

sisehtopyh


72

.C ydutS eht fo dohteM

ereht ,ylraelc trap siht nialpxe oT ehT .trap siht ni snoitces niam owt era

.sisylana atad dna noitcelloc atad era snoitces

.1 noitcelloC ataD

woh stceffa eugnot rehtom ton ro rehtehw tuo dnif ot smia yduts sihT

oT .airetirc cificeps htiw sdrow egaugnal dnoces niatrec ecnuonorp elpoep eveihca

t eht taht tnaem si tI .nosrep eno naht erom sevlovni yduts siht erofereht ,laog eh

ot dael osla snoitairav esehT .teg ot snoitairav erom eht ,yduts siht ni stcejbo erom

,esac siht nI .atad gnitcelloc fo ssecorp eht ni tsom eht sraeppa tahw tuoba tcaf eht

ht tnanosnoc lanif hsilgnE fo noitaicnunorpsim eht tuoba si ecnaraeppa tsom e

.stcejbo eht yb sretsulc

ehT stnapicitrap ew tsrif ehT .sessecorp owt hguorht nesohc er saw eht

.weivretni puorg 4 lirpA ,yadnoM no enod si noitces sihT ht .6102 weivretni ehT

ylno tsisnoc de noitseuq ehT .noitseuq eno fo tnaw de stcejbo eht rehtehw laever ot

noitseuq eht erofeB .ton ro eugnot rehtom rieht sa naisenodnI esu - dna - rewsna

noitces saw g stcejbo esoht ,enod o ecnereffid eht tuoba noitanalpxe feirb eht t

a eugnot rehtom neewteb tI .egaugnal lanoitan dn aw naisenodnI ecnis dedeen s si

odnI elpoep emos rof tub egaugnal lanoitan eht yllautca rehtom rieht osla naisen

.egaugnal tsrif ro eugnot

dnoces ehT aw ssecorp sihT .ssecorp gnidrocer eht s aw fo ssecorp eht s

o eht yb atad gnitcelloc ehT .stcejb tnapicitrap ah s d fo snoitatic eht duol tuo daer ot

morf seirots emos X saleK sirggnI asahaB sukoF hcihw saw eht napicitrap ’st

eht taht si koob siht gnisoohc dniheb nosaer ehT .moorssalc eht ni eludom hsilgnE


82

maf eb tsum koob eht edisni lairetam hsilgnE eht ,sediseB .stcejbo eht ot raili

ot stcejbo eht rof ecnahc eht nevig ro duol tuo seirots eht daer sah osla rehcaet

raloevla lanif hsilgnE htiw seirots eht era seirots detceles ehT .meht daer - raloevla

ralev dna - ,revewoH .retsulc tnanosnoc raloevla ah stcejbo eht d gnidrocer eht od ot

d lairetam eht ,suhT .yllarutan noitces di detceles eht ni dethgilhgih eb ot deen ton

sdrow ehT .sdrow ew eht ecnuonorp tegrat woh wohs ot secnetnes ni detneserp er

secnetnes ni raeppa yeht hguoht yltcerroc sdrow detceles .

eht fo noitpircsnarT citenohP :1.3 elbaT hsilgnE detceleS sdroW

sdroW hsilgnE detceleS noitpircsnarT scitenohP dlot [ ot ʊ dl ]

sti [I st ] t’ndid d[ I ]tnd

traeh [ha tr: ] denrut [tз dnr: ] dnuora [ə ar ʊ dn ]

ecno [wΛ sn ] dnalsi [aIlə dn ]

dnal [læ dn ] sthgink [ an I st ] dekcatta [ətækt]

dna [æ dn ] stnerap [ ep arə stn ]

desolc [ olk ʊ dz ] tsaf [fæ ts ]

deliaf f[ eI ]dl tsal [læ ts ]

sediseb [bI as I zd ] dnik [kΛI dn ] tleb [ tleb ]

desserp [ serp t] sdrawni [I wn ə zdr ]

deretnuocne [I akn ʊ tn ərd] tsehcir [rItʃəst]

deksa [æ ks t] tnagorra [ærəgə tn ]

ecnis [sI sn ]


92

esuaceb citenohp EmAN ro hsilgnE naciremA htroN eht sesu yduts sihT

ot noitaicnunorp hsilgnE naciremA eht sesu stnapicitrap eht fo rehcaet hsilgnE eht

laretal hsilgnE eht ,citenohp EmAN eht nI .stneduts rieht hcaet si /r/ raloevla

naisenodnI eht rehtehw wonk ot stnaw osla yduts siht ,eroferehT .oot decnuonorp

sa sraeppa ti nehw /r/ laretal hsilgnE naciremA fo noitaicnunorp eht tceffa /r/ palf

.retsulc tnanosnoc lanif

ssecorp gnidrocer ehT aw 01 lirpA ,yadnoM no enod s ht litnu 6102

9 yaM ,yadnoM ht t noitces sihT .6102 koo a- htnom - ah ssecorp siht ecnis noitarud d

riohc eht ni eludehcs niatrec htiw laed ot - ah taht ralucirrucartxe d edam neeb

.ylsuoiverp

stcejbo ehT ew .ylluferac dna ylwols eciov rieht drocer ot deksa er

pleh ti ,yltneuqesnoC de eht dnif ot sdrocer eht ot gninetsil elihw ssecorp sisylana

sdrocer ehT .noitpircsnart citenohp eht tuo ew enohp elibom eht ni dedrocer er

.( drocer fo ytilauq hgih eht htiw ggo .)

.2 sylanA ataD si

s era ereht ,reknileS dna ssaG no desaB ot dewollof eb ot spets emo

ecruos fo sisylana dna ,srorre yfitnauq ,srorre yfissalc ;srorre eht sisylana

t ,eroferehT .)86:4991( spets esehT .atad gnizylana ni spets niam eerht era ereh

hT .noitalumrof melborp eht fo srewsna eht gnidnif fo ssecorp eht esae pets tsrif e

ot ylluferac ot denetsil era sdrocer esohT .noitpircsnart citenohp eht tuo dnif ot si

ehT .stcejbo eht yb snoitaicnunorp eht fo noitpircsnart citenohp tseb eht teg yllanif

od nettirw era tcejbo hcae yb snoitaicnunorp fo snoitpircsnart citenohp eht ni nw


03

fo tluser fo elbat noitaicnunorp s’tnapicitrap . ssecorp gniwollof eht ekam oT

no os dna ,3P ,2P ,1P sa dedoc era stnapicitrap eht ,reisae owt osla era erehT .

esae ot noitaicnunorp tcerrocni ro CI dna noitaicnunorp tcerroc ro C fo snmuloc

eht ( si ereht tcerroc si noitaicnunorp eht revenehW .ssecorp gniwollof C eht ni )√

( si ereht tcerrocni si noitaicnunorp eht elihw nmuloc - .nmuloc CI eht ni ) ehT

raloevla lanif eht fo noitaicnunorp eht no sesucof ylno snmuloc CI dna C no kram -

alev dna raloevla r- .sretsulc tnanosnoc raloevla

egap noitaicnunorp s’tnapicitrap fo tluser eht fo elpmaxe eht si ereH

.xidneppa eht ni deraeppa

.3 elbaT 2 . tnapicitraP fo tluseR noitaicnunorP s’

...P

eman s’tnapicitraP ______________________________ :

oN sdroW hsilgnE noitpircsnarT citenohP C CI 1 dlot 2 t’ndid …

27 tnagorra

dnoces ehT ets .srorre eht fo nrettap eht dnif ot si p T fo nrettap eht dnif o

eht fo stluser eht gnizirammus yllareneg si od ot ssecorp tsrif eht ,srorre eht

eht yb noitaicnunorp lareneg fo elbat eht ni nwod nettirw si yrammus ehT .stcejbo

.noitaicnunorp s’tnapicitrap fo yrammus hcae ni snmuloc owt si ereht ,elbat siht nI

tcerrocni rof CI dna noitaicnunorp tcerroc rof nmuloc C ;tnapicitrap

( si erehT .noitaicnunorp yreve rof )√ rroc ro stcejbo eht yb noitaicnunorp tce


13

( si ereht dnah rehto eht nO .nmuloc C eht ni stnapicitrap - tcerrocni yreve rof )

.nmuloc CI eht ni noitaicnunorp

noitaicnunorP s’tnapicitraP fo yrammuS lareneG .3.3 elbaT

oN sdroW hsilgnE tluseR latoT 1P 2P 3P 4P …P 51P

C CI C CI C CI C CI C CI C CI C CI 1 dlot 2 t’ndid …

27 tnagorra

.snoitaicnunorpsim eht dniheb nosaer eht tuo erugif ot si pets driht ehT

eht dna snoitpircsnart citenohp tcerroc eht neewteb snosirapmoc era erehT

,nosirapmoc eht hguorhT .stcejbo eht yb snoitaicnunorp fo snoitpircsnart citenohp

tuo gnirugif fo ssecorp eht fo stluser eht ,sediseB .reisae semoceb nosaer eht

ton ro rehtehw wohs osla stcejbo eht yb snoitaicnunorp fo snoitpircsnart citenohp

hsilgnE ecnuonorp rekaeps evitan naisenodnI woh stceffa 1L ro eugnot rehtom

.2L sa sdrow eht srewsna yltcerid ssecorp sihT noitalumrof melborp dnoces tuoba

.snoitaicnunorpsim eht dniheb nosaer eht


23

RETPAHC VI

SISYLANA SNOISSUCSID DNA STLUSER

hsilgnE fo noitubirtsid eht si tsrif ehT .strap eerht otni dedivid si retpahc sihT

raloevla lanif - ralev dna raloevla - sretsulc tnanosnoc raloevla siht ni desu si taht

yb rucco taht snoitaicnunorpsim fo dnik tahw fo sisylana eht si dnoces ehT .hcraeser

snoitaicnunorpsim eht dniheb nosaer eht fo sisylana eht si tsal ehT .stnapicitrap eht

.ylsuoiverp dezylana neeb sah taht

.A hsilgnE fo noitubirtsiD ehT raloevlA laniF - raleV dna raloevlA - raloevlA

sretsulC tnanosnoC

raloevla lanif hsilgnE eht no sesucof ylno yduts sihT - ralev dna raloevla -

eht rof lairetam gnidaer eht sa desu dna dnuof era taht sretsulc tnanosnoc raloevla

osnoc esoht fo esu ehT .stnapicitrap era stnapicitrap eht rehtehw ees ot si sretsulc tnan

railimaf yllaer htiw sA .yltcerroc meht ecnuonorp ot elba dna sretsulc tnanosnoc eht

si ecruos lairetam gnidaer eht ,retpahc suoiverp eht ni denoitnem asahaB sukoF

X saleK sirggnI nE ’stnapicitrap eht sa .eludom hsilg

ytnewt era erehT -s neve raloevla lanif hsilgnE htiw sdrow hsilgnE - raloevla

ralev dna - ;seirots ruof eht ni dnuof era taht sretsulc tnanosnoc raloevla dna yeknoM

elidocorC , ynohJ fo yrotS ehT , gnihcaerP elttiL ro oratomoM dna , tidnegaB iayN .

ytnewt eht morF -s neve ereht ,sdrow hsilgnE si ylno drow eno htiw fo stsisnoc ylno

owt ralev - tnanosnoc raloevla ereht dna retsulc tnanosnoc lanif a sa s era eno ytnewt


33

htiw sdrow hsilgnE owt raloevla - tnanosnoc raloevla s tnanosnoc lanif sa .sretsulc nI

itidda lanif eht sa stnanosnoc eerht fo tsisnoc taht sdrow hsilgnE evif era ereht ,no

.sretsulc tnanosnoc

.1 raloevlA laniF htiw sdroW hsilgnE - sretsulC tnanosnoC raloevlA

ytnewt era erehT - eno raloevla lanif hsilgnE - taht sretsulc tnanosnoc raloevla

siht ni desu era .hcraeser

.a potS - sevitacirF

htiw dnuof sdrow hsilgnE eerht era erehT pots - tnanosnoc raloevla sevitacirf

morf eno si erehT .slairetam gnidaer eht ni sretsulc elidocorC dna yeknoM morf eno ,

ynohJ fo yrotS ehT morf eno dna , gnihcaerP elttiL ro oratomoM ereH . eht era

taht secnetnes .sdrow hsilgnE eerht esoht evah

- no pmuj ot yeknom eht dlot elidocorc ehT sti ( .kcab elidocorC dna yeknoM )9.p ,

- dnaL kraD eht ,gnipeels era egalliv s’ynohJ fo elpoep eht nehw thgin enO sthgink

( .egalliv sih dekcatta ynohJ fo yrotS ehT )71.p ,

- sediseB eht fo dnalsi eht ot yenruoj sih rof noitaraperp fo dnik yreve edam eh ,siht

( .tuo tes dna slived gnihcaerP elttiL ro oratomoM )93.p ,

laniF hsilgnE fo noitpircsnarT citenohP :1.4 elbaT potS - raloevlA sevitacirF

sretsulC tnanosnoC

hsilgnE sdroW noitpircsnarT citenohP sti [I st ]

sthgink [ an I st ] sediseb [bI as I zd ]


43

.b sevitacirF - potS

sdrow hsilgnE eviF lairetam gnidaer eht ni dnuof sevitacirf lanif fo tsisnoc

dna pots ni dnuof era meht fo eerhT .sretsulc tnanosnoc ynohJ fo yrotS ehT fo eno ,

ni dnuof si meht gnihcaerP elttiL ro oratomoM ni dnuof si tsal eht dna , iayN

tidnegaB .sdrow evif esoht fo tsisnoc taht secnetnes eht era ereH .

- emac krahs A desolc sa krahs eht gnidiova miws ot deirt eH .mih ot tsaf sa

a dna deliaf eh tub elbissop t tsal ( .mih dewollaws krahs eht ynohJ fo yrotS ehT ,

)71.p

- yeht tub… desserp .slived eht fo feihc eht deretnuocne tsal ta dna sdrawni llits

( gnihcaerP elttiL ro oratomoM )93.p ,

- eht saw ehS tsehcir ( .egalliv eht ni nosrep tidnegaB iayN )25.p ,

.4 elbaT 2 laniF hsilgnE fo noitpircsnarT citenohP : sevitacirF - potS raloevlAsretsulC tnanosnoC

sdroW hsilgnE noitpircsnarT citenohP

desolc [ olk ʊ dz ] tsaf [fæ ts ] tsal [læ ts ]

desserp [ erp st] tsehcir r[ Itʃə ts ]

.c lasaN - potS

ot gnirrefeR hsilgnE fo gnitsisnoc sdrow xis era ereht ,lairetam gnidaer eht

lasan lanif - pots .sretsulc tnanosnoc raloevla O en si drow morf dna yeknoM

elidocorC eerht , era sdrow morf ynohJ fo yrotS ehT eno , si drow morf ro oratomoM


53

gnihcaerP elttiL eno dna si morf tidnegaB iayN eht evah taht secnetnes eht era ereH .

lasan htiw gnidne sdrow xis - pots .sretsulc tnanosnoc raloevla

- denrut elidocorc eht ,oS dnuora ( .revir eht fo knab eht ot kcab maws dna yeknoM

elidocorC dna )9.p ,

- S ni egalliv a saw ereht ,emit a nopu ecnO maerD htuo dnalsI ( . fo yrotS ehT

ynohJ )71.p ,

- kraD eht ,gnipeels era egalliv s’ynohJ fo elpoep eht nehw thgin enO dnaL sthgink

( .egalliv sih dekcatta ynohJ fo yrotS ehT )71.p ,

- ynohJ dna ( .egalliv nemrehsif a ni devil stnerap sih ynohJ fo yrotS ehT )71.p ,

- yreve edam eh ,siht sediseB dnik fo dnalsi eht ot yenruoj sih rof noitaraperp fo

( .tuo tes dna slived eht gnihcaerP elttiL ro oratomoM )93.p ,

- yrev saw tidnegaB iayN tnagorra . ( tidnegaB iayN )25.p ,

.4 elbaT 3 laniF hsilgnE fo noitpircsnarT citenohP : lasaN - potS raloevlAsretsulC tnanosnoC


dnuora [ə ar ʊ dn ] dnalsi [aIlə dn ]

dnal [læ dn ] dna [æ dn ] dnik [kΛI dn ]

tnagorra [ærəgə tn ]


63

.d lasaN - sevitacirF

sdrow hsilgnE owt era erehT gnidne lasan htiw - tnanosnoc raloevla sevitacirf

gnidaer eht ni sretsulc ni si eno tsrif ehT .lairetam ynohJ fo yrotS ehT eno tsal eht dna

ni si tidnegaB iayN secnetnes eht era ereH . fo detsisnoc dna sdrow hsilgnE owt eht

iwollof eht ni noitpircsnart citenohp eht .elbat gn

- ecnO ( .dnalsI maerD htuoS ni egalliv a saw ereht ,emit a nopu fo yrotS ehT

ynohJ )71.p ,

- ecniS ( .tidnegaB utiS sa ekal eht deman elpoep ,neht tidnegaB iayN )25.p ,

.4 elbaT 4 laniF hsilgnE fo noitpircsnarT citenohP : lasaN - sevitacirF raloevlAsretsulC tnanosnoC


ecno [wΛ sn ] ecnis [sI sn ]

.e slaretaL - potS

sdrow hsilgnE evif era erehT gnidne slaretal htiw - pots ni retsulc tnanosnoc

idaer eht ni si meht fo owT .lairetam gn elidocorC dna yeknoM ni si eno , fo yrotS ehT

ynohJ ni si owt dna gnihcaerP elttiL ro oratomoM tsisnoc taht secnetnes eht era ereH .

.sdrow hsilgnE evif esoht fo

- elidocorc ehT dlot ( kcab sti no pmuj ot yeknom eht elidocorC dna yeknoM )9.p ,

- ym gnirb t’ndid I esuaceB traeh em htiw . ( elidocorC dna yeknoM )9.p ,


73

- sa tsaf sa krahs eht gnidiova miws ot deirt eH .mih ot desolc emac krahs A

eh tub elbissop deliaf ( .mih dewollaws krahs eht tsal ta dna ynohJ fo yrotS ehT ,

)71.p

- ruoy ta gnignah ereht uoy evah tahW !oratomoM tleb ( ? elttiL ro oratomoM

gnihcaerP )93.p ,

- tsal ta dna sdrawni llits desserp yeht tub… deretnuocne .slived eht fo feihc eht

( gnihcaerP elttiL ro oratomoM )93.p ,

.4 elbaT 5 laniF hsilgnE fo noitpircsnarT citenohP : slaretaL - potS raloevlAsretsulC tnanosnoC

hsilgnE sdroW noitpircsnarT citenohP

dlot [ ot ʊ dl ] traeh [ha: tr ] deliaf ef[ I dl ]

tleb [ eb tl ] deretnuocne [I akn ʊ tn ə dr ]

.2 V laniF htiw sdroW hsilgnE rale - retsulC tnanosnoC raloevlA

ralev fo stsisnoc taht drow eno ylno si ereht ,ylsuoiverp denoitnem sA -

ralev fo tsisnoc taht sdrow rehto era ereht ,yllautcA .stnanosnoc raloevla - raloevla

ot stnanosnoc eerht htiw denibmoc era yeht tub sretsulc tnanosnoc mrof tnanosnoc

silgnE ehT .sretsulc ni dnuof si drow h ynohJ fo yrotS ehT sdne drow hsilgnE ehT .

ot raloevla pots dna ralev pots fo noitanibmoc eht htiw mrof .retsulc tnanosnoc lanif


83

ni ecnetnes eht si ereH ynohJ fo yrotS ehT ralev fo stsisnoc taht - tnanosnoc raloevla

.noitpircsnart citenohp eht fo elbat eht htiw dewollof noitisop lanif eht ni sretsulc

- sthgink dnaL kraD eht ,gnipeels era egalliv s’ynohJ fo elpoep eht nehw thgin enO

dekcatta ( .egalliv sih ynohJ fo yrotS ehT 1.p , )7

.4 elbaT 6 laniF hsilgnE fo noitpircsnarT citenohP : raleV - tnanosnoC raloevlAretsulC


dekcatta [ətækt]

.3 sa stnanosnoC eerhT htiw dnE sdroW hsilgnE laniF retsulC tnanosnoC

eerht fo tsisnoc taht sretsulc tnanosnoc lanif sesu osla hcraeser sihT

sdrow hsilgnE evif era erehT .sretsulc tnanosnoc mrof ot stnanosnoc gnidne htiw

raloevla rehtie esu sdrow esehT .sretsulc tnanosnoc sa stnanosnoc eerht - ro raloevla

ralev - nosnoc raloevla ni dnuof era meht fo owt ehT .retsulc tnanosnoc lanif eht sa stna

elidocorC dna yeknoM ni dnuof si eno , ynohJ fo yrotS ehT ni dnuof si eno , oratomoM

gnihcaerP elttiL dna ni dnuof si tsal eht dna , tidnegaB iayN secnetnes eht era ereH .

nE eht fo tsisnoc taht .sdrow hsilg

- esuaceB I t’ndid .em htiw traeh ym gnirb )9.p ,elidocorC dna yeknoM(

- elidocorc eht ,oS denrut yeknoM( .revir eht fo knab eht ot kcab maws dna dnuora

)9.p ,elidocorC dna

- sih dna ynohJ stnerap )71.p ,ynohJ fo yrotS ehT( .egalliv nemrehsif a ni devil


93

- llits desserp yeht tub… sdrawni .slived eht fo feihc eht deretnuocne tsal ta dna

)93.p ,gnihcaerP elttiL ro oratomoM(

- yletaidemmi tidnegaB iayN… deksa )25.p ,tidnegaB iayN( .og ot reh

.4 elbaT 7 noitpircsnarT citenohP : sa stnanosnoC eerhT htiw sdroW hsilgnE foretsulC tnanosnoC laniF

sdroW hsilgnE citenohPnoitpircsnarT stnanosnoC

t’ndid [dI tnd ] pots - lasan - raloevla pots denrut [t3: dnr ] laretal - lasan - raloevla pots stnerap [ rep əa tn s] lasan - pots - raloevla evitacirf sdrawni [I wn ə dr z] laretal - lasan - raloevla evitacirf

deksa [æ ks t] raloevla evitacirf - ralev pots - raloevla pots

.B stnapicitraP eht yb snoitaicnunorpsiM

ereht ,stluser ’stnapicitrap eht fo yrammus lareneg eht no desaB ew er 982

snoitaicnunorpsim sdrow 72( snoitaicnunorp 504 eht fo x )stnapicitrap 51 erew

decnuonorp sdrow eht decnuonorp dah stnapicitrap eht fo emoS .stnapicitrap eht yb

paws ro retsulc tnanosnoc eht ni tnanosnoc tsal eht gnittimo yb yltcerrocni eht gnip

ot tnanosnoc emos era ereht ,sisylana atad eht esae oT .reisae noitaicnunorp eht ekam

tnanosnoc eht fo noitubirtsid eht no desab snoitaicnunorpsim eht tuoba snoitanalpxe

.retsulc


04

.1 snoitaicnunorpsiM fo raloevlA laniF htiw sdroW hsilgnE - raloevlA

sretsulC tnanosnoC

.a potS - sevitacirF

tluser stnapicitrap eht fo yrammus lareneg eht nI stnapicitrap eht fo tsom ,

eht ecnuonorp dluoc drow eht ni retsulc tnanosnoc sti [I st ] ti hguoht yltcerroc

eno tub yltcerroc ti decnuonorp stnapicitrap neetruoF .ecnetnes fo mrof a ni deraeppa

p eht gnittimo yb yltcerrocni ti decnuonor raloevla evitacirf [s] sa noitisop tsal eht ni

retsulc tnanosnoc eht fo [ st ].

drow hsilgnE eht roF sthgink [ an I st ] ereht , ew ohw stnapicitrap xis ylno er

fo tser ehT .yltcerroc retsulc tnanosnoc eht ecnuonorp dluoc stnapicitrap eht

.yltcerrocni retsulc tnanosnoc eht decnuonorp xis ,snoitaicnunorpsim enin eht morF

ti decnuonorp meht fo [ an It] ti decnuonorp srehto owt eht elihw [ an Is] . eht ni nees sA

eht tuoba xidneppa tnapicitrap eht yb tluser 8P , norpsim w siht decnuo dro eht esuaceb

fo esu eht no sesucof tnapicitrap rettel >g< drow eht ni sthgink eht ,eroferehT .

tnapicitrap sa ti decnuonorp [ an I sk ].

drow hsilgnE eht rof ,yltsaL sediseb [bI as I zd ] ereht , aw ohw tnapicitrap on s

.yltcerroc ti decnuonorp derrucco tsom ehT norpsim noitaicnu saw fo noissimo eht [z]

sretsulc tnanosnoc ni tnanosnoc tsal eht sa dna fo egnahc eht deciov [d] otni sseleciov

[t] . ot detaler saw tI tnanosnoc deciov eht tuoba )9002( ojojdiwojdraD yb yroeht eht

lanif eht ni semoc ti nehw sseleciov otni srekaeps evitan naisenodnI eht yb decuder

.)83:9002( drow a fo noitisop T eh sim rucco netfo taht noitaicnunorp der aw s [bI as It] .

stnapicitrap eht fo emoS sa ti decnuonorp osla [bI as I st ].


14

potS laniF hsilgnE fo tluseR stnapicitraP fo yrammuS lareneG :8.4 elbaT -retsulC tnanosnoC sraloevlA evitacirF

sdroW hsilgnE C CI

sti 41 1 sthgink 6 9 sediseb 0 51

.b sevitacirF - potS

T ereh erew sdrow hsilgnE ni rucco snoitaicnunorpsim enin ylno tsaf [fæ ts ]

dna tsal [læ ts ] erehT . erew snoitaicnunorpsim evif ylno fo gnicnuonorp tsaf [fæ ts ]

gnicnuonorp ni ruof dna tsal [læ ts ] sdrow esoht ecnuonorp dluoc stnapicitrap ehT .

nis reisae ereht ec aw on s tnanosnoc deciov taht mrof esohT .sretsulc tnanosnoc

rucco snoitaicnunorpsim der raloevla pots eht dettimo stnapicitrap eht esuaceb

tnanosnoc [t] c taht ema evitacirf retfa [s].

erehT ew drow eht rof snoitaicnunorp tcerroc ruof er desserp ]tserp[

decnuonorp eht decnuonorpsim tnapicitrap eno saw erehT .41P dna ,21P ,5P ,4P yb

.]ts[ fo daetsni ]ds[ sa ti gnicnuonorp yb retsulc tnanosnoc

ereht ,dnah rehto eht nO saw drow eht decnuonorp tnapicitrap on desolc

[ olk ʊ dz ] .yltcerroc erehT erew eerht drow eht rof snoitaicnunorp tcerroc tsehcir

r[ Itʃəst] ecnuonorp d yb 6P dna 2P rucco taht nonemonehp ehT . der aw eht ot ralimis s

eht ni srucco taht nonemonehp pots - egnahc stnapicitrap ehT .tnanosnoc sevitacirf d

deciov eht nanosnoc segnahc ehT .tnanosnoc sseleciov otni t ew deciov er evitacirf [z]

evitacirf sseleciov otni [s] pots deciov dna [d] pots sseleciov otni [t]. sihT

rucco netfo nonemonehp der hsilgnE eerht esoht ecnuonorp stnapicitrap eht woh no


24

.sdrow noitaicnunorpsim sihT srefer tuoba )9002( ojojdiwojdraD yb tnemetats eht ot

)83:9002( noitisop lanif eht ni semoc ti nehw tnanosnoc deciov fo noitcuder eht .

meht fo emoS decnuonorpsim retsulc tnanosnoc eht ni tnanosnoc tsal eht gnittimo yb

sa hcus retsulc tnanosnoc eht [ serp ].

evitacirF laniF hsilgnE fo tluseR stnapicitraP fo yrammuS lareneG :9.4 elbaT -

retsulC tnanosnoC sraloevlA potS

sdroW hsilgnE C CI desolc 0 51

tsaf 01 5 tsal 11 4

desserp 4 11 tsehcir 3 21

.c lasaN - potS

emas eht edam stnapicitrap eht ,yltsoM fo snoitaicnunorpsim gnicnuonorp

lasan - pots .retsulc tnanosnoc raloevla fo yrammus eht morF ,tluser stnapicitrap eht

ereht ew tsal eht dettimo stnapicitrap ehT .snoitaicnunorp tcerroc owt ylno er

.retsulc tnanosnoc eht fo tnanosnoc ereht ,yltsriF aw roc on s f noitaicnunorp tcer eht ro

sdrow dnuora [ə ar ʊ dn ] , dnal [læ dn ] dna , dnik [kΛI dn ] timo stnapicitrap llA . det eht

pots [d] .retsulc tnanosnoc eht fo tnanosnoc wohs sihT de eht fo noitcuder eht taht

raloevla pots deciov [d] ceb osla ema .stnapicitrap eht yb noiteled eht ,eroferehT

sa hcus emoceb snoitaicnunorp [ə ar ʊn] , [læn] dna , [kΛIn].

ereht ,yldnoceS aw noitaicnunorp tcerroc eno ylno s ecnuonorp d eht rof 6P yb

drow dnalsi [aIlə dn ] yltcerroc drow siht ecnuonorp dluoc tnapicitrap eht ,yletanutroF .


34

eht fo tser eht ,dnah rehto eht nO .stnanosnoc rehto dna slewov eht rof neve

eht gnittimo yb drow eht decnuonorpsim stnapicitrap tnanosnoc eht fo tnanosnoc tsal

pots eht si hcihw retsulc [d] sihT .tnanosnoc fo dnik derrucco osla noitaicnunorpsim

.sdrow rehto eerht suoiverp eht ni

tnagorra drow eht rof noitaicnunorp tcerroc eno osla si ereht ,yldrihT

[ærəgə tn ] saw noitaicnunorp tcerroc sihT . ecnuonorp d eht fo tser ehT .7P yb

stnapicitrap decnuonorpsim eht retsulc tnanosnoc yb gnittimo fo tnanosnoc tsal eht

icitrap ehT .retsulc tnanosnoc eht pots eht dettimo 7P tub stnap [t] eht sa tnanosnoc

.retsulc tnanosnoc eht fo tnanosnoc tsal

ilgnE fo tluseR stnapicitraP fo yrammuS lareneG :01.4 elbaT lasaN laniF hs - potS

retsulC tnanosnoC sraloevlA

sdroW hsilgnE C CI dnuora 0 51

dnalsi 1 41 dnal 0 51

dna 0 51 dnik 0 51

tnagorra 1 41

.d lasaN - sevitacirF

erehT ew drow eht rof snoitaicnunorpsim eerht ylno er ecno [wΛ sn ]

ecnuonorp d T .11P dna ,6P ,4P yb eh raloevla evitacirf eht degnahc stnapicitrap eerht

[s] eht sa retsulc tnanosnoc eht fo tnanosnoc tsal latalap evitacirf otni [ʃ]. ehT

drow eht fo noitaicnunorpsim ecno rucco der eht fo noitaicnunorpsim eht fo esuaceb

si hcihw drow gniwollof .nopu drow eht decnuonorpsim stnapicitrap eerht ehT nopu


44

[əpan] otni [j pu an] ecno drow eht ot egaknil edam dna [wΛ sn ] . stnapicitrap rehto ehT

drow eht ni retsulc tnanosnoc lanif ecnuonorp dluoc ecno [wΛ sn ] .yltcerroc

drow eht roF ecnis [sI sn ] ereht , aw noitaicnunorpsim eno ylno s edam .31P yb

raloevla evitacirf eht dettimo tnapicitrap sihT [s] emaceb noitaicnunorp eht taht os

[ as In] eht fo lewov eht decnuonorpsim osla 31P ,noitpircsnart citenohp eht ni nees sA .

tnanosnoc eht ecnuonorp dluoc stnapicitrap fo tser eht ,dnah rehto eht nO .drow

drow eht ni retsulc ecnis [sI sn ] .yltcerroc

11.4 elbaT lasaN laniF hsilgnE fo tluseR stnapicitraP fo yrammuS lareneG : -

retsulC tnanosnoC sraloevlA evitacirF

sdroW hsilgnE C CI ecno 21 3 ecnis 41 1

.e slaretaL - potS

drow eht rof ,yltsriF dlot [ ot ʊ dl ] ereht , aw fo noitaicnunorp tcerroc eno ylno s

retsulc tnanosnoc eht ecnuonorp d decnuonorpsim stnapicitrap eht fo tser ehT .7P yb

raloevla pots deciov eht gnignahc yb retsulc tnanosnoc eht [d] pots sseleciov otni

raloevla [t] . ceb noitaicnunorp eht eroferehT ema [ ot ʊlt] ro [ tlot ].

drow eht rof ,yldnoceS deliaf [ ef I dl ], ereht aw eht fo noitaicnunorp tcerroc on s

drow eht decnuonorp stnapicitrap eht fo neT .retsulc tnanosnoc [ ef I tl ] s sA . eht ,nee

raloevla pots deciov [d] degnahc saw raloevla pots sseleciov otni [t] net esoht yb

stnapicitrap ruof rehto ehT .stnapicitrap eht taht demussa rettel <e> deliaf drow eht ni

oot decnuonorp saw awhcs dedda yeht ,eroferehT . [ə] xal ro lartnec lewov [I] eht dna


54

semoceb noitaicnunorp [ ef Iləd] , [ ef Ilət] ro , [ ef IlIt]. stnapicitrap ruof esoht ,tluser a sA

.noitidda eht fo esuaceb retsulc tnanosnoc eht decnuonorpsim

drow eht rof ,yldrihT deretnuocne [I akn ʊ tn ə dr ] ereht , ew tcerroc owt ylno er

noitaicnunorp s eht decnuonorpsim stnapicitrap xis rehto ehT .retsulc tnanosnoc eht fo

nahc yb retsulc tnanosnoc raloevla pots deciov eht gnig [d] eht ni tnanosnoc tsal eht sa

retsulc tnanosnoc raloevla pots sseleciov otni [t] . fo tser eht ,yletanutrofnU

gniruD .yltcerroc drow eht dna retsulc tnanosnoc eht ecnuonorp ton dluoc stnapicitrap

.emit taht ta drow eht nwonk tsuj dah stnapicitrap neves eht ,ssecorp gnidrocer eht

,suhT oc drow eht ecnuonorp ot woh tuoba desufnoc erew yeht .yltcerr

sdrow eht rof ,ylhtruoF traeh [ha tr: ] dna tleb [ tleb ] ereht , aw on s

eht ecnuonorp dluoc stnapicitrap eht nevE .retsulc tnanosnoc eht fo noitaicnunorpsim

.yltcerroc sdrow

si tnanosnoc sseleciov otni deciov fo egnahc eht ,sisylana eht ot gnidroccA

)9002( ojojdiwojdraD .elur egaugnal tsrif eht yb detceffa taht sebircsed t fo eerged eh

deciov - si ssen .)83:9002( drow a fo noitisop lanif eht ni semoc ti nehw decuder

:21.4 elbaT laretaL laniF hsilgnE fo tluseR stnapicitraP fo yrammuS lareneG -

retsulC tnanosnoC sraloevlA potS

sdroW hsilgnE C CI dlot 1 41

traeh 51 0 deliaf 0 51

tleb 51 0 deretnuocne 2 31


64

.2 noitaicnunorpsiM fo raleV laniF htiw droW hsilgnE - tnanosnoC raloevlA

retsulC

bus suoiverp eht ni dessucsid gnieb sA - ylno si ereht ,retpahc eno htiw drow

ralev lanif - .tnanosnoc raloevla hT ere ew owt er noitaicnunorp tcerroc s eht fo

drow eht rof retsulc tnanosnoc dekcatta [ətækt] hT . ese noitaicnunorp tcerroc s

ecnuonorp d P yb 51P dna 41 stnapicitrap fo tser eht ,dnah rehto eht nO .

tsom ehT .retsulc tnanosnoc eht decnuonorpsim decnuonorpsim retsulc tnanosnoc

aw eciov fo noissimo eht s ssel raloevla pots [t] semoceb noitaicnunorp eht dna [ətæk] .

stnapicitrap nevele erew erehT noitaicnunorpsim fo dnik siht did .

erehT aw yb retsulc tnanosnoc eht decnuonorpsim ohw tnapicitrap eno s

raloevla pots deciov sa >d< rettel eht gnicnuonorp eht ,tcaf nI .]d[ fo noitaicnunorp

.]t[ pots sseleciov a eb dluohs noitisop lanif eht ni >d< rettel eht

raleV laniF hsilgnE fo tluseR stnapicitraP fo yrammuS lareneG :31.4 elbaT -

retsulC tnanosnoC raloevlA

sdroW hsilgnE C CI dekcatta 2 31

.3 snoitaicnunorpsiM of laniF sa stnanosnoC eerhT htiw sdroW hsilgnE

retsulC tnanosnoC

ereht ,tluser ’stnapicitrap fo yrammus eht no desaB aw tcerroc wef ylno s

evif eht rof stnapicitrap eht yb decnuonorp retsulc tnanosnoc lanif fo noitaicnunorp

htiw gnidne sdrow hsilgnE gnicnuonorp taht dnuof stnapicitrap ehT .sdrow detceles


74

.tluciffid erom saw retsulc tnanosnoc eht sa stnanosnoc owt naht erom tI aw nevorp s

.decnuonorp dah stnapicitrap eht taht noitaicnunorpsim eht yb esuaceb derrucco tI

citcatonohp naisenodnI tniartsnoc ot stnanosnoc owt naht erom wolla ton seod mrof

.retsulc tnanosnoc lanif

drow eht rof ,yltsriF t’ndid [dI tnd ] ereht , aw ylno s noitaicnunorp tcerroc eno

.noitaicnunorpsim emas eht edam stnapicitrap eht fo tser ehT .3P yb decnuonorp

eht dettimo stnapicitrap esohT tnanosnoc raloevla pots tsal [t] eht ,suhT .

ceb noitaicnunorp ema [dI nd ].

drow eht rof ,yldnoceS denrut [t3 dnr: ] lla , eht decnuonorpsim stnapicitrap

eht dettimo stnapicitrap neetrihT .retsulc tnanosnoc tnanosnoc raloevla pots tsal [d]

semoceb noitaicnunorp eht dna [t3 nr: ] tnereffid edam stnapicitrap owt rehto ehT .

v eht degnahc ,3P ,eno tsrif ehT .noitaicnunorp pots decio tnanosnoc raloevla [d] otni

ciov tnanosnoc raloevla pots ssele [t] sa drow eht decnuonorp tnapicitrap eht taht os

[t3 tnr: ] lewov lartnec xal dedda ,51P ,eno rehto ehT . [I] tnapicitrap eht dna

sa drow eht decnuonorp [t3: nr It]. drow eht ni derrucco osla sihT deliaf [ ef Ild] gnieb sa

.ylsuoiverp dessucsid

drow eht rof ,yldrihT stnerap [ ep arə stn ] ereht , ew tcerroc owt ylno er

rehto eht nO .21P dna 3P yb decnuonorp retsulc tnanosnoc eht fo snoitaicnunorp

ereht ,dnah ew enin esehT .retsulc tnanosnoc eht fo snoitaicnunorpsim enin er

ereht ecnis rucco snoitaicnunorpsim ew mo er raloevla pots eht rof snoissi [t] eht sa

ehT .stnapicitrap eht yb retsulc tnanosnoc eht ni tnanosnoc elddim deraeppa tsom

aw noitaicnunorpsim s [ ep arəns] mo yb retsulc tnanosnoc eht decnuonorpsim 7P . gnitti


84

raloevla evitacirf eht [s] .retsulc tnanosnoc eht ni tnanosnoc tsal eht sa owT

,31P dna 01P ,stnapicitrap dettimo neve aloevla pots era hcihw stnanosnoc tsal owt r

[t] raloevla evitacirf dna [s].

truoF h drow eht rof ,yl sdrawni [I wn ə dr z] ereht , aw tcerroc eno ylno s

noitaicnunorpsim deraeppa tsom ehT .5P yb enod noitaicnunorp aw c eht s fo egnah

raloevla pots deciov [d] retsulc tnanosnoc eht fo noitisop dim eht ni sseleciov otni

raloevla pots [t] erehT . ew eht fo gnignahc eht htiw snoitaicnunorpsim neves er

tsal eht gnittimo yb retsulc tnanosnoc eht decnuonorpsim stnapicitrap xiS .tnanosnoc

tnanosnoc raloevla evitacirf [s] erehT . aw ettimo ohw ,2P ,tnapicitrap eno s pots eht d

tnanosnoc raloevla [d] dim eht sa eht taht os retsulc tnanosnoc eht fo tnanosnoc

ceb noitaicnunorp ema [I wn ə sr ].

drow eht rof ,ylhtfiF deksa [æ ks t] , ereht aw noitaicnunorp tcerroc eno ylno s

.5P yb edam erehT erew drow eht decnuonorpsim stnapicitrap thgie eht gnittimo yb

raloevla pots [t] eht gnippaws dna retsulc tnanosnoc eht ni tnanosnoc tsal eht sa

irf raloevla evitac [s] ralev pots dna [k] tsom eht ,eroferehT . nommoc

noitaicnunorpsim si [æ sk ] ereht ,noitidda nI . ew gnittimo ohw stnapicitrap evif osla er

noc eht fo stnanosnoc owt tsal eht tnanos ralev pots era hcihw retsulc [k] pots dna

raloevla [d].


94

1.4 elbaT 4 eroM laniF hsilgnE fo tluseR stnapicitraP fo yrammuS lareneG :sretsulC tnanosnoC owT nahT

sdroW hsilgnE C CI

t’ndid 1 41 denrut 0 51 stnerap 2 31 sdrawni 1 41

deksa 1 41

.C noitaicnunorpsiM eht ni srorrE ehT laniF fo raloevlA -A raleV dna raloevl

raloevlA sretsulC tnanosnoC

laugnilretni htob ,ylsuoiverp sisylana eht no desaB - ecnerefretni dna

etubirtnoc srorre laugnilartni d noitaicnunorpsim eht ot edam ehT .stnapicitrap eht yb

laugnilretni - ecnerefretni etubirtnoc srorre d eht ot 682 eht fo snoitaicnunorpsim

eht ,dnah rehto eht nO .stnapicitrap eht yb retsulc tnanosnoc srorre laugnilartni

etubirtnoc d eht ot eerht eht yb enod retsulc tnanosnoc fo snoitaicnunorpsim

.stnapicitrap

.1 srorrE ecnerefretnI dna laugnilretnI

srorre ecnerefretni dna laugnilretni ,owt retpahc eht ni yroeht eht ot gnidroccA

yb egaugnal dnoces eht ot egaugnal tsrif eht fo ecneulfni eht yb desuac srorre eht era

B .stnapicitrap eht era esac siht ni ro renrael eht ( nwor eht sebircsed )771:7891

sdrahciR dna 2L gninrael ni segats gninnigeb eht fo trap eht sa srorre laugnilretni

nehw rucco srorre ecnerefretni eht sebircsed ,)2102( sillE morf detic sa ,)1791( eht

)35:2102( 2L fo esu eht tceffa 1L ni tnemele fo esu


05

ltsoM raloevla lanif fo noitaicnunorpsim ni srorre eht ,y - ralev dna raloevla -

stnapicitrap eht yb sretsulc tnanosnoc raloevla ew scitcatonohp eht yb detceffa er

tniartsnoc fo eht retsulc tnanosnoc naisenodnI s. ah stnapicitrap ehT d ycnednet timo ot

anosnoc tsal eht rucco tI .retsulc tnanosnoc eht ni tn der ecnis stnapicitrap eht ew ton er

htiw railimaf taht stnanosnoc ralev dna raloevla erom ro owt eht mrof tnanosnoc lanif

.sretsulc fo sretsulc tnanosnoc eht ni derrucco noissimo eht ,atad eht ot gnirrefeR

pots - sevitacirf ,raloevla sevitacirf - pots lasan ,raloevla - pots ralev ,raloevla - ,raloevla

ralev eerht fo noitanibmoc eht dna - .stnanosnoc raloevla drow eht ni elpmaxe roF

t’ndid [dI tnd ], ecnuonorp stnapicitrap neetruof d eciov eht gnittimo yb gnorw ti ssel

aloevla tnanosnoc r [t] .retsulc tnanosnoc eht ni tnanosnoc tsal eht sa

retsulc tnanosnoc eht ni tnanosnoc tsal esohw sdrow eht fo tsil eht si ereH

.stnapicitrap eht yb dettimo netfo

.4 elbaT 51 : eht ni tnanosnoC tsaL fo noissimO eht htiw sdroW hsilgnE tnanosnoC retsulC

sdroW hsilgnE snoitaicnunorpsiM fo noitpircsnarT citenohP

sthgink [ an It] sediseb [bI as It] desserp [ erp s] tsehcir [rItʃəs] dnuora [ə ar ʊn]

dnal [læn] dnik [kΛIn]

dnalsi [aIlən] dna [æn]

tnagorra [ærəgən] dekcatta [ətæk]

t’ndid [dIdn] denrut [t3: nr ]

sdrawni [I wn ərd]


15

rucco netfo noissimo ehT der stnapicitrap eht nehw ew ton er htiw railimaf eht

ni sa hcus tluser evitsartnoc eht hguorht nees eb nac nosaer sihT .oot sdrow hsilgnE

drow hsilgnE eht gnicnuonorp traeh [ha tr: ] dna dnuora [ə ar ʊ dn ] erehT . ew neetfif er

drow eht ni retsulc tnanosnoc eht fo snoitaicnunorp tcerroc traeh [ha tr: ] ehT .

stnapicitrap ew er htiw railimaf t ceb drow siht ecnis drow sih ema syaw eht fo eno

drow hsilgnE eht ,revoeroM .gnileef citnamor eht sserpxe ot enoemos traeh [ha tr: ] i s

eht ,eroferehT .sgnos naisenodnI ni neve dna sgnos hsilgnE eht ni desu netfo

c stnapicitrap dluo drow eht ni retsulc tnanosnoc eht ecnuonorp traeh [ha tr: ] yltcerroc

netsil netfo yeht taht noitaicnunorp eht fo noitatimi eht gniod yb de .ot tcaf eht etipseD

dnuora drow eht taht [ə ar ʊ dn ] t ,ecnetnes ro yrots hsilgnE eht ni desu netfo si ereh aw s

sretsulc tnanosnoc eht fo noitaicnunorp tcerroc on . T stnapicitrap eh ew ton er railimaf

htiw eht fo noitaicnunorpsim ehT .retsulc tnanosnoc eht fo noitaicnunorp tcerroc eht

drow dnuora [ə ar ʊ dn ] wohs osla s naisenodnI taht tniartsnoc retsulc tnanosnoc tuoba s

ht ecneulfni gnicnuonorp ni stnapicitrap e [ dn ] hcihw retsulc tnanosnoc lanif eht sa

.drow naisenodnI ni tsixe ton seod

stnapicitrap eht ,retsulc tnanosnoc eht ni tnanosnoc tsal eht gnittimo sediseB

ah osla d cnednet y sseleciov otni dnuos deciov eht egnahc ot tnanosnoc elpmaxe roF .

noitaicnunorp eht ni drow eht fo dlot [ ot ʊ dl ] decnuonorpsim stnapicitrap neetruoF .

nahc yb drow siht raloevla pots deciov eht gnig [d] sseleciov otni [t] taht swohs sihT .

naisenodnI tniartsnoc .oot sretsulc tnanosnoc lanif hsilgnE fo noitaicnunorp eht tceffa

sseleciov otni deciov eht fo egnahc eht ,)9002( ojojdiwojdraD ot gnidroccA


25

si erehT .drow egaugnal dnoces gnicnuonorp ni refsnart 1L eht ot detaler si tnanosnoc

stnanosnoc pots deciov naisenodnI gnicnuonorp ni noitcuder [ ,d ,b g] ti revenehw

f eht ni semoc .)83:9002 ,ojojdiwojdraD( drow a fo noitisop lani hguoht nevE

ah naisenodnI s drow eht daba eht , rettel <d> noitisop lanif eht ni drow eht fo si

sa decnuonorp [t]. ,sediseB eht eht wolla ton seod tniartsnoc citcatonohp naisenodnI

.retsulc tnanosnoc lanif eht ni tnanosnoc tsal eht sa tnanosnoc pots fo noitamrof

cnuonorpsim osla stnapicitrap emoS de ereht revenehw retsulc tnanosnoc eht

aw a s rettel <e> owt neewteb srettel taht mrof eht ni ,elpmaxe roF .retsulc tnanosnoc

drow deliaf [ ef I dl ] gnidda yb retsulc tnanosnoc eht decnuonorpsim stnapicitrap ruof

awhcs [ə] semoceb noitaicnunorp eht ,eroferehT . [ ef Il də ] neeb sah rorre sihT .

eht gnicnuonorp ni melborp eht taht setats eH .)9002( ojojdiwojdraD yb detciderp

raloevla laretal [l] nehw si [l] tnanosnoc a yb dewollof dna ciballys semoceb

awhcs dda ot dnet srekaeps evitan naisenodnI taht sdda eH .)74:9002( [ə] ot eht esae

noitaicnunorp .)74:9002(

ni stnanosnoc niatrec fo gnippaws eht si nrettap noitaicnunorpsim rehto ehT

drow hsilgnE eht fo noitaicnunorp eht ni nees si tcaf sihT .retsulc tnanosnoc eht deksa

[æ dks ] eht did stnapicitrap latot eht fo flah naht eroM . gnippaws yb noitaicnunorpsim

tnanosnoc raloevla evitacirf eht [s] tnanosnoc ralev pots dna [k] fo noitaicnunorp ehT .

drow eht deksa [æ dks ] ceb yltsom ema [æ sk ] naisenodnI ni ecnis srucco tI . tniartsnoc

tnanosnoc ralev pots fo retsulc tnanosnoc eht swolla [k] raloevla evitacirf yb dewollof

tnanosnoc [s] drow eht ni sa hcus sket [ sket ].


35

.2 srorrE laugnilartnI

srorre laugnilartni ehT era eht ni selur eht fo noitazilarenegrevo eht yllautca

egaugnal niatrec nesraL( - ic sa ,)1791( sdrahciR .)85:1991 ,gnoL dna nameerF det

nesraL morf - gnoL dna nameerF 1991( 85: rucco srorre laugnilartni eht taht setats ,)

evresbo ot liaf tub egaugnal dnoces eht fo elur eht swonk yllautca renrael eht nehw

era ereht ,hcraeser siht ot detaleR .seiradnuob eht evif detubirtnoc snoitaicnunorpsim

.srorre laugnilretni eht yb

snoitaicnunorpsim owt tsrif ehT erew eht ni >d< rettel eht gnicnuonorpsim

sdrow eht fo noitaicnunorp eht decnuonorpsim 7P .drow hsilgnE eht fo noitisop lanif

dekcatta [ətæ dna ]tk desserp lanif eht decnuonorpsim tnapicitrap sihT .]tserp[

taht >d< rettel eht yb detceffa sdrow owt eht fo sretsulc tnanosnoc ew lanif eht ni er

eb ot dah >d< rettel eht taht demussa tnapicitrap ehT .sdrow eht fo noitisop

caf nI .tnanosnoc pots deciov sa decnuonorp sseleciov sa decnuonorp si rettel siht ,t

.tnanosnoc sseleciov a si tnanosnoc gnidecerp eht esuaceb ]t[ pots

t ehT rucco snoitaicnunorpsim eerh der decnuonorpsim 11P dna ,6P ,4P nehw

ecno drow eht fo retsulc tnanosnoc eht [wΛ sn ] tnanosnoc eht decnuonorpsim yehT .

sa ti decnuonorp yb retsulc [wΛnʃ] egnahc stnapicitrap esohT . d eht raloevla evitacirf

tnanosnoc [s] latalap evitacirf otni retsulc tnanosnoc eht ni tnanosnoc tsal eht sa

tnanosnoc [ʃ]. raloevla evitacirf fo egnahc ehT [s] latalap evitacirf otni [ʃ] aw s

gniwollof eht ni lewov laitini eht fo noitaicnunorpsim ot egaknil eht yb decneulfni


45

hcihw drow aw s nopu [əpan] drow eht decnuonorpsim stnapicitrap eerht ehT . nopu

[əpan] otni [j pu an] ecno drow eht ot egaknil edam dna [wΛ sn ].


55

V RETPAHC

NOISULCNOC

.A noisulcnoC

a si ereht ,stnapicitrap eht yb snoitaicnunorp eht fo tluser eht gnidrageR

secneulfni yllaer stnemele egaugnal tsrif ro eugnot rehtom eht taht noisulcnoc esu eht

2 era ereht taht swohs hcihw tluser eht hguorht nees si tI .egaugnal dnoces fo 98

sdrow 72( snoitaicnunorp 504 eht fo snoitaicnunorpsim x .)stnapicitrap 51

raloevla lanif hsilgnE eht fo noitaicnunorpsim eht tuo serugif yduts sihT -

ralev dna raloevla - lacigolonohp eht fo trap eht sa sretsulc tnanosnoc raloevla tI .srorre

detaler si noitaicnunorpsim eht fo dnuorgkcab eht laever ot yduts eht taht esuaceb si

yduts siht ,sediseB .elur lacigolonohp eht fo niartsnoc dna metsys dnuos hceeps eht ot

sucsid osla eht fo trap eht sa noitisiuqca egaugnal eht dna srorre eht fo noitaler eht ses

.hcaorppa lacigolonohp

eht ot etubirtnoc taht srorre owt era ereht ,sisylana eht no sgnidnif eht morF

ulc tnanosnoc fo snoitaicnunorpsim .stnapicitrap eht yb enod srets era erehT 82 4

retsulc tnanosnoc fo snoitaicnunorpsim s dna laugnilretni eht yb detubirtnoc era taht

.srorre ecnerefretni osla era erehT evif icnunorpsim retsulc tnanosnoc eht fo snoita

.srorre laugnilartni eht yb detubirtnoc

icnunorpsim eht fo srorre laugnilretni ehT retsulc tnanosnoc fo snoita edam yb

evah stnapicitrap ehT .yduts siht ni srorre nommoc tsom eht emoceb stnapicitrap eht


65

sediseB .retsulc tnanosnoc eht fo tnanosnoc tsal eht eteled ro timo ot seicnednet

c eht did osla stnapicitrap eht ,noiteled dna noissimo otni tnanosnoc deciov fo egnah

.tnanosnoc sseleciov ot gnirrefer si sseleciov otni tnanosnoc deciov eht fo egnahc ehT

ni si ti nehw tnanosnoc pots deciov naisenodnI eht fo noitcuder si ereht taht tcaf eht

.drow a fo noitisop lanif eht eht fo emoS niatrec ecnuonorp ot deliaf osla stnapicitrap

uaceb sdrow eht taht demussa yeht es rettel <e> sa hcus ,drow hsilgnE eht ni denrut

/dnr:зt/ dna deliaf ef/ I /dl dedda stnapicitrap esoht ,eroferehT .decnuonorp osla si ,

/ awhcs /ə / lewov ro I/ taicnunorp rieht ni .sdrow esoht fo noi sah osla noitidda sihT

naisenodnI .rekaeps evitan naisenodnI eht rof selcatsbo eht fo eno sa detciderp neeb

/ awhcs dedda ot detcepxe era srekaeps evitan ciballys semoceb /l/ laretal eht nehw /ə

,yltsaL .tnanosnoc rehtona yb dewollof dna ni deliaf osla stnapicitrap latot eht fo flah

drow eht gnicnuonorp deksa /æ pots dna /s/ raloevla evitacirf eht gnippaws yb /dks

.stnanosnoc /k/ ralev tsrif fo refsnart eht fo esuaceb sneppah nonemonehp sihT

era ohw ,stnapicitrap ehT .noitisiuqca egaugnal eht esae ,rekaeps evitan naisenodnI

ehT .egaugnal tsrif eht ni tniartsnoc eht ot ralimis ti gnikam yb noitaicnunorp

sa mrof ot /sk/ swolla tniartsnoc citcatonohp naisenodnI a .retsulc tnanosnoc lanif

snoitaicnunorpsim eht ot etubirtnoc osla srorre laugnilartni ehT edam eht yb

.stnapicitrap eht fo snoitaicnunorpsim 982 eht fo srorre laugnilartni evif era erehT

.retsulc tnanosnoc >d< rettel fo noitaicnunorpsim eht si srorre owt tsrif ehT eht ni

sdrow tta dekca [ətæ dna ]tk desserp ]tserp[ ,tcaf nI .]d[ tnanosnoc pots deciov emaceb

ht eht yb detceffa si retsulc tnanosnoc eht ni tnanosnoc tsal eht fo noitaicnunorp e

tnanosnoc gnidecerp . T eh rehto rorre laugnilartni s eht fo noitaicnunorp eht ni rucco


75

drow ecno w/ Λ /sn eht decnuonorpsim stnapicitrap esohT .stnapicitrap eerht yb enod

/ latalap evitacirf otni /s/ raloevla evitacirf eht gnignahc yb retsulc tnanosnoc ʃ ./ sihT

htiw strats hcihw drow gniwollof eht fo noitaicnunorpsim eht yb detceffa si rorre

.lewov

.B gguS noitse

snoitseggus emos era ereht ,yduts siht fo noisulcnoc dna sisylana eht no desaB

stnapicitrap eht sa atrakaygoY airaM atnaS AMS fo stneduts eht rof dna hsilgnE eht

atrakaygoY airaM atnaS AMS fo srehcaet .

rof noitseggus eht si tsriF eht AMS fo stneduts sA .atrakaygoY airaM atnaS

eht tneduts loohcs hgih s hsilgnE tuoba egdelwonk niag ot evitca erom eb dluohs yeht ,

.syadawon egaugnal lanoitanretni eht sa oT ni lliks eht evorpmi ,noitaicnunorp eht

rieht ot ksa nac atrakaygoY airaM atnaS AMS fo stneduts eht tuoba rehcaet hsilgnE

noitasrevnoc hsilgnE eht ot netsil nac stneduts eht ,noitidda nI .noitaicnunorp tcerroc s

drow ro s dna sgnos egaugnal hsilgnE eht hguorht rekaeps evitan hsilgnE yb enod

l hsilgnE hguorhT .lliks noitaicnunorp rieht evorpmi ot seivom dna sgnos egaugna

yrt yeht erehw ecitcarp noitaicnunorp eht fo esahp eht ssap lliw stneduts eht ,seivom

.ot netsil yeht tahw etatimi ot

airaM atnaS AMS fo srehcaet hsilgnE rof noitseggus eht si dnoceS

T .atrakaygoY t eh tsum srehcae noitnetta yap tahw dnatsrednu stneduts woh eht ot

lairetam s eht tuoba noitamrofni tcerroc eht evig ot evah srehcaet ehT .nrael yeht


85

eb nac esahp sihT .metsys dnuos hceeps hsilgnE niatrec eht fo noitaicnunorp hsilgnE

E gnicnuonorp ni ecitcarp suounitnoc eht hguorht enod T .sdrow hsilgn t eh nac srehcae

stneduts rieht evig erom dna daer ot secnahc ot evitisop eht evig dna hsilgnE ni kaeps

.naem srehcaet rieht tahw dnatsrednu stneduts eht litnu kcabdeef thgir dna


95

YHPARGOILBIB

.sumotsosirK senahoY ,B.A hsilgnE holabmE kayaD no ydutS lacigolonohP ehTsdnuoS tnanosnoC hsilgnE fo noitaicnunorP 'srenraeL :atrakaygoY .

,sretteL hsilgnE fo tnemtrapeD S ,sretteL fo ytlucaF atana D amrah U ytisrevin , 8002 .

.salguoD .H ,nworB gnihcaeT dna gninraeL egaugnaL fo selpicnirP . reppUreviR elddaS .7891 ,.cnI llaH ecitnerP :

.oirasoreD alegnA ,ohaD a yb decudorP srorrE noitaicnunorP fo ydutS esaC AutS PSELE naupaP atakaygoY.ytisrevinU amrahD atanaS fo tned hsilgnE .

strA dna egaugnaL fo tnemtrapeD ,margorP ydutS noitacudE egaugnaLS ,noitacudE dna gniniarT srehcaeT fo ytlucaF .noitacudE atana D amrah

U ytisrev , 5102 .

.onojneoS ,ojojdiwojdraD & scitenohP hsilgnE .snaisenodnI rof ygolonohP aisenodnI robO nasayaY :atrakaJ , 9002 .

.doR ,sillE noitidE dnoceS ,noitisiuqcA egaugnaL dnoceS fo ydutS ehT weN ..2102 ,sserP ytisrevinU drofxO :kroY

,airotciV ,nikmorF dna ,namdoR treboR smayH aniN . fo noitcudortnI nA egaugnaL 9( ht .)noitidE htrowsdaW : gninraeL egagneC , 1102 .

.reknileS yrraL dna M nasuS ,ssaG nA :noitisiuqcA egaugnaL dnoceSesruoC yrotcudortnI . hawhaM cnI ,setaicossA muablrE ecnerwaL : ,. 4991 .

.xoC yticileF dna nahtanoJ ,notgnirraH elballyS ehT :ygolonohP dna scitenohP.sniartsnoC citcatonohP dna ,6 rebmevoN .)hceeps/ua.ude.qm.salc.www(

.5102

.refinneJ ,snikneJ weN :egaugnaL lanoitanretnI na sa hsilgnE fo ygolonohP ehT.slaoG weN ,smroN weN ,sledoM sserP ytisrevinU drofxO :kroY weN , 0002 .


06

.reteP ,degofedaL 3 scitenohP ni esruoC A dr noitidE ecarB truocraH :ogeiD naS .3991 ,srehsilbuP egelloC hcivonavoJ

nesraL - .gnoL .H leahciM dna enaiD ,nameerF dnoceS ot noitcudortnI nAhcraeseR noitisiuqcA egaugnaL . KU puorG namgnoL :kroY weN ,detimiL

.1991

.onosraM kitenoF .8002 ,sserP ytisrevinU adaM hajdaG :atrakaygoY .

.harobeD atirB dirgnI ,wehttaM E yb stnanosnoC fo noitaicnunorP ni srorregaugnaL ngieroF a sa hsilgnE fo srenraeL esenhecA dna oyaG ,naisenodnI .

:htreP nawoC htidE ,ytisrevinU 7991 .

.ireH ,otnawruP I retsemeS X saleK AM/AMS kutnu sirggnI asahaB sukoF ..4102 ,atanudniS VC :ojrahokuS

.aydumarP saniuqA samohT ,anahdraW detacudE sseL fo noitaicnunorP hsilgnEatrakaygoY ni sediuG tsiruoT fo tnemtrapeD :atrakaygoY . L hsilgnE ,srette

S ,sretteL fo ytlucaF atana D amrah U ytisrevin .7002 ,

.itailuY “ fo srenraeL naisenodnI yb noitacifilpmiS sretsulC tnanosnoC laniFtxetnoC lanoitanretnI ni ytilibigilletnI stI dna hsilgnE ” . lanoitanretnI

neicS laicoS fo lanruoJ tinamuH dna ec y 02( 6 .oN ,4 .loV . 41 315.p :) - 615 . .5102 ,52 hcraM .)gro.hssji.www( .ecneicS dna laicoS fo lanruoJ


61

APPENDIX 1

Read these sentences carefully!

1. The crocodile told the monkey to jump on its back (Monkey and Crocodile, p.9)

2. Because I didn’t bring my heart with me. (Monkey and Crocodile, p.9)

3. So, the crocodile turned around and swam back to the bank of the river. (Monkey

and Crocodile, p.9)

4. Once upon a time, there was a village in South Dream Island. (The Story of

Jhony, p.17)

5. One night when the people of Jhony’s village are sleeping, the Dark Land knights

attacked his village. (The Story of Jhony, p.17)

6. Jhony and his parents lived in a fishermen village. (The Story of Jhony, p.17)

7. A shark came closed to him. He tried to swim avoiding the shark as fast as

possible but he failed and at last the shark swallowed him. (The Story of Jhony,

p.17)

8. Besides this, he made every kind of preparation for his journey to the island of the

devils and set out. (Momotaro or Little Preaching, p.39)

9. Momotaro! What have you there hanging at your belt? (Momotaro or Little

Preaching, p.39)

10. …but they pressed still inwards and at last encountered the chief of the devils.

(Momotaro or Little Preaching, p.39)

11. She was the richest person in the village. (Nyai Bagendit, p.52)

12. …Nyai Bagendit immediately asked her to go. (Nyai Bagendit, p.52)


62

13. Nyai Bagendit was very arrogant. (Nyai Bagendit, p.52)

14. Since then, people named the lake as Situ Bagendit. (Nyai Bagendit, p.52)


63

APPENDIX 2

Result of Participants’ Pronunciation

P1 Participant’s Name : Anggi No English Words Phonetic Transcription C IC 1 told [tolt ] - 2 its [Is] - 3 didn’t [dIdn] - 4 heart [ha:rt ] √ 5 turned [t3:rn ] - 6 around [əroʊn] - 7 once [wΛns] √ 8 island [aIslən] - 9 land [læn] - 10 knights [naI] - 11 attacked [ətek] - 12 and [æn] - 13 parents [perəns] - 14 closed [kloʊst] - 15 fast [fes] - 16 failed [feIləd] - 17 last [læst] √ 18 besides [bIsaIts] - 19 kind [kΛIn] - 20 belt [belt ] √ 21 pressed [pres] - 22 inwards [Inwort ] - 23 encountered [enkored] - 24 richest [r Itʃəs] - 25 asked [Λks] - 26 arrogant [ærəgΛn] - 27 since [sens] √


64

P2 Participant’s name : Bella No English Words Phonetic Transcription C IC 1 told [tolt ] - 2 its [Its] √ 3 didn’t [dIdn] - 4 heart [ha:rt ] √ 5 turned [tз:rn ] - 6 around [əroʊn] - 7 once [wΛns] √ 8 island [aIslən] - 9 land [læn] - 10 knights [naIts] √ 11 attacked [ətæk] - 12 and [æn] - 13 parents [perəns] - 14 closed [klost] - 15 fast [fæst] √ 16 failed [felt ] - 17 last [las] - 18 besides [bIsaIt] - 19 kind [kΛIn] - 20 belt [belt ] √ 21 pressed [presət] - 22 inwards [Inwərs] - 23 encountered [enkaʊntrət] - 24 richest [r Itʃəst] √ 25 asked [æks] - 26 arrogant [ærəgΛn] - 27 since [sIns] √


65

P3 Participant’s name : Betty No English Words Phonetic Transcription C IC 1 told [toʊlt ] - 2 its [Its] √ 3 didn’t [dIdnt] √ 4 heart [ha:rt ] √ 5 turned [tз:rnt] - 6 around [əraʊn] - 7 once [wΛns] √ 8 island [aIslen] - 9 land [len] - 10 knights [naIt] - 11 attacked [ətækd] - 12 and [æn] - 13 parents [pearənts] √ 14 closed [kloʊst] - 15 fast [fæst] √ 16 failed [feIlt ] - 17 last [lest] √ 18 besides [bIsaIt] - 19 kind [kΛIn] - 20 belt [belt ] √ 21 pressed [pres] - 22 inwards [Inwərt ] - 23 encountered [ InkaʊntIrt ] - 24 richest [rIsəs] - 25 asked [aks] - 26 arrogant [ərogen] - 27 since [sens] √


66

P4 Participant’s name : Alda No English Words Phonetic Transcription C IC 1 told [toʊlt ] - 2 its [Its] √ 3 didn’t [dIdn] - 4 heart [ha:rt ] √ 5 turned [tз:rn] - 6 around [əraʊn] - 7 once [wΛnʃʃʃʃ] - 8 island [aIlən] - 9 land [læn] - 10 knights [naIts] √ - 11 attacked [əteIk] - 12 and [æn] - 13 parents [pearəns] - 14 closed [kloʊst] - 15 fast [fæst] √ 16 failed [feIlt ] - 17 last [læst] √ 18 besides [bIsaIts] - 19 kind [kΛIn] - 20 belt [belt ] √ 21 pressed [prIst] √ 22 inwards [Inwərts] - 23 encountered [ Inkaʊntr Id] - 24 richest [r Itʃ] - 25 asked [æsk] - 26 arrogant [ærəgən] - 27 since [sIns] √


67

P5 Participant’s name : Elma No English Words Phonetic Transcription C IC 1 told [toʊlt ] - 2 its [Its] √ 3 didn’t [dIdn] - 4 heart [ha:rt ] √ 5 turned [tз:rn ] - 6 around [əraʊn] - 7 once [wΛns] √ 8 island [aIlən] - 9 land [læn] - 10 knights [naIts] √ 11 attacked [ətæk] - 12 and [æn] - 13 parents [pearəns] - 14 closed [kloʊst] - 15 fast [fæst] √ 16 failed [feIlt ] - 17 last [last] √ 18 besides [bIsaIts] - 19 kind [kΛIn] - 20 belt [belt ] √ 21 pressed [prest] √ 22 inwards [Inwərdz] √ 23 encountered [ Inkaʊntərt ] - 24 richest [r Itʃəst] √ 25 asked [æskt ] √ 26 arrogant [ærəgən] - 27 since [seIns] √


68

P6 Participant’s name : Kenisa No English Words Phonetic Transcription C IC 1 told [toʊlt ] - 2 its [Its] √ 3 didn’t [dIdn] - 4 heart [ha:rt ] √ 5 turned [tз:rn ] - 6 around [əraʊn] - 7 once [wΛnʃʃʃʃ] - 8 island [aIlənd] √ 9 land [laIn] - 10 knights [knaIts] √ 11 attacked [ətækIŋ] - 12 and [æn] - 13 parents [pearən] - 14 closed [kloʊst] - 15 fast [fæst] √ 16 failed [feIlt ] - 17 last [last] √ 18 besides [bIsaIt] - 19 kind [kΛIn] - 20 belt [belt ] √ 21 pressed [presət] - 22 inwards [Inwərt ] - 23 encountered [enkaʊntərd ] √ 24 richest [r ItʃIzt] √ 25 asked [æks] - 26 arrogant [ærəgən] - 27 since [sIns] √


69

P7 Participant’s name : Lita No English Words Phonetic Transcription C IC 1 told [toʊld] √ 2 its [Its] √ 3 didn’t [dIdn] - 4 heart [ha:rt ] √ 5 turned [tз:rn ] - 6 around [əraʊn] - 7 once [wΛns] √ 8 island [aIlən] - 9 land [læn] - 10 knights [naIts] √ 11 attacked [ətæk] - 12 and [æn] - 13 parents [pearənt] - 14 closed [kloʊst] - 15 fast [fæs] - 16 failed [feIlt ] - 17 last [læst] √ 18 besides [bIsaIt] - 19 kind [kΛIn] - 20 belt [belt ] √ 21 pressed [preIsd] - 22 inwards [Inwərts] - 23 encountered [ Inkaʊntərd ] √ 24 richest [r Itʃ] - 25 asked [aks] - 26 arrogant [ærəgant] √ 27 since [sIns] √


70

P8 Participant’s name : Septi No English Words Phonetic Transcription C IC 1 told [tolt ] - 2 its [Its] √ 3 didn’t [dIdn] - 4 heart [ha:rt ] √ 5 turned [tз:rn ] - 6 around [əron] - 7 once [wΛns] √ 8 island [aIslæn] - 9 land [læn] - 10 knights [naIks] - 11 attacked [ətæk] - 12 and [æn] - 13 parents [pearəns] - 14 closed [klos] - 15 fast [fast] √ 16 failed [fel] - 17 last [læst] √ 18 besides [bIsaId] - 19 kind [kΛIn] - 20 belt [belt ] √ 21 pressed [presIt] - 22 inwards [Inwərt ] - 23 encountered [ Inkaʊntərt ] - 24 richest [r Itʃəs] - 25 asked [aks] - 26 arrogant [ærəgən] - 27 since [sens] √


71

P9 Participant’s name : Widya No English Words Phonetic Transcription C IC 1 told [tolt ] - 2 its [Its] √ 3 didn’t [dIdn] - 4 heart [ha:rt ] √ 5 turned [tз:rn ] - 6 around [əraʊn] - 7 once [wΛns] √ 8 island [aIlən] - 9 land [læn] - 10 knights [knaIt] - 11 attacked [ətæk] - 12 and [æn] - 13 parents [pearəns] - 14 closed [klos] - 15 fast [fæs] - 16 failed [feIləd] - 17 last [læs] - 18 besides [bIsaIts] - 19 kind [kΛIn] - 20 belt [belt ] √ 21 pressed [pres] - 22 inwards [Inwərts] - 23 encountered [ Inkaʊntərt ] - 24 richest [r Itʃəs] - 25 asked [aks] - 26 arrogant [ærəgan] - 27 since [saIns] √


72

P10 Participant’s name : Niken No English Words Phonetic Transcription C IC 1 told [toʊlt ] - 2 its [Its] √ 3 didn’t [dIdn] - 4 heart [ha:rt ] √ 5 turned [tз:rn ] - 6 around [əraʊn] - 7 once [wΛns] √ 8 island [aIlən] - 9 land [læn] - 10 knights [naIs] - 11 attacked [ətæk] - 12 and [æn] - 13 parents [pearən] - 14 closed [kloʊst] - 15 fast [fæs] - 16 failed [feIləd] - 17 last [læs] - 18 besides [bIsaIt] - 19 kind [kΛIn] - 20 belt [belt ] √ 21 pressed [pres] - 22 inwards [Inwərts] - 23 encountered [ Inkaʊntr Id] - 24 richest [r ItʃIst] √ 25 asked [as] - 26 arrogant [ærəgan] - 27 since [sIns] √


73

P11 Participant’s name : Maria No English Words Phonetic Transcription C IC 1 told [toʊlt ] - 2 its [Its] √ 3 didn’t [dIdn] - 4 heart [ha:rt ] √ 5 turned [tз:rn ] - 6 around [əraʊn] - 7 once [wΛnʃʃʃʃ] - 8 island [aIslən] - 9 land [læn] - 10 knights [naIt] - 11 attacked [ətæk] - 12 and [æn] - 13 parents [pearəns] - 14 closed [kloʊst] - 15 fast [fæst] √ 16 failed [feIlt ] - 17 last [læst] √ 18 besides [bIsaIts] - 19 kind [kΛIn] - 20 belt [belt ] √ 21 pressed [pres] - 22 inwards [Inwərts] - 23 encountered [ Inkaʊntrəd] - 24 richest [r Itʃ] - 25 asked [as] - 26 arrogant [ærəgən] - 27 since [sIns] √


74

P12 Participant’s name : Nuni No English Words Phonetic Transcription C IC 1 told [toʊlt ] - 2 its [Its] √ 3 didn’t [dIdn] - 4 heart [ha:rt ] √ 5 turned [tз:rn ] - 6 around [əraʊn] - 7 once [wΛns] √ 8 island [aIlən] - 9 land [læn] - 10 knights [naIt] - 11 attacked [ətæk] - 12 and [æn] - 13 parents [pearənts] √ 14 closed [kloʊst] - 15 fast [fast] √ 16 failed [feIlt ] - 17 last [last] √ 18 besides [bIsaIt] - 19 kind [kΛInt] - 20 belt [belt ] √ 21 pressed [prest] √ 22 inwards [Inwərts] - 23 encountered [ Inkaʊntrt ] - 24 richest [r Itʃəs] - 25 asked [æks] - 26 arrogant [ærədʒən] - 27 since [sIns] √


75

P13 Participant’s name : Sabina No English Words Phonetic Transcription C IC 1 told [toʊlt ] - 2 its [Its] √ 3 didn’t [dIdn] - 4 heart [ha:rt ] √ 5 turned [tз:rn ] - 6 around [əraʊn] - 7 once [wΛns] √ 8 island [aIlən] - 9 land [laIn] - 10 knights [neIt] - 11 attacked [ətæk] - 12 and [æn] - 13 parents [pearən] - 14 closed [kloʊst] - 15 fast [fas] - 16 failed [feIlt ] - 17 last [las] - 18 besides [bIsaIt] - 19 kind [kΛIn] - 20 belt [belt ] √ 21 pressed [pres] - 22 inwards [Inwərt ] - 23 encountered [enkərət] - 24 richest [r Itʃ] - 25 asked [as] - 26 arrogant [ærəgan] - 27 since [saIn] -


76

P14 Participant’s name : Renata No English Words Phonetic Transcription C IC 1 told [toʊlt ] - 2 its [Its] √ 3 didn’t [dIdn] - 4 heart [ha:rt ] √ 5 turned [tз:rn ] - 6 around [əraʊn] - 7 once [wΛns] √ 8 island [aIlən] - 9 land [læn] - 10 knights [knaIts] √ 11 attacked [ətækt] √ 12 and - - 13 parents - - 14 closed [klost] - 15 fast [fæst] √ 16 failed [feIlt ] - 17 last [læst] √ 18 besides [bIsaIt] - 19 kind [kΛIn] - 20 belt [belt ] √ 21 pressed [preIst] √ 22 inwards [Inwərts] - 23 encountered [enkaʊntrt ] - 24 richest [raIts] - 25 asked [as] - 26 arrogant [ærəgən] - 27 since [sens] √


77

P15 Participant’s name : Vivi No English Words Phonetic Transcription C IC 1 told [toʊlt ] - 2 its [Its] √ 3 didn’t [dIdn] - 4 heart [ha:rt ] √ 5 turned [tз:rn It] - 6 around [əraʊn] - 7 once [wΛns] √ 8 island [aIslən] - 9 land [læn] - 10 knights [naIs] - 11 attacked [ətækt] √ 12 and [æn] - 13 parents [pearəns] - 14 closed [klost] - 15 fast [fest] √ 16 failed [feIl It] - 17 last [last] √ 18 besides [bIsaIt] - 19 kind [kΛIn] - 20 belt [belt ] √ 21 pressed [presIt] - 22 inwards [Inwərt ] - 23 encountered [enkaʊntərnət] - 24 richest [r Itʃəs] - 25 asked [as] - 26 arrogant [ærəgan] - 27 since [saIns] √


78

APPENDIX 3

General Summary of Participant’s Pronunciation

No English Words

Total

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 P11 P12 P13 P14 P15 C IC C IC C IC C IC C IC C IC C IC C IC C IC C IC C IC C IC C IC C IC C IC C IC

1 told - - - - - - √ - - - - - - - - - 1 14

2 its - √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 14 1 3 didn’t - - √ - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 14 4 heart √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 15 0 5 turned - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 15 6 around - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 15 7 once √ √ √ - √ - √ √ √ √ - √ √ √ √ 12 3 8 island - - - - - √ - - - - - - - - - 1 14 9 land - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 15 10 knights - √ - √ √ √ √ - - - - - - √ - 6 9 11 attacked - - - - - - - - - - - - - √ √ 2 13 12 and - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 15 13 parents - - √ - - - - - - - - √ - - - 2 13 14 closed - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 15 15 fast - √ √ √ √ √ - √ - - √ √ - √ √ 10 5 16 failed - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 15 17 last √ - √ √ √ √ √ √ - - √ √ - √ √ 11 4 18 besides - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 15 19 kind - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 15 20 belt √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 15 0 21 pressed - - - √ √ - - - - - - √ - √ - 4 11 22 inwards - - - - √ - - - - - - - - - 1 14 23 encountered - - - - - √ √ - - - - - - - - 2 13 24 richest - √ - - √ - - - - √ - - - - - 3 12 25 asked - - - - √ - - - - - - - - - - 1 14 26 arrogant - - - - - - √ - - - - - - - - 1 14 27 since √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ - √ √ 14 1


MISPRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH FINAL ALVEOLAR -ALVEOLAR … · 2017. 12. 18. · the participants. The...

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